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INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

Monthly Publication
of the INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY (L. of N.)
Rome - I-a, Via Lazzaro Spallanzani - Rome

YEAR VI.

JANUARY 1934

N. 1.

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

UTILIZATION OF THE CINEMA ACCORDING TO SCHOLASTIC
GRADES — THE COLLABORATION OF TEACHERS IN THE USE
AND PRODUCTION OF TEACHING FILMS— COMPARATIVE UTIL-
ITY OF SILENT AND SOUND FILMS IN TEACHING AND OTHER
FIELDS — THE TEACHING FILM FOR VARIOUS SUBJECTS
— THE CINEMA AND CHILD PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY

c.

KlRITZESCO

- Barrier

AND LEBRUN - N.

L. Engelhardt -

A.

Brill

- L.

B. Eads

- A. J. Stoddard

- M. R. Mort -

TOKUDA -

Kauffmann -

E. Katz - V. DE

Ruette - N. Pa-

DELLARO - M. BERNABEI

J

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING BODY

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of State, Professor of Law at the University of

Rome, President.
LUMIERE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.
BROWN J. W., Director of the British Film Institute.
CARTON DE WIART Count Henry, Minister of State, Member of the Child Welfare

Committee of the League of Nations.
FOCILLON Henri, Professor at the University of Paris, Member of the Permanent Committee

of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.
GANGULEE Nagendra Nath, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor of Agriculture and Rural

Economy at the University of Calcutta.

KOZMA Nicolas de, Ministerial Councillor, President- Director of the Hungarian Telegraph
Agency.

KRUSS Hugo, Director of the Prussian State Library in Berlin, Member of the Commission

for Intellectual Cooperation.
LLOPIS Rodolfo, Deputy in the Cortes, ex-General Director of Primary Education at

Madrid.
MISTRAL Gabrielle, Authoress, Ex-Directress of the Lycee for young girls at Santiago.
OPRESCU Georges, Professor at the University of Bucharest, Member of the Permanent

Committeee of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.
ORDYNSKI Ryzzard, President of the Polish Film Producers' Association.
REYNOLD Gonzago de, Professor at the University of Fribourg, Member of the Commission

for Intellectual Cooperation.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,
The President of the International Agricultural Institute,
The Director of the International Labour Office,

The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the I. C. I. C, Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW.
Dr. Luciano de FEO, Editor.

P. Berne de Chavannes, Ernest Holzer,

Giuseppe de Feo, Edward Storer,

Jose Maria GlMENO,

Maria Elena APOLLONIO, Secretary.

..juitfin-T— — — — Jfc

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

UTILIZATION OF FILMS
IN VARIOUS SCHOOL GRADES

By
Prof. Costantine Kiritzesco

Director of Higher Education at Bucharest.

General Ideas on the r-i-i he cinema facili-
Use of the Cinema j tates the teacher's
during Lessons. task by giying him

new methods of demonstration during les-
sons which he may use in combination with
those already employed, thereby increasing
the value of the latter, for the pleasanter a
lesson is, the easier is it to understand.

The film can never be expected to bring
about a revolution in teaching methods, but
only an improvement.

New ideas are often spoilt by exaggeration,
and one of the exaggerations that is gaining
some ground nowadays is the belief, express-
ed in some quarters, that the talking film may
eventually replace the teacher. This cannot
be the case. An excessive use of the talking
film in schools would only end by making
teaching mechanical to the point of absurdity,
and would be in fatal contradiction with the
fundamental principle of the live school which
is founded on the direct relation between
two intelligences, the master's and the pupil's.
It is a relation which must undergo changes
and adapt itself to extremely variable circum-
stances and conditions.

Reducing its utility to due proportions, we
find that its value as an educational means is
still very considerable. The motion picture
is a step ahead of lantern slides, just as the
latter were an advance on wall pictures, which
in turn represented an improvement on chalk
drawings made by the master on the black-
board, which again were something better
than merely verbal explanations.

The primary advantage of the motion pic-
ture is that it presents a succession of images
in continual movement, and consequently
shows the pupils the rhythm of natural
phenomena. Secondly, it affords them plea-
sure, which is a great help in all school
activities.

The success of the new method depends
on the way it is applied. We must therefore
keep constantly in mind the vast pedagogic
possibilities of the cinema. This means that,
starting from certain ideas which are generally
admitted in scholastic pedagogy, the respec-
tive value of the film, whether silent or sound,
must be determined in regard to the various
scholastic grades and the different subject
matters being taught. It is also necessary
to examine the practical possibilities of its
application in the ordinary routine of school
life. It is only by coordinating these possibili-
ties and adapting them to the pedagogic
technique of the lessons that the method can
really be made profitable.

In addition to strictly pedagogic consider-
ations, we must take note of a material cir-
cumstance which interferes with the applica-
tion of the school cinema. This is the fact
that the installation costs a great deal, espec-
ially for sound films, and it is out of the
question, therefore, that every classroom or
even the larger rooms in every school should
be supplied with this expensive outfit. The
same difficulty is encountered when it is a
question of setting up a film library corres-
ponding to the requirements of the school

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

programme. This problem would seem to
make any discussion of the subject a merely
theoretical one, but it is to be hoped that as
the cinema industry progresses we shall
eventually have good apparatus at a low price,
which would facilitate the spread of the school
cinema.

The Cinema During Cinematograph projec-
Lessons. tions during lessons

must respond to four pedagogical require-
ments :

(a) they must facilitate observation of the
phenomena of movement in beings and things
whenever these are the subject of school les-
sons, thus making the intuition of life possible;

(b) they must stimulate the action of the
pupil's mind, that is to say, they must start
the mechanism of his reasoning powers ;

(c) they must call his attention to the real
nature of things, thus avoiding a teaching
that is too closely bound up with books ;

(d) they must put the pupil in a cheerful
state of mind, making study lighter and easier.

It follows that the projection must march as
far as possible step by step with the lesson,
like demonstrations with the aid of the
lantern slide and blackboard. In any case,
there is one thing that must be avoided at
all costs, namely, too frequent changes from
light to darkness and vice versa by the inter-
ruption of projections which tires the chil-
dren and might end by injuring their sight.

On the other hand, we must consider the
reverse side of the medal : the fact that the
fleeting impressions given by a moving pic-
ture prevent the teacher from giving his ver-
bal comment during the projection, however
necessary such a comment may be. This
means that the projection must be repeated,
in part, at any rate. For this reason, it is
best to have short projections such as demon-
stration films.

Projections before Pedagogy requires that
and after the Ver- the verbal explanation
bal Lessons: g;yen by the teacher

shall be preceded or accompanied by the
presentation of objects or pictures which help
the pupil's intuition by arousing his obser-

vation, under the guidance and incitement of
the teacher. This principle, which consti-
tutes the ordinary course of the phenomenon
of intuition, must not be neglected in present-
ing the cinematograph document.

The brevity of projection moments and the
rapid succession of images on the screen
necessitate a less rigid observance of this
formula. It might be followed literally in
the case of projections which are so static
as to be almost like fixed pictures, such as
geographical films and, frequently, those
dealing with natural sciences. In the other,
more numerous cases, a different procedure
must be followed : the projection should be
preceded by a verbal explanation calling the
pupils' attention to the more characteristic
passages that will be presented to them. In
order that the verbal explanation may be
brought as close as possible to the visual
demonstration, the projection should be
divided into several parts and alternated with
the oral comment.

Differential Value and From what we have

Didactic Utility of sajd aDOve, it is ob-

Long and Short yious that ;t ;s neces-

Projections inter- . -j _. .

. . . , sary to consider two

polated by the , ,. . . , ,

_ , , -. sub-divisions ot teach-

leachers Um- ....

. ing hlms in connection

ments. .s

with the use or hlms
during lessons : demonstrative and docu-
mentary films.

Demonstration films are short length films,
the pictures in which do not exceed a few
metres in length and refer to a single fact, a
simple phenomenon, a detail, which forms
an illustration like the engraving inserted in
the text of a book or the sketch drawn by the
teacher on the blackboard, but has infinitely
greater possibilities. A number of these
films might be interspersed throughout the
lesson, or the same film could be repeated,
according to didactic requirements. The
teacher's comment could precede or accom-
pany the projection, according to the case.

Animated cartoons naturally come into
this category. They offer a very wide and
interesting field for the scholastic cinema,

FILMS FOR VARIOUS SCHOOL GRADES

especially for physical geography, in the
formation of plastic images, for instance, the
origin and course of rivers, etc.; for mathema-
tical demostrations and, above all, in geometry
for the demonstration of the displacement and
superposition of figures representing lines
and surfaces, etc. Animated cartoons are also
useful for teaching natural sciences, showing
the formation of organic tissues by mechanism
of invagination and evagination, movements
of microscopic organisms, etc.

The documentary film is a long one. In
order that it may aid the synthetic under-
standing of the principal branches of the
subject taught, it must be long, so that it
may embrace several lessons in one. It is
intended to illustrate a phenomenon of a
certain amplitude, which is produced on
several planes in time and space. It is the film
which is commonly used in teaching history.

It can be made use of profitably at the end
of a lesson, or at supplementary sittings if it
is desired to avoid interrupting the regular
class hours, and also with the object of
leaving the pupils' minds freer to consider
the projection. On the other hand, films of
this description go a little beyond the rigor-
ous limits of scholastic films, if the latter
expression is taken in the strictest meaning
of the words, and form a transitional stage on
the way to the educational film, which has
no direct relation to scholastic programmes
and can equally be shown to the masses for
the purpose of training and educating them
at the same time.

Whether the film that is being used is a
simple demonstrative or a documentary film,
the master's comment must always illustrate,
complete and accentuate the interest of what
has been shown on the screen. This system
also fulfils the necessity of having a comment
by a competent instructor instead of sub-
titles that would interrupt the picture.

Projection in Large Until the time comes
Classrooms or in wnen eacn classroom
Separate Localities. has ;ts own apparatus,

it will be a good plan to have one or more
rooms in each school provided with the

necessary installation, which can be used
time by time for the classes that need
lessons accompanied by cinematograph de-
monstrations.

In view of their close connection with the
lessons, demonstrative films have a natural
place not only in the assembly room of the
school but also in the classroom itself. Docu-
mentary and educational films, which by
their very nature may be said to form the
numbers of a scholastic programme, could
be more conveniently projected in the assem-
bly rooms reserved for the meeting together
of a number of classes, or in halls outside the
school.

The programme of such meetings must
always be so organized that the films shown
to the children gathered together are not
above their comprehension, but are based on
facts that have already been made known to
them during lessons. Otherwise, there would
be no difference between school projections
and those shown in public cinemas.

Adherence of Films to The use of films as
School Programmes, teaching material has
an influence on the
school curriculum, from the point of view of
the plan of studies and also of the time-table.
Under the first heading, we have to consider
the working out of a scholastic film repository
or library, in which the films that are to
accompany lessons are divided by class,
teaching material and subject This film
library should be arranged and set up in ac-
cordance with the means at the school author-
ities' disposal, on a plan previously fixed by
the teachers, the principal and the camera-
man belonging to the school. Any altera-
tion in the programme must be followed by
similar alterations in the film repository. No
other system is admissible. In exceptional
cases, the possession of an interesting docu-
mentary film and the consequent possibility
of projecting it may lead to the introduction
of a new section into a lesson, but even in
this case there must be a natural connection
and no forcing of the logical, pedagogical
relations between the two.

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

Adherence to the time-table is of even
greater importance. The use of a general
classroom for lessons requiring cinemato-
graph demonstrations will inevitably affect
the time-table. The fact that the class
lesson must be prolonged to allow of the
projection should not be allowed to interfere
with period of recreation in the open air. It
is better to add one or two supplementary
hours weekly in the free afternoons, which
could be considered as school performances
and be given in one of the big common
classrooms of the school.

Technical Prepara-
tion of Teachers.

New teaching methods
necesitate new cours-

es for the preparation
of teachers. To avoid unduly burdening
the school budget by engaging cameramen,
and also to avoid over-taxing the teacher of
physics, every teacher should be something
of a technician, at least to the extent of being
able to work the cinematograph projection.
He could learn this work while attending
institutions. A few supplementary courses
would be quite sufficient to prepare him for
this task. The teacher of physical sciences
could assume control of the installation, with
the aid of a mechanic when possible and
necessary, and could act as technical adviser
to his colleagues.

Use of Pamphlets and There is no pedagog-
Leaflets to Explain Jcal ut;ijty m following
1 s* the custom practised in

some cinemas, of giving the spectators a
printed explanation of the film. It may be of
use then, to give the audience something to
do during intervals, or help them to follow
a film spoken in a foreign language, and so
on; but the school film is quite another matter.
Pedagogy requires that the school text be
used and the pupil encouraged to make an
intellectual effort to understand the film by
himself, arriving at this point by his own
observation of the things that are being shown
to him. By giving him this knowledge or

understanding all ready prepared, we should
be going back on all good pedagogical rules
and encouraging intellectual laziness in the
pupil.

The verbal comments of the teacher are
quite sufficient to aid children to understand
a film ; to establish a connection between
its action and their perceptive preparedness
and to add a new class of cognitions to those
they already possess. The less a child
knows of the sequences and end of a picture
he is he going to see on the screen by reading
about it beforehand, the more attentive he
will be to the scenes that are unfolded before
his gaze.

A much better system than that of provid-
ing pamphlets and leaflets to be read before-
hand is to ask the pupils to write a description
of what they have seen after the end of the
projection, and to give their impressions and
possibly a criticism.

The scenarios published by producing
firms might in certain cases be useful for the
teacher, by assisting him in preparing his oral
comment.

Comparative Value The sound film is a
of Silent and Sound Jecided step forward
Film in Teaching. as compared to the

silent film from the didactic point of view.
Its chief advantage is that by the association
of sound, word and music with form, move-
ment and gesture, objects, phenomena and
living things are presented in all the complete-
ness and realism of nature.

The sound or talking film can never, of
course, take the place of the teacher, or relieve
him of so much of his work that he has prac-
tically nothing to do. This might happen
with lectures, up to a certain point. It
is always more satisfactory to listen to
the explanations of an authority than to
those of an incompetent person charged with
commenting on a scientific film. When the
film is a strictly scholastic work, however,
the explanation must always be suited to
the intellectual possibilities of the little spec-
tators, and comment must therefore vary in

FILMS FOR VARIOUS SCHOOL GRADES

each case. Nor must the master be placed
in a inactive position. The active method
which is the basis of all teaching prohibits
such a formidable step backward.

There is one field to which the talking
film is particularly suitable : that of the teach-
ing of languages, live or dead, national or
foreign. The figure that speaks, showing
the characteristic movements of the lips and
face that accompany the emission of sounds
and word, with the simultaneous registration
of the voice that speaks a correct and pleasing
phrase, is an excellent pedagogic means, with
the addition of the able collaboration of the
teacher.

The same may be said of the sound film
when it is a question of music, especially
instrumental music, in which the movements
of arm and finger are seen in direct relation

to the sound. The same argument holds
good for physical education.

The sound film, by carrying the cinema to
the auditive field, has had the effect of restrict-
ing the universal character which the silent
film had when it reigned undisturbed in the
visual world. It is only those countries which
possess a great cinematograph industry that
can enjoy the immense advantages of the
sound film, and especially of the talking
film, to the full. Ignorance of the language
spoken in the film makes it impossible for
non-producing countries or those which
produce little to enjoy the real benefit of
such films. In these countries, the school
film registering the sounds of nature can be
of use, but the talking film is not available
for them, except for the teaching of languages
and music.

«.

VISUAL AIDS FOR KINDERGARTENS

{Editor's Note). Film methodology and the utiliza-
tion of the motion picture are subjects that have
often been treated by experts, but almost always in
connection with grades that go from the elementary
to the high schools. No one or very few persons
have considered the possibilities of using films for
teaching the first grade at all, that is, the kinder-
garten classes, in which the teacher finds herself
in touch with minds innocent of even the most rud-
imentary items of knowledge, with little beings
whose education must commence with the teach-
ing of what is at once the simplest and most difficult
thing that exists — the alphabet. With infants,
in fact, it becomes more a question of educating
than teaching.

The Views of an American Teacher. — Our
contributor, Lida Rowland, teacher at the Kinder-
garten class of the Longfellow School of Teaneck,
New Jersey U. S. A., a lady who has had consider-
able experience writes as follows :

Visual education has a very important part in
helping to carry out activities in the kindergar-
ten. One of the most direct and effective ways of
imparting truths to children between the ages of
four and six is through pictures. Personal ex-
perience is recognized as the most desirable means,
and this is carried out in the kindergarten whenever
possible. But much of the course of study is made

of subject matter, which a'though well within the
scope of the child's understanding, would be im-
possible for it to experience through its own
participation.

The children are interested in wild animals.
The ideal way to meet this situation is to visit the
Zoo or circus, after which, provide the children
with pictures, using lantern slides or preferably
moving pictures. Here they have the opportunity
to study, to discuss and to become more thoroughly
impressed with wild animals in their entirety.

The children are interested in the heating of
their homes. Through the use of the cinema, they
learn exactly how coal is produced from the mines
and put into their cellars. They are interested in
the way their homes are built and again, through
visual aids they are taken to the wood-cutters camp
in the forest, then through the lumber mills and so
on to the home. In this way many of the units
of work, are made real which otherwise would re-
main vague and wholly outside the experience of
the little child — for it must experience for it-
self or must see for itself.

Visual Aids can make it possible for a number
of children to see a picture at the same time. This
is of value for it adds to the enjoyment of looking
at a picture as well as affords an opportunity for
discussion and expression. It also gives an oppor-
tunity for training in careful observation. There-

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

fore, I feel that the Cinema can be of inestimable
value in making the Kindergarten subject matter
real, interesting, lasting and worth-while.

Film Methodology for Infants. — We shall
comment the foregoing briefly. Miss Rowland
refers to certain characteristic possibilities in the
teaching of infants by the film. As we pointed out
at the beginning of this note, it is more a matter
of education than teaching, though to some extent
the two terms are interchangeable.

One special point that can be made is that for
children, in the beginning of their studies, the
sound and talking film can offer possibilities that
far exceed those to be derived from it by older
pupils. The infant is not capable, like the child
or youth of criticizing what it sees on the
screen, or what it hears through the sound repro-
duction, since its intellectual and spiritual capa-
cities are entirely undeveloped. The clear explan-
ation of things and the pictured surroundings can
give an infant a much better understanding of the
subject than the teacher's word.

The commonest sounds are accompanied visually
by the phenomenon or being, whether animal or
human being, that has produced them. The word,
which in the case of infants need not be that of an
expert, but should be as simple as possible, will
give in a clear and comprehensible way the explana-
tion suited to the childish minds preparing to re-
ceive their first impressions in the world of learning.

The cinema has also another great advantage for
little ones ; it amuses them, renders their instruc-
tion pleasant, and makes them like the school and
the teacher.

Questions of methodology do arise, however.
There is that of the length of the projections.
These should be very short, so as not to tire the
children's eyesight and cause distraction and fatigue.

Sub-titles must be suppressed because the talk-
ing film supplies what they give, while comment
should be suited to the mentality of tiny specta-
tors. The pictures shown should deal with the
simplest things in life and especially in a child's
life with touches that may gradually lead to acquisi-
tion of knowledge. Sound and music may be
given but not overdone, so as to avoid tiring the
infants. There should be just enough to fill out
the picture. The didactic lesson should be al-
ternated with short, recreational scenes.

A well edited phonetic film may be shown for
ten minutes with scenes containing animals, plants
and objects (the fable type). Such a picture should
be followed by an explanation by the teacher and a
lesson, in which the children are asked questions.
Run the film over again after the lesson, if necessary,
and follow it up by an animated cartoon such
as Mickey Mouse A programme like this will
mean giving even the lowest grades the earliest
and most delicate opportunities for assisting the
teacher in his work by instructing, and by enter-
taining.

" There are present day forms of life and activity which
the press ought to follow closely, forms that once did not exist,
but now concern vast sections of society. The cinema is one of
these forms, and interests millions of persons of every age and
of both sexes ".

Mussolini.

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

THE TEACHER'S COLLABORATION
IN THE PRODUCTION AND USE OF DIDACTIC FILMS

BY

Barrier

Asst Director Primary Teaching;

Lebrun

Director of the National Centri
of Pedagogic Documentation.

WE do not intend the present note to be
a definite report on the question of the
collaboration of the teacher in the produc-
tion and use of the didactic film. Such a
report can only be prepared after our col-
leagues who are assisting at the Congress
have had the opportunity to expound to
us all their views and suggestions on the
subject under debate.

As a rule, such opinions and suggestions
are only revealed during the meetings of
congresses, and are embodied in minutes or
notes without there being any opportunity
for a proper study and examination of such
points capable of summing up the general
opinion of the delegates with sufficient clarity.

We should like our colleagues to consider
this note as nothing more than a kind of
preliminary scheme, and we should be glad
if they would be good enough to comunicate
to us before the inauguration of the Congress
their written observations thereon, either
directly, or through the Rome Institute.
These observations can be recapitulated and
amplified in greater detail and preciseness
during the debates. A final report summariz-
ing the opinion of the congressists and not
the personal views of the writers of the single
reports ought to come as a conclusion to
the debate.

Limits of the Present We must first of all
Inquiry. Um;t precisely the char-

acter of our task in order to avoid a duplica-
tion of the questions treated by the first com-
mission. In our opinion, it should be the
work of the latter, in the matter of a cine-
technical preparation of teachers, to seek out
the general indications of the method they
must follow in recommending the use of
fixed or moving projections in teaching. Such
indications can include length of the projec-
tions, conditions for projections, utilization of
explanatory material. The second commis-
sion ought rather to settle the pedagogic
limits for using the film, subject matters
and problems that may arise. It should
especially find out from the pedagogic rather
than the methodological point of view what
the teacher's functions should be in the pre-
paration of teaching pictures and in the edit-
ing of explanatory remarks to accompany
the preparation which the teacher should
undergo. These are all precise definite
points which require dealing with.

Stills and Motion It is very necessary to

Pictures. recall summarily the

limitations of using still or motion picture

projections for various grades and classes.

One of the essential characteristics of

10

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

modern pedagogy consists m the progres-
sive substitution of the word by the image,
then of the thing for the image of it, so that
what is called " the pedagogy of action " may
be arrived at. Direct observation of objects
is not always possible. The means, the
knowledge, and time may be lacking for
such observations, as well as the requisite
practical work. In such cases, one can
usefully have recourse when possible to
fixed and moving projections.

The cinema has proved itself often to be
superior to our senses as we can see from
watching the slow motion projector, the
micro-cinematographic reels, while animated
cartoons, though somewhat artificial, have
given us some valuable information.

Though direct observation may theoretical-
ly always be preferable, motion pictures pro-
vide a useful means for revising the lessons
given in the ordinary practical scholastic
manner.

If the cinema can help in developing the
sense of observation, the attention and the
tendency towards reflection, there are certain
intellectual qualities which the cinema
certainly does not help, even if it does not
work against them. Natural sciences can find
a useful ally in the film, but the same thing
cannot be said of spiritual sciences. The
cinema cannot, generally speaking, substitute
direct study, while there are a number of
subjects for which its use must be considered
as quite exceptional.

The film can never take the teacher's place,
if only for the reason that the child always
needs a moral authority over it and a
guide.

In primary classes, stills and motion pic-
tures provide a precious assistance to teach-
ing, an assistance which is superior to pic-
tures or wall drawings. The sound film
permits of making the lesson given by the
cinema even more realistic and complex.
Thus the pupil will hear the noise of the sea,
the rush of the waters of a cascade, the cries
of animals, the characteristic noises made by
machines and instruments. In no case,
however, whether we are dealing with silent

or sound film, can there be any possibility of
the moving image taking the teacher's place
in primary education.

In a quite different section of the scholastic
field, and without wishing to go into matters
which are not properly within the limits of
our sub-commission, the usefulness of the
film in teaching the higher grades is well
accepted, especially in such subjects as geo-
graphy and the fine arts and the study of
microscopic objects in biology, or the tech-
nique of surgical operations.

We should like to point out that :

— it is the task of pedagogues to recog-
nize and indicate the limitations to the peda-
gogic utilization of the film ;

— it is their work to establish the organ-
ization of such utilization of the film for
pupils of different ages, choosing the subjects
that lend themselve best to illustration by
visual aids ;

— that the film conceived for the study
of a given programme must fulfil definite
pedagogic requirements which can vary ac-
cording to the nature of the teaching and the
class of students for whom it is intended.
The scenario ought to be made for the lesson
it accompanies, and should be the work of
an expert or an educationist. These persons
ought to decide how much of the picture
should be given over to exposition, direct
observation and practical work, how the use
of fixed and animated projections should be
apportioned. These experts and education-
ists ought to take part not only in the work
of preparing the scenario, but also in the
mounting and other technical operations
(taking the pictures, animated cartoons, etc.).

Preparation of the The teacher has there-
Teacher and his fore a most important
Collaboration in funct;on jn the prepar.
UsmgtheDidacfac aratJon of teaching

films. He ought to
possess, in addition to a good general cul-
ture and a thorough pedagogic experience,
a considerable technical knowledge of cine-
matography. Such knowledge ought to
enable him to collaborate properly with the

THE TEACHER'S COLLABORATION

film director, putting him in a position to
explain the limitations and conditions govern-
ing the use of the cinema as a visual aid in
teaching.

His collaboration and intervention should
be available in the following cases and circum-
stances :

(a) In the choice of subjects for films,
since the teacher knows what subject matter
and which particular classes can best derive
advantage from visual aids.

(b) In preparing the scenario. Only a
pedagogue can know what it is desiderable to
film and what to leave to direct observation
for comment and explanation in any particu-
lar scenario.

(c) Mounting. It is the teacher's task
to stop the film at a given moment, to inter-
pose in it, if he deems fit some slides. He
must be in a position to insist that certain
details be " shot ' over again, and other details
elaborated : all this in consideration of the
pupils' age, their degree of knowledge and
their intellectual possibilities.

(d) During the actual making of the pic-
ture, the teacher must act as the close col-
laborator of the film director. He will
explain what he wants, so that technique
and pedagogy will between them produce a
teaching picture.

Cinema Technique It can be seen from
for the Teacher. the foregoing consider-
ations that it necessary to train in a special
way those teachers whose work is partly
to lie in the direction of collaborating in the
making of didactic films. It is indeed be-
cause insufficient attention has been paid to
this point that many educational pictures do
not suit the purpose for which they were
made.

In the same way that collections of scholas-
tic manuals can be published under one
management or direction which gives all
the publications a certain unity of spirit and
method, so collections of scholastic films
should have a single source of inspiration.
In the case of films as with the manuals, in-
deed even more so in the case of the films, it

is necessary that one at least of the persons
responsible for the making of the picture
should have an exact knowledge of the requi-
rements of the pupils, the nature of their
minds, their probable reactions, the details
of their curriculum and their capabilities in
adapting themselves to different scholastic
courses.

In higher class teaching, the teacher can
act as absolute master of the situation and
assume entire responsibility for the scenario.
In elementary school teaching, it would ap-
pear advisable that at least two teachers edit
the scenario. One of these teachers should
bring to the collaboration his experience with
children, while the other who should prefera-
bly belong to the second grade teaching staff,
ought to be a specialist in the particular
subject which the film treats, and should lend
it the benefit of his authority and scientific
knowledge.

Films Should Follow Teachers should insist
Lines of Scholastic tnat didactic films fol-
Curricula. low closely the exact

requirements of the teaching.

Today, for reasons that more often than
not are commercial, that is, to allow a film a
wider circulation and also because the regis-
seurs are not always specialized teachers
having a current knowledge of the scholastic
curriculum and the pupils' needs, it happens
that so called scholastic pictures are not
made specially for the instruction of a particu-
lar grade or class. If their makers state they
are suitable for several courses or grades,
it will turn out that they useful for none.
This is the case with those documentary films
which can very well be projected in their
entirety, since they have a real general inter-
est, but they are far from being the kind of
visual aids desired by teachers.

Special Course in We may say that some
Cine-Education for teachers ought to col-
Future Teachers. ]ahorate very actlvely

in the formation of teaching films, and that
all teachers should do their best to secure the

12

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

utilization of these films. This they can
do not only by knowing how to project them
and by introducing them into their teaching in
the most profitable fashion, all of which pre-
supposes a certain training in the methodo-
logy and technique of film teaching, but also
by showing themselves capable of reacting
to the projections and of provoking critical
and interpretative reaction on the part of the
pupils.

What we want and must insist on having is
a pedagogic and technical training for our
teachers which they should receive in normal
schools and pedagogic seminaries, not only
during the various course of optics, electricity,
methodology, etc., but also during practical
lessons in laboratories and handicrafts schools.
For teachers, who have already some exper-
ience, it would be well to organize lectures
and courses in theory and practice on special
days during week or month. A similar
system could be adopted for teachers of
secondary and middle grades who require
clear and definite instruction on the use of
lantern slides and motion pictures.

This kind of lesson will enable the teachers
to familiarize themselves with motion pic-
ture cameras and their working, the various
ways of making " shots " such as long

shots semi-close-ups, and close-ups, the
slow motion camera and the accelerated run-
ning off of a film, micro-cinematography,
sound and talking films, animated cartoons
and many other details. In this way the
taste for the cinema will be developed and
encouraged. The teacher will begin think
in terms of a scenario as something to offer
to a film producer, just as an author thinks of
his manuscript as something to offer to a
publisher. In this way the question of
specialists will arise.

Just as a real cartographer must be primar-
ily a man very well versed in geography so
as to avoid any risk of being merely consider-
ed a simple draughtsman, so the cinema
specialist must possess proper professional
qualifications. He ought only to be admitt-
ed to the technical courses at a Normal
Teaching School after having undergone

tests or examination of his capacity at the
hands of some official body.

This Cinema Teaching Normal School
ought to form part of the higher education
system, and be a regular forcing-ground for
those who will be called upon to produce for
the State and private firms according to the
country they live in, films capable of satisfy-
ing the exigencies of the teaching profession.

Some cinematograph schools have already
been opened in certain countries, and courses
of lessons have been organized. Such
initiatives should be encouraged, especially
those among them which deserve the confid-
ence of teachers. It would be well, however,
to examine the possibility of establishing in
every country a Normal Cinema School,
where the admission of students would be
hedged about by strict rules and the number
of pupils limited so as to prevent any distrib-
ution of diplomas to pupils who would
afterwards expect to obtain posts beyond
their reach. An international Normal School
is another possibility. Here the future
cinema teachers would be brought into touch
with the productive machinery of other
countries, would see foreign films, and have
the benefit of the best scientific, technical
and literary training.

General instruction for the bulk of teachers;
a selection, choice of profession and a super-
ior technical cinematograph instruction for
the best qualified, a development of their
culture in the branch to which they intend to
devote themselves : here we have a list of
measures which would in a short time raise
the level of the teaching film.

It is evident that this special training for
the mass of teachers and the specialists ought
to include not only the cinema but all the
auxiliaries of the film, such as lantern slides,
gramophone discs, sound ribbons and sound
tracks, while the teachers ought to be able to
use, discuss and supplement the reports,
instructions or booklets of an explanatory
nature sent with films.

The teachers' interest for the critical study
of the films placed at their disposal would run
the risk of soon vanishing if their reactions

THE TEACHER'S COLLABORATION

13

were allowed to remain without effect, if
they did not have the chance of making them
known and collaborating in the progress of
the teaching film. One of the principal
tasks of the distribution of films service would
therefore be to arouse criticisms and reac-
tions, to encourage experiments and create
centres for the pedagogic study of the film.
Perhaps we shall find that some interest-
ing results have already been obtained on

these lines, and it is to be hoped that we shall
learn of them in notes and communications
containing precise details. It is logical to
hope that the Congress will cause a wide di-
vulgation of experiments made in different
countries both in the pedagogic and the gener-
al field, and that all will bring their collabor-
ation to the international work which has
been taken up by the Rome Internazional
Institute of Educational Cinematography.

Longum

iter per

oraecepta,

breve p

it exempla.

Seneca.

. . ut qui

litteras

nesciunt,

saltern

in pariettibus vi-

vendo

legant qu

ae legere

in codicibus non

valent.

St. Gregory the Great.

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

THE SOUND AND TALKING FILM IN TEACHING

(Editor's Note). Our contributor, Mr. F. L. DEVEREUX, Vice-President of Erpi Picture
Consultants, the organisation attached to Electrical Research Products of New York, has sent us
some reports drawn up by American teachers on the possibility of utilizing the sound and talking
film in teaching, which complete the subject under examination m all its essential aspects.

A brief sketch of the reports will give an idea of the way that didactic methodology is
proceeding on the other side of the ocean in regard to the solution of the most important
problems connected with a more extensive use of visual auxiliaries.

The researches, to which these reports refer are the direct result of a series of previous
studies made by American teachers. One of them, Mr. N. L. Engelhardt, teacher at the
Teachers' College of Columbia University, points out that special mention is due to one of
the pioneers m this sector, Professor Freeman, who, in an article published in the Journal
of Educational Psychology in 1932 on Research vs. Propaganda in Visual Education, strongly
advocated the necessity of making minute research into the use of all visual auxiliaries with
the object of discovering by practical experiment the rational way of using such auxiliaries
and thus avoiding any possibility of error. Researches of this kind were afterwards made on
a large scale, on the lines suggested by Professor Freeman ; and they led, among other things,
to the valuable publications of Philip J. Rulon in Sound Motion Pictures and Science Teaching
published by the Harvard University Press in 1933 ; V. C. Arnspinger, Measuring the E0ec~
tiveness of Sound Pictures as Teaching Aids published by the Publications Office of Columbia
University ; and Frederick L. Devereux The Educational Talking Picture published by the
University of Chicago Press in 1933.

These studies, and other minor ones, do not refer to the general teaching of didactic
subjects by means of the film, but deal specifically with the didactic use of the sound and talk-
ing film.

They deal with experiments which form a milestone on the road of scientific research,
because their conclusions are not founded on simple suppositions and theories, which often
cannot be put into practice or are contradictory, but on serious inquiries conducted in regard
to numerous groups of pupils, in different school courses and in different didactic or scienti-
fic fields of experiment.

In any case, the problem might arise, in connection with one and the same subject, the
same course, a number of children with an identical mental and psychological development,
of having to compare the varying utility and greater or less comprehensiveness, the efficacy,
in short of the sound or talking film with that of the silent film on the same subject, logically,
completed in the latter case by a more ample explanation or comment on the part of the teacher
to supply its inevitable deficiencies. Contrast is the only real ground of comparison. Not
because contrast must be considered as a pure and simple negation of past and far-off things,
but because the possibility of a revision of ideas, concepts and facts may be shown most
clearly by its means.

Several experiments have been made, in every part of the world, with the system of mak-
ing comparisons by means of parallels between sound and talking films and the silent film.
These experiments, however, were limited and incomplete so far as regards their reference

SOUND AND TALKING FILM

I*

to class courses, the mentality and psychology of the children, the subjects taught, the method
of presenting and commenting on the films, and especially in relation to other visual aids,
which were not taken into consideration, such as maps of the world, models, wall pictures,
lantern slides, stereoscopic views, visits to places and so on.

In order that we may have an exact conception of this subject, therefore, these compar-
isons should be made with a hundred per cent exactitude and parallel. It is only in this
way that a real definition can be reached.

These are problems that the Congress is once more asked to solve. But they must first
be examined with the greatest care if the Congress is to be in position to fix the future
of didactic methodology in regard to visual auxiliaries. It can do this only if its conclusions
are deduced from facts, not from simple verbal assertions which have no real value.

PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT
OF EDUCATIONAL TALKING PICTURES

From the report of Mr. N. L. ENGELHARDT, teacher of Education at the Teachers College Columbia
University.

In a report on the subjects to be treated at the
forthcoming Congress Professor N. L. Engelhardt,
points out that the continuous development of
supplementary instructional aids in oral and written
teaching have made it necessary to enrich the didactic
material possessed by the American schools.

Auxiliary visual materials include stereoscopes,
stills, as well as the silent and sound film.

In the elementary schools particularly, the new
movement in what is called " the activity program "
has tended to bring into the schoolroom as much
realism as could be done under the limitations of
space, time, and the accessibility and availability
of the materials in question. The marked tendency
has been to provide these instructional materials as
supplementary to the services and scope of the work
rendered by the teacher himself.

The talking educational picture is in no sense
considered to be a substitute for human teaching
service. It endeavors to render service in the field
in which the classroom teacher naturally has limit-
ations. In other words, in this program of realism
the talking picture plays a significant part in tran-
scending the limitations of time, space, and magni-
tude which circumscribe the work of the immediate
human teaching service.

What are the principal questions that arise from
the introduction of films in their various forms into
school life ?

First of all, there is the question of the kinds of
subjects for which the film can be considered as a
useful or necessary adjunct in teaching.

There is also the matter of the making of these
scholastic films and their presentation to the pupils,

for each picture has a character and style of its own
different to all others.

The film then cannot be a didactic unit of a free
and autonomous character. In making any film, we
must look at the subject which it is proposed to
represent and the way it is to be represented. We
must also consider if the film can really offer the
teacher a greater advantage and help than other vis-
ual aids in general use in schools. It is only in this
way by means of a careful comparison that we can
take the exact measure of the value of our didactic
material and establish definitely what the programs
of study should be and what modifications existing
programs require.

There is also the matter of production which
must be considered from the technical and not only
the mechanical side. Technical in the sense that
the film must be adapted to the understanding of the
various scholastic grades, to special psychological
conditions of pupils and to the acoustic condition
of the class-rooms.

All this goes to show that the making of a educa-
tional picture, especially if it is a talking picture, and
its adaptation to a curriculum are not matters which
can be lightly treated, but require, on the contrary
constant research and a special attention to each
particular case.

It is significant to note that educational talking
pictures have been in the process of production, over
a period of four and one-half years in the United
States, under the direction of Colonel Frederick L.
Devereux of Erpi Picture Consultants, Inc. Work-
ing under this leadership, a group of educators of
extensive training and wide experience has made

16

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

what may be considered a most worth while contri-
bution to the development of this new field of
instructional service.

Choosing Subjects. — In view of the continually
varying character of the subjects that make up
curricula perhaps the most difficult thing is to choose
the subjects most suitable to the aims of the scholastic
program and the teacher or educationist. This
implies a minute and careful work of study and
research in all branches of teaching.

Once the field of operations is selected, intensive
surveys must be made all the courses of study.
Intensive surveys of this kind must be constantly
under way if a program of talking pictures production
is to be advanced consistently and harmoniously
within the sum total of the educational offerings.
Outstanding studies of this kind are those by H. A.
Gray (Social Science and the Educational Sound
Picture in Historical XXIII May 1932 and by Melvin
Brodshaug in his Science Survey issued in mimeo-
graph form by Erpi Pictures Consultants Inc. in 1 933).
For example, Brodshaug in " Science Survey "
listed the following objectives as those which appear-
ed most frequently in the courses of study and other
educational pronouncements concerning science to
be taught in the elementary schools.

To have a love for nature,

To form the habit of accurate observation and
investigation of natural phenomena,

To realize the duty of conserving desirable
plant and animal life,

To appreciate the vital place of science in the
community and its bearing upon national progress,

To acquire healthful recreational habits through
contacts with nature,

To learn reverence for the universe,

To realize the inviolability of nature's laws,

To attain ability in drawing conclusions,

To learn to know a few common plants and
animals in relation to environment,

To appreciate beauty in form, color, texture,
sound, and nature in general,

To appreciate the references to nature in litera-
ture, music and art,

To understand how man is gaining control of
his physical and living environment,

To build character,

To know a few phenomena of earth, air and sky,

To acquire a realization of the interrelation of

man, plants, animals and inorganic phenomena.

After the objectives for a field of study have been

ascertained, the selection of a particular topic or

phase of teaching must be made. This selection

should be based very largely upon frequency of
appearance in the various courses as well as upon a
jury of expert judges in the specialized teaching
field. Only on the basis of such an extensive study
is it desirable to decide upon the selection of a topic
to be produced as a talking picture.

Branches of Teaching. — Once the subject of
the film has been chosen, we must decide in what
branch or unit it can be used. Here psychological
factors come into play in view of the fact that not
all films, however and by whom produced, are suit-
able for all children of all ages and classes.

The choice of the branch and class for the use of
the film is one of the most delicate problems facing
the educationist and the methodologist. The teach-
ing unit in which the film is placed constitutes a
valuable guide for the teacher, when he in his turn
is called upon to illustrate all the details of the picture
and make such comments as he deems desirable for
the pupils.

Scenario of Picture Continuity. — No sat-
isfactory picture can be reproduced except as the
result of an intimate analysis of a unit of instruction
and the determination of those materials in the unit
which lend themselves most constructively to screen
and sound reproduction. Special workers must be
trained to visualize in advance the relationship
between the screen effects and the results obtained
from the printed page. This highly technical
aspect of production must be subjected to definite
standards which define the character of the scenario
and the careful grading of teaching devices.

The Study Guide. — It also seems desirable
that a study guide should be prepared for teacher
and student, or both, which may be utilized by the
student before and after the sound picture itself is
reviewed. Such a study guide reproduces for the
student speech and picture content so that he may
have a complete description of the materials which
are being presented to him in the picture entity.
Such a guide may be amplified with footnotes and
references which stimulate further study and
significantly contribute to orienting the student in
the reality of the subject matter itself.

Value of the Educational Talking Film. —
It is only when the rules and standards indicated
have been followed that it is possible to consider the
real value of the completed product.

SOUND AND TALKING FILM

17

The educational value of the film can be considered
in relation to its organic development and in a just
observance of the relations existing between the type
of dialogue used and the audience for which it is
intended. Due account must be taken of illumina-
tion, synchronization and volume of sound in
reproduction.

In measuring the effectiveness of an educational
talking picture, its contribution to the general field
of educational curriculum should be analyzed as
well as its general value to related fields of study.
Sound pictures which are entirely separate from
desirable school curricula are of very little use in
the promotion of an educational program. Every
talking picture should also be measured with due
reference to its general effectiveness both as a teach-
ing device as well as an instrumentality which leads

to higher and better appreciations in general fields
of human activity.

Professor N. L. Engelhardt points out that the
questions he discusses only constitute some of the
aspects which we must take into consideration in
using the talking film in the didactic and educational
field. Many other problems have to be faced and
more will present themselves as time goes on. These
will all have to carefully considered and valued.
Progress will have to be by steps. More than four
and a half years use of the talking film in education
have shown that it has an important and lasting
place in social life and that educationists ought to
know how to appreciate its merits and usefulness if
they want the educational film in general to assist
the progress of mankind.

THE USE OF TALKING PICTURES
IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Mr. James A. Brill of Erpi Picture Consultants Inc. forwards us the following report dealing with
themes under consideration by the Cinema Congress.

Interest in the utilization of talking pictures in the
elementary classroom has shov/n steady growth
within the past two years. This has been due in
part to the rapid development of really educational
films, and in part to the improvements in projection
equipment.

Of no little significance in this development was
the initial enthusiasm with which the first educa-
tional talking pictures were received by the school
field. Opinions of educationists amounted to a
consensus that the talking picture would " bring
the world to the class-room, would be a most realistic
vicarious experiment, and would greatly aid in the
pupil's development of concepts, attitudes and
appreciations ", while it was at the same time as-
serted that " the vividness of its style of presenta-
tion would increase the effectiveness of learning .

Endorsement for certain of these subjective
prophecies regarding the new medium has been
given by the results of objective studies, while
further experiments have demonstrated that the
wide-spread use of the talking picture in our nation-
al schools will prove a virtual necessity if their
potential qualities are fully to be realized.

The first few years of experimentation have
shown that the objectives of the talking picture as
an educational medium must be clear, valid and of

proper scope for the course of which the picture
is a part. Picture, sound and content must be
appropriate, accurate and thorough.

Technical audio-visual elements must conform
to the best standards of photography and sound
recording.

To achieve these standards the development of a
worth while educational picture begins with the
analysis of subject matter and the grouping of these
topics into instructional units. From these are then
sifted out those topics which can best be attained
in talking pictures. They are regrouped into
continuity form, and this is checked by both
educational and production specialists.

Supplementary printed matter is prepared to
make the most effective use of the picture in the
class-room.

Regardless of the size of the school system, the
audio-visual program must include administrative
services, directing and coordinating the various edu-
cational and mechanical services. The educa-
tional services include general supervision, instruc-
tion of teachers in use of the medium, integration
of sound pictures with the curriculum and the selec-
tion of sound pictures. The mechanical services
include delivery and operation, clerical work and
storage and repairs.

Ice ingl.

18

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

The greater part of scholastic edifices in Ame-
rica require, as has been mentioned, a quite special
equipment which is beginning to be largely used in
view of the fact that it not possible to use for the
projection of talking pictures halls only built for
silent pictures. The very acoustic qualities of these
old halls is not suitable. Such building provision
has already been made in several localities, notably
in the new junior high schools in Providence, Rhode
Island. The significant feature of such halls or
rooms are : proper acoustic treatment of walls and
ceilings, adequate projection booth, picture screen
and sound amplifier, screen placement in correct
relation to eyes of pupils ; provisions for optimum
light regulation and convenience for film storage.
The list of essential points necessitated by the
installation of talking picture apparatus in school
may be briefly summed up according as to grade and
according to the nature of the work of the teacher
and the requirements of good technique.

As far as the teacher is concerned, what is required
is :

(a) the teachers 's proper acquaintance with the
use of visual aids ;

(5) the utility of the film in the particular
course or lesson under consideration :

(c) the film to form part of the didactic curricu-
lum and not merely serve to illustrate extra-curric-
ulum subjects ;

(J) the precise degree of utility of the film as a
visual aid should be determined ;

(e) due account should be taken of the special
characteristics of the sound film such as its dif-
ferent technique.

Mechanical problems involved in the class-room
operation of talking pictures equipment are simple
and easily mastered by the teacher, or even by
pupils on the upper elementary levels Given a few
outlet electrical connections, the securing of operat-
ing power is as simple as plugging in a bridge lamp
or an electric toaster. A very little practice renders
easy the process of " threading up " and rewinding
film. When sound-on-disc is used ; synchroniza-
tion of sound is achieved by first placing a portion
of the film marked " start " in the projector aperture,
and then setting the needle of the tone-arm on a
similarly labelled grove in the sound disc. Sound
level once regulated is as automatically controlled
as focussing the film.

Most important of all aspects of the educational
use of the talking picture is an appreciation of the
teacher of the peculiar contributions which the
talking picture can make toward the educational
outcomes desired. The talking picture is effective
not only in direct learning, but also in stimulating
the pupil's critical thinking and in fostering his desire
to carry his study further and into related fields.
Because of the reality of impressions gained from
the talking picture, it is a power in developing
attitudes and appreciations. The teacher should be
aware of this potency and should coordinate accord-
ingly.

TALKING PICTURES IN PRIMARY EDUCATION

Mrs LAURA Krieger Eads, Ph. D., Research Associate of Erpi Pictures Consultants Inc. reports to
us as follows.

The pre-school child is a questioning child —
he explores his immediate environment, and plies
his listeners with innumerable questions concern-
ing the things he observes. His curiosity increases
as his environment expands. He is eager to learn,
and looks forward to any new experience which
may extend his intensely interesting little world.
Thus he enters school.

Does the primary school enrich the environment
of the primary school child ? Does it foster
increased interest in the things about him ? Or
does it attempt primarily, to teach the tool sub-
ects which will aid, after their mastery, in enlarg-
ing his world ? Does the young pupil feel that
his school life is quite separate from his out-of-

school existence, where he learns about things in
which he is really interested ?

Progressive schools definitely aim to provide the
pupil with experiences which will aid in his under-
standing and appreciating his immediate environ-
ment. In such schools we find an aquarium, a
window garden, a library table and a stereopticon
machine. Pupils are taken upon numerous ex-
cursions in order to increase their experiences.
The aquarium, however, may reveal a most val-
uable and interesting phenomenon while the pu-
pils are out of the class-room ; pictures, models
or objects brought into the class-room are di-
vorced from their original setting ; the printed word
is a cumbersome, often meaningless medium for the

SOUND AND TALKING FILM

19

primary child, while " stills " are inadequate where
movement is an integral factor. Excursions, more-
over, may be time-consuming and expensive, and
the pupils are likely to receive unsatisfactory im-
pressions of many of the phenomena experienced.
The educational talking picture had advantages
far superior to those of the ordinary visual aids.
It guarantees within a comparatively short period
of time a vivid and accurate protrayal of important
persons, places, objects and events. It is not limit-
ed by the boundaries of time or space, and can
utilize the combined effects of those important
senses — sight and hearing. Such films are receiv-
ing a special impetus in the higher grades, but
how much more valuable can they prove in those
grades where the printed word has least influence
— the primary grades !

Recognizing the need for sound pictures in the
primary grades, research has been conducted in
order to determine what subjects best lend them-
selves to production at this level. The following
elusions have been arrived at :

Primary children are interested first in the immed-
iate environment — home and immediate com-
munity — with a gradually developing interest in
factors outside their local communities affecting
their lives.

There is indicated a developing interest in natural
objects and natural phenomena and in human beings
in the primary grades.

Since the investigations in children's interests
indicated the importance of the natural and the
social sciences in the primary grades, analyses of
recent courses of study in these two fields were
made. Following is a summary of those objectives
which can probably be achieved with the aid of
educational talking pictures in the primary grades :

attracting attention to immediate environment ;

fostering increased interest in immediate en-
vironment ;

stimulating powers of perception and observa-
tion of immediate environment ;

enlarging the immediate environment ;

aiding in the cultivation of a social sense ;

developing an historic sense ;

developing, understanding and appreciation
of people in other communities and of other lands ;

cultivating an appreciation of interdependence.
The researches undertaken in all forms of utiliza-
tion of the film have led educationists, including
ourselves, to lay down the subjects which may be
considered most useful and interesting for talk-
ing pictures.

It became a point of finding out if some of the

pictures made for the intermediate grades of scholastic
life could be adapted to the primary grades. It
was considered advisable, in order to arrive at a
definite conclusion, to carry out an experiment
which took place between the pupils of two different
schools.

The pupils in each of the primary grades were
presented with one of the following four talking
pictures : The Frog, Plant Growth, the Dodder, and
Fungus Plants. Before each representation the
pupils were asked questions concerning the sub-
ject of the picture in order to determine their
initial knowledge. No other introduction was
made. Immediately after the presentation, the
pupils were asked to tell the story of the picture.

A questionnaire was sent to the parents the week
following the picture presentation.

The questionnaire results indicated that the
primary grade pupils on the whole were very much
interested in these educational talking pictures ;
those in the second and third grades considered it
a high-spot of the week's school activities. Other
points and results appeared in the course of the
experiment. If some explanations had been given
beforehand to the pupils on the photographic pro-
cesses used, on micro-cinematography, the slow
motion camera, accelerated running of the film, etc.
the scholars would have derived greater advantage,
and many erroneous impressions received by the
pupils would have been obviated.

Natural history films in particular require an
inquiry into the pupils' knowledge in that field
and also a careful explanation by the teacher. The
experiment showed the utility of explanatory leaflets,
both for teacher and pupil. Presentations of the
talking picture may correct mistaken ideas, stim-
ulate discussion and crystahze concepts gained from
study of the unit.

It was proved that the film should be presented
in a clear fashion with clear comment. It was
also plain that :

(a) the picture material should clearly stimulate
the attainment of the primary grade objectives and
be authentic without giving undue stress to story-
book costumes ;

(b) that the lighting should be suited to the
projection and the picture-making perfect, while the
same format should be used to avoid distracting the
pupil ;

(c) scenes not to be too long ;

(d) natural or dubbed sound should be used
wherever practicable ;

(e) there should be a generous use of repetition
when it seems advisable or necessary.

20

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

SOUND PICTURES AS A FACTOR IN CLASS SIZE

From the Report by A. J. Stoddard Superintendent of Schools, Providence., R. I., U.S.A.

The question of class size has been and continues
to be one of the most perplexing problems in educa-
tional administration. Back in the first half of
the 19th century when the Bell and Lancastrian
schools flourished, it was not uncommon for one
teacher to instruct several hundred pupils. The
monitorial system was used, the teacher instruct-
ing a small group of the older and brighter pupils,
who in turn carried the instruction back to the class
broken into small groups The teaching process was
largely on a drill or memorizing basis, and the indiv-
iduality of the child was neglected and sometimes
even suppressed. In fact, the schools had a short
life, and were done away with in 1850. This was
natural enough for schools at that time were deficient
in classroom equipment and didactic material.
Text-books were crude and even the buildings were
inadequate and restricted.

Nor should we forget the financial factor. Teach-
ing costs, and in those times the number of the
teachers, the school buildings and the equipment
were not in relation to the population but rather
depended on the financial possibilities of the dis-
trict. Always the teachers and administrator were
endeavoring to reduce the number in each class
without any adequate basis of determining just how
large the instructional group should be.

A few generations ago, it was not uncommon to
find elementary schools with sixty in a class. Grad-
ually the size of classes became smaller until in 1929
before the depression reversed the tendency, the
following sizes were accepted as about the standard :
elementary, 40 ; junior high school, 35 ; senior high
school, 30. So generally established were these
standards that class-rooms were constructed to
accomodate the number indicated.

This tendency towards smaller class sizes in the
last generation or two seems paradoxical until it is
analysed. It has given excellent results, and the
teachers themselves have increased their capacity to
teach and improved their methods.

We must remember that new pedagogic systems
insist on the pupils' individual faculties being devel-
oped. Classes composed of 40 scholars permit
the teacher to look after his pupils as he will, in
small groups, or even one by one.

There is another phase of this question of class
size. The child may acquire the raw materials of
learning through the senses, that is he may secure

the sensations that form the basis of perception and
understanding, but learning does not result until
the child himself does something worth while with
these materials of learning.

Now let us consider the implications of this theory
of learning upon class size. If the interest of the
child can be held, it may be possible to secure a high
degree of attention from him even when he is a
member of a large group. This may be merely
a question of discovering and using devices that will
cause him to concentrate his attention on what is
being seen or heard, so that the proper sensations
are received. Yet they must be so received that
the child, either then or later, is impelled to do
something with them, either mentally or physically,
or both.

Teachers have already decided that the instruc-
tional group should not necessarily be the same size
for all learning situations. It may be desirable at
times to teach the class as a whole, while under other
conditions it may be much more efficient to break
the class into groups, and consider the pupils indiv-
idually.

The coming of the sound pictures and radio have
brought up the question of class sizes into educa-
tional administration, and may make possible
decidedly different procedures.

It was with the purpose of securing some objective
evidence on the question of the extent to which
sound pictures may be a factor in determining class
size that a comprehensive experiment was conducted
in the public schools of Providence, Rhode Island
in the spring of 1933. Arnspiger had conducted an
extensive experiment the year before in measuring
certain phases of the effectiveness of sound films as
teaching aids, the films having been produced for
instructional purposes on the elementary and junior
school levels. The Providence experiment was
decided on, and nine class groups were used. There
were :

(a) three experimental groups of about 150
pupils each ;

(b) three large control groups of the same size
and ;

(c) three small control groups of about 40
pupils each.

The nine groups were chosen from the sixth
grades of the city schools and were matched, as
nearly as possible, as to intelligence, social back-

SOUND AND TALKING FILM

21

ground, age and educational achievment. Nine
teachers were provided who had no other teaching
duties during the experiment. S-'x units of instruc-
tion were used as the basis of the experiment, three
in science and three in music. The sound pictures
were based upon the subject matter of the units.
Each subject was taught for five days, and for thirty
minutes each day. The esperimental groups only
were given the aid of the sound picture ; the other
groups took the same lessons using other didactic
aids.

The question to be settled was : if it is possible
through using the sound picture to obtain the same
didactic results with a class of 150 pupils as with a
class of 40}

The experiment was not directed so much to
establish the value of the sound picture itself, as to
see if the talking and sound film would allow of
the number of the pupils being increased without
detriment to the instruction.

If it became possible to establish as a result of
the experiment that the groups of 150 which utilized
the sound film obtained the same result as the groups
of 40 without the film, the obvious conclusion could
be drawn that the introduction of the sound picture
permitted the number of pupils to be increased.

The results of the experiment, as taken from the
registers of the teachers of the groups, were as
follows. The average of the initial points of the
three sectors was as follows :

Experimental Groups 45.0

Large Control Groups 43.3

Small Control Groups 45.8

Average of final points :

Experimental Groups 89.4

Large Control Groups 82.7

Small Control Groups 88.2

Final average on principal points :

Experimental Groups 44.4

Large Control Groups 38.9

Small Control Groups 42.4

The result is clear. The experimental group
showed an advantage not only over the control
groups, but also over groups which had a much
smaller number of pupils.

The deduction may be made : that sound films
can be considered as a real and valuable factor for
increasing the number of pupils in any class, and
are therefore capable of. providing a solution
to a difficult methodological problem.

WILL SOUND PICTURES REMAKE
THE CURRICULUM P

From the report by Mr. Paul Mort, Professor of Fducation at Columbia University.

Mr Paul R. MORT, of Teachers' College, Colum-
bia University points out that one of the most
notable phenomena of our time is the develop-
ment in the use of sound and talking films, not
only in the mere educational field but also in the
school.

Some of the areas in which a simplified and more
inclusive medium of communication may have great
significance are :

(1) the carrying out of the educational pro-
cess prior to the attainment of the facility to read ;

(2) the postponment of learning to read until
interest and maturity make the process a relatively
simple and efficient one ;

(3) the education of individuals who have
not the capacity to attain facility in reading ;

(4) the placement before individuals of all
levels of ability situations en masse which may be
used as gross units or symbols in the thought pro-
cesses needed in the study of problems involving
vast patterns of activity ;

(5) the demonstration of difficult processes,
particularly those involving tempo, size or sound,
outside normal limits of the senses.

Certain consequences have derived from the
foregoing which deserve special consideration.

In kindergarten and primary schools it has been
proved that after the first six years the child was
not able to extend the limits of his possibilities of
learning, and that the circle of his environment was
too restricted for his intuition and understanding.

It became necessary then to offer something dif-
ferent. To give him adequate concepts, we must
bring him into contact with things which fall
without his range of natural vision.

A child can learn to read and correctly understand
a group of things, phenomena or facts in a period
of say six to nine years, but if with the use of the
sound picture this period can be reduced to the
half or a third, the gain to child, teacher and the
didactic system is obvious.

It is true that there have been various types of

22

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

revolt from this process of learning. Laborat-
ories equipped so that children could leap the
bounds of the senses through the aid of instru-
ments grew in numbers during the past few de-
cades. It was observed that it is not possible to
divide the element knowledge which comes from
autonomous intuition from the knowledge de-
pending on teaching. For example, the village
or community as an entity is too large for the or-
dinary conception of the child in a limited envir-
onment. But a play miniature village brings
concepts of life to children of five or six or seven,
which, if they had to await the mastery of reading,
they could not hope to attain before ten or eleven.

The new intuitive means have aspects which
necessitate a necessary methodological and pro-
grammatical revision of what was once considered
as definite and final.

Experiments carried out in this direction have
shown clearly enough that the intuitive system,
that is, the use of the sound film in this case, can
bring the level of culture and instruction of a class
of backward pupils almost to the level of classes
where visual aids are not used and ordinary di-
dactic programs are followed.

In his report for the year ending June 1933,
Dean Russell of Teachers' College points out the
great significance of the broad diffusion among the
people of knowledge of present day problems. He
shows that this is essential to the maintenance of a
social order dedicated to liberty and equality.

The sound picture has much to promise the
educator who is struggling with ways and means
to diffuse knowledge with respect to the great so-
cial and economic problems.

The same demand for a medium which will
short-circuit the laborious process of building
concepts from verbal descriptions operates in voca-
tional guidance schools, where it is essential that
boys and girls obtain a clear realization of the nature
and opportunities offered in hundreds of fields, and
choose those which warrant intensive investigation.
In this area, the devices which have been thus far
developed have fallen short of the ideal they serve
because of the lack of teachers capable to present
the necessary materials adequately. The sound
picture would seem to contribute to the solution
of both of these difficulties.

One more point may be mentioned here. This
is the professional training of teachers. The pos-
sibilities of bringing typical classroom situations
from all over the world for study and analysis is
one which has already been given some attention
by teacher-training institutions.

There is the question of the explanation of phe-
nomena and complex processes. Ordinary instruc-
tional techniques are lacking in their adaptability
to show sound and motion coordinated in their
natural form. For example, the writer is rare
who can describe the action of molecules in such
a way that the conception is carried over to the or-
dinary person. Physical laboratories have strug-
gled with this problem, and teachers have struggled
with it by using blackboard illustrations and wav-
ings of the arms.

None of these devices compares in its effect-
iveness with animated cartoons. The pictures of
this kind recently developed by the physical science
division of the University of Chicago show how
the moving picture fills a long felt need, and brings
within the reach of the many what was previously
only for the few.

No one can see the natural growth of a plant
or follow astronomical phenomena with the naked
eye, but the slow motion, animated cartoon or
photograph can reveal these things.

The same thing is true in the matter of natural
sounds. In order to reproduce them exactly, it
would be necessary to possess a large collection of
musical instruments which would be costly and
cumbersome. The sound film can reproduce
them all with scientific fidelity.

The possibility of cartography in bringing the
infinite within the ken of the individual has been
demonstrated by the group of astronomical pictures
which have been developed.

The above points at which the new communica-
tion process potentially impinges upon the edu-
cational system by no means exhausts the possi-
bilities.

According to Mr Mort, the sound films has the
widest opportunities for development. Since
however, scholastic methodology is based on the
old oral and written systems and curricula, a rad-
ical revision of the same is essential if the true
effect of sound pictures in to be obtained.

SOUND AND TALKING FILM

23

THE SOUND FILM IN TEACHING

Report of the To\io Office of the League of Nations, ToKUDA.

The Report deals with the following subjects •

(1) Film Section of the Ministry of Education ;

(2) Tokio Women's Higher Normal School ;

(3) Transportation. Bureau of the Ministry
of Railways ;

(4) All Japan Film Dealers' Association ;

(5) Information. Section of the Ministry of
the Navy ;

(6) Mr. Y. Gonda.

(A) Artistic possibilities of the Sound Film.
— It is generally believed that the artistic possibili-
ties of the sound film are much greater than those
of the silent film, provided that the sound film be
used in an appropriate way and at the right moment.
In other words : such possibilities depend solely
on the appropriate use of recording. The artistic
possibilities inherent in musical films are, it is
generally believed, practically limitless.

On the other hand, many organizations queried
stated that sound films have fewer artistic possibil-
ities than talking pictures although they have a
more complex character through the effect of the
variations in sound expression, while they are capable
of provoking a greater mental effort than is required
by silent films. Thus the sound films, which consti-
tute today a transitional form between the silent
film and the talkie, would appear to possess less ar-
tistic value than the talking film in its latest de-
velopments.

Mr Gonda, an authority on the educational cin-
ema, has stated that the artistic value of the sound
film is somewhat but not notably superior to that
of the silent film.

(6) Possibilities of the Sound Film in the
Documentary Field. — All the bodies and organi-
zations consulted expressed a unanimous opinion
that the sound film is of the greatest value in the doc-
umentary field, as well as for teaching phenomena
and facts in nature ; this is in accordance with its
musical value.

(Q Difference of value between Sound and
Talking Films. —
Sound Films are :

1) Particularly useful in the cultural field,

and especially in giving instruction on the country-
side and for documentary work in propaganda and
education.

2) They can be used internationally because
they do not contain dialogues in any special lang-
uage.

3) Much superior for musical effects.
Talking Films are :

1) Of greater dramatic value for giving the
real expression of the voice and for dialogue :

2) Very artistic and popular, but they cannot
have an international character ;

3) They can have the possibilities and advan-
tages recognized as appertaining to the sound film.
They can be used internationally by taking advantage
of dubbing systems but it is a difficult though ne-
cessary matter to take account of the various dif-
ferences which exist in matters of race, language
and national traditions.

(D) Which of the two systems is considered
more useful in teaching. — Opinions are much
divided on this point. Some people prefer sound
films which contain appropriate lectures and an-
nouncements recorded, while others consider talking
films more effective as they appeal direcdy to the
students' ears.

The Ministry of Education in charge of educa-
tional films expressed the opinion that talking films,
with the exception of drama-talking pictures, are
much more effective in the domain of teaching,
since films are used as auxiliary educational
means.

(£) Sound or Talking Films for Propaganda
IN GENERAL. — In connection with this point, it
was unanimously agreed that talking films are much
more effective for propaganda in general. As for
propaganda to be carried out in other countries,
it is considered advisable to produce sound films with
many positives with each language recorded ac-
cording to the countries for which they are destined.
In this sense sound films are deemed superior to
the talking variety.

24

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

PRACTICAL POSSIBILITIES OF THE SOUND FILM
IN DIDACTICS AND TEACHING GENERALLY

From a report by Mr. KAUFMANN.

Preliminary Remarks. — The silent film was
already acknowledged by the majority of teachers
as a valuable means of enlivening their teaching
and making its meaning clearer, many of them,
indeed, making personal use of the cinematograph
to produce some fairly serviceable films for use in
teaching ; and it was only logical that the addition
of sound to pictures should be considered as a
further aid to didactics.

Psychologically, however, the addition of sound
has aroused opposition on the part of many teachers,
who fear that the sound and talking film may to
some extent be used as a substitute for the teacher
in a more or less large number of subjects.

They did not mean, of course, that the sound
film could ever take the plate of a living and thinking
being with wide pedagogical experience, but fears
have been expressed that the great simplicity and
convenience of this technical invention may induce
school authorities to seek competent pedagogues
for the production of sound films which would
invade schools. These fears have, however, proved
to be unfounded, in practice.

a) Artistic Possibilities of the Sound Film. —
With regard to the public cinema, these are too
obvious to need mention ; but practically the same
arguments may be used in regard to cultural and
educational films for use in schools.

The sound film can faithfully reproduce the voice
of a famous singer, the execution of a famous music-
ian or conductor in any place, even in the smallest
school. The artistic effects of individuals or whole
communities can be registered and afterwards re-
produced. Optica! and acoustic effects have equal
importance in these cases, but their combination in
the sound film makes the artistic and didactic function
of the latter infinitely more valuable.

The sound film opens endless possibilities also
for the direct study of certain arts, from singing to
every branch of instrumental music, and even to
the study of theatrical art. In fact, the sound didactic
film could be of great use in all the arts and crafts
and even in trades, when the sound part includes
comments and explanations, although these branches
of education have nothing to do with acoustics.

b) Sound Film Possibilities in the Documen-
tary Field. — These are beyond discussion and

there is no deed to dwell on them. The main thing,
in fact, that remains to be said on this point is that
an effort should be made to produce more really val-
uable films of the kind, even outside the purely com-
mercial films of the news reels : preparations for ex-
peditions, systematic reproduction of natural pheno-
mena, formation of a cinematographic encyclopaedia
of all discoveries in the domain of science, whenever
they can be reproduced optically and acoustically,
c) Possibilities of the Reduced Size Sound
Film. — These films are of such decisive import-
ance for schools that good machines for reproducing
reduced size films have been made, and their construc-
tion in series is now only a matter of time and organi-
sation and the means to be adopted in each country
for the general definite introduction of such films as
a didactic means in schools.

i) The Different Value of the Sound and
Talking Film. — It is difficult to make a compari-
son between these two films. The sound film re-
produces the authentic sounds which are heard at
the time of photographing a process or an object :
for instance, an explosion, the sound of a machine
at work, the singing of a bird, etc. The silent film
with a synchronised musical accompaniment that
is almost without direct importance in the picture
of the didactic film belongs to the category of
sonorised films. All the same, its great importance
in teaching lies in the fact that a well chosen musical
accompaniment, or one that is especially composed
for the film and suited to its subject as in the didac-
tic films of the UFA, so greatly increases the atten-
tion and interest of the pupil as to augment consider-
ably the didactic value of the film. The contrary
is the case, of course, when the music is badly chosen.

The talking films, with some exceptions, forms part
of the cinema theatre. The exception might be
given by the authentic reproduction for instructive
purposes of classical theatrical works of world wide
fame ; but this has not yet been attempted.

One of the varieties of talking film is of extraor-
dinary importance for schools and is, indeed, the
most important kind of sound film for instructive
purposes, namely, the talking film accompanied by a
synchronised comment explaining the pictures re
produced, the person who is speaking being for the
most part unseen. By means of these films cinema-
tographic reproductions of the rarest and most im-

SOUND AND TALKING FILM

25

portant things in every field of science can be pro-
jected, with explanations by competent instructors,
either men of science explaining their own work or
eminent pedagogues speaking of the film. But in
this case also we have to combat the objection that
it constitutes a means of eliminating the teacher.
On the contrary, an intelligent teacher will be able
to make use of the projection by basing on it after-
wards a lesson completing the film with explanations
suited to the special mentality of his pupils, in order
that the film may thus yield its maximum pedagogic
value. A method that, so far as I understand, has
been used for the first time in America, should be
mentioned here, for it completely utilizes the value
of such films. The film is first projected together
with the sound comment of a competent man of
science or pedagogye ; the teacher then has it pro-
jected a second time without the comment, which
he himself replaces by an explanation of his own dur-
ing the projection. The film can then be projected
a third time or even more times as a silent film for
repetition purposes, giving the pupils, by means of

questions and answers, the possibility of gaining
the utmost pedagogic value from it.

e) Which of these two Kinds of Film is con-
sidered MOST USEFUL IN THE PEDAGOGIC FlELD ?
— They are equally useful and are both absolutely
necessary for modern teaching.

f) Value of Sound and Talking Films for
Propaganda in General ? — It is difficult to an-
swer this. Propaganda, according to the general
opinion of those concerned in teaching, should not
be brought into schools. It has been known for long
past that an extraordinarily efficacious propaganda
can be made by the sound and talking film outside
schools ; a propaganda that is much more efficacious
than that of the silent film or newspaper or other
costly advertisement. The enormous increase of
films with an advertising scope that we see in pub-
lic cinemas is sufficient proof of this. Such films
must, of course, be prepared with taste and be
amusing without being immoral.

SOUND AND TALKING FILM IN TEACHING

(Editor's Note) Recent studies of the I. I. E. C.
have led us to divide " sound film " and " sound
and talking film " into two different categories so
as to be better able to ascertain their respective
value in teaching. It is now clear that the sound
film, which gives at one and the same time visual
and aural impressions, is more expressive, more nat-
ural and more real, and produces in children s
minds profounder and more numerous impressions.

The noises of the sound film — if suitably adapt-
ed — give the best effects, and make the film less
monotonous and more natural. They keep the at-
tention alive, which renders understanding much
easier.

The chi'd who follows with the liveliest interest
all the manifestations of human progress, may be
said almost to vivisect those phenomena which strike
him particularly in the course of his studies. How
can he remain indifferent in view of his natural,
insatiable curiosity in the cinema with its inexhaust-
ible source of cognitions and experiences ?

Synchronization has added a lot to the pedagogic
film, rendering it livelier and more realistic.

The synchronization, should, however, be per-
fect, and the experts must continue their researches
indefatigably, so as to get rid of those failures and
faults in registration and reproduction which still
exiit today. A bad synchronization can produce

such an effect on the brain that it can cause a
headache, and render it impossible to follow the
action of the film nullifying its fine effect. Care
should alsi be taken to see that the various noises
reproduced are true to life and not given with too
loud or exaggerated a tone so as to be deafening.
Besides really causing fatigue, such badly repro-
duced noises can have a deleterious effect on the
nervous system. The registering must be perfect
unless we want a film to be classified as a bad film,
although it may be excellent from the didactic point
of view. The sound should be reproduced to such
perfection that it seems absolutely natural, if it is
to add to the illusion of reality in the picture.

What are the possib'lities of the sound film in
teaching ? It is first of all extremely useful to
give the pupil a musical culture. Equally, or
nearly so, is it for the plastic arts and in special
branches of science such as zoology, botany, farm-
ing, astronomy, etc. The vision of atmospheric
phenomena, the practical demonstration of the bio-
logical cycle of insects, birds, domestic animals,
wild beasts, reptiles, etc. can be interpreted by the
sound film in all their interest and in such a way as to
strike the imagination of the young pupil whom it is
desired to teach.

In this way we are able to place the child's mind
in direct contact with nature, in the certain know-

26

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

ledge that the child's simplicity of heart and mind
will make him desire and seek for only the most
beautiful things.

There is no visual aid therefore that can be so
efficacious in this field as the sound film.

Musical education. — Another task of the sound
film, not less important than the first, concerns the
psychological education of the children entrusted
to the charge of the teachers who are called upon
to carry out their delicate mission of looking after
the psychical-mental formation of the young peo-
ple's character.

Music can have a large share in the spiritual educa-
tion of the individual. It moves and exalts him,
refines his spirit, teaches him to know and under-
stand what is beautiful, and educates his artistic
sense. With eyes fixed on the luminous screen,
his attention entirely held by the episode unrolling
before his gaze, the spectator is ready to receive,
through the medium of the music, the purest and
most beautiful emotions. He forgets the place
where he is, and follows with trepidation, with joy
and with sorrow the incidents in the action that
fascinate him. The music places him under a
spell and delights him, transporting him into an
unreal and marvellous world which seems to be a
world suited to himself, so attractive does he find
it. The child reflects, studies, analyses himself
and his own feelings without being aware of it.
He gives a proof of this when he demands that the
leading motives of the film shall be perfectly suited
to the scenes which follow one another, without
which the piece would lose all its value and real
fascination.

Music can educate and have a beneficent in-
fluence especially on weak individuals who are
attracted to sensations that disturb and upset them.
Music can put the child that has been led astray
in spite of himself back on the right path.

By working on his emotions, it can become a
valuable help for arousing in him the instincts of
normality. One should not forget either the bad
effects which certain music is capable of having
on some types of children These can be so
powerful even as to lead them to commit insane acts
on themselves or others.

We must use with discretion and in limited doses
those musical pieces which can be considered capable
of exercising a violent influence on the imagination,
and indeed we should use all educative music care-
fully. To insist on evoking strong emotions may
turn out to be an experiment that will give results
exactly opposite to those desired. Censorship,

then we must have, and a regular course of music.
The profound psychological study involved here
must be the work of experts.

Possibilities of the Sound and Talking Film.
— Many people have mistakenly thought or imagin-
ed that the talking film would one day or another
take the place of the teacher. This was a funda-
mental error of appreciation. It is quite impossible
for a machine to substitute the human element in
educating and forming the character of human
beings. The very idea is preposterous. The cin-
ema is and will remain an excellent and continually
improving didactic aid, which is closely connected
with and reflects life admirably. Its develop-
ment will naturally follow the progress of civiliza-
tion, and the school will reap the advantages. We
must remember, however that the cinema is and
will always be — and we must insist on this as a
principle — a most precious supplementary aid
and nothing more. Indeed, we may say that the
teacher will have to deal with — through the inter-
vention of the cinema — new subject matter for
study and research, which will in turn assist the
carrying out of the scholastic curriculum, that is
it will facilitate the teacher's work, will simplify it,
and will inspire him to fresh researches and new
analyses with which to obtain better and better re-
sults with the more backward and obstinate pupils.

Once we have gained the scholar's attention, we
have gone a long way towards securing the benefit
of the lesson for him. This capacity to fix the
attention is one the chief merits of the sound and
talking film. It is also more real than the silent
film, has more of the sense of life, is fuller and
more suitable to a child's mind. The words
and sounds make the action more harmonious ;
the music enables the ideas to penetrate into the
spirit of the child, and to permit of a clearer and
more interested perception of the scenes cast on the
screen.

Requisites of Sound and Talking Films for
Teaching. — When the talking film goes beyond
its definite task °f simple indication that is, when it is
a hundred per cent talking film, it is absolutely
antididactic and often unartistic.

We can ask in which particular fields of learning
can the talking film be considered useful and effi-
cacious. To what extent ? For which special
subjects ? The answer is for practically al! sub-
jects and especially for the teaching of languages,
religion, geography, history, the history of art, etc.
Care must be taken not to overdo the use of the

SOUND AND TALKING FILM

27

word. Parsimony in its use indeed is desirable,
great parsimony. The speech in a didactic talk-
ing film ought simply to take the place of the sub-
titles in silent pictures.

A different treatment, is required though when
we are engaged in historical reconstructions, in
showing expeditions, or in illustrating an entire
decisive period of the history of a people or the
evolution of civilization in the world.

The intelligent substitution of the sub-title with
speech results in eliminating for the pupil the visual
effort required for reading sub-titles which are
often projected in flickering letters and not left long
enough on the screen for a thorough understand-
ing of their meaning. The incapacity to read the
sub-titles perfectly, besides causing eye strain,
results in a forced attention which is harmful to the
brain. In any case, reading of any kind always
tires very young children even if only slightly.
We should avoid in teaching ; over-fatigue ; we
should simplify, clarify so that the mind receives
with the minimum effort.

Thus an outpouring of words causes a visual,
aural fatigue and a sense of confusion. If we pro-
ject for children a 1 00 per cent talkie ; the logical
result will be that by arriving at a certain comple-
mentary efficiency in our instruction, the result will
be non-efficacious. This is a fact of no little con-
sequence in pedagogy where one word can mutilate
the thought, just as another appropriate word well
pronounced can add an artistic touch to the film.

Is it possible to reach a state of affairs, which
practically amounts to perfection ? Let us be
content meanwhile with considering that silence
is often extremely valuable, because it allows the
imagination to work with liberty in the field of
inquiry and the subtler forms of analysis. We must
leave the child somewhat to himself ; we must
allow his mind to work in all naturalness. Use the
talking film certainly, but as little talk as possible.

It should become the effort of technicians and
pedagogues to improve and perfect this scholastic
organism, which should not be the cause of any harm
to the pupils by giving them excessive, heavy and
wearisome forms of study. It should indeed lead
to a lightening of the effort required of the pupils,
illumining their minds with useful notions. This
lightening of the effort will affect both teacher and
pupil, obliging the latter to study with greater good
will and inspiring him with a real sense of joy in
seeing and learning. The smaller physical and brain
effort demanded will certainly produce a greater
output in the individual and collective potentiality
of the human intellect.

Going back to the matter of projecting an histor-
ical religious episode which shows the children
the customs and dresses of a given period, as well
as the especial psychology of the times, we shall
find in this case, the sound and talking film of the
greatest service. The picture provides real enter-
tainment, and gives the spectator-pupil the impres-
sion of witnessing a theatrical picture, that is a
recreational instead of a didactic film. It also ar-
rives at the end desired, that is to give a precise
picture of the spirit of a time, and impress it firmly
in the memory, so that when the individual who
sees has to speak or write on that particular sub-
ject, he can, with the use of his imagination, trans-
port himself at once into that far off historical period
which will arise again from his memory. The pupil
will express himself with a sureness of manner, with
clarity, and even in an elegant and correct linguistic
form, almost without being aware of it, since the
precision of the image and the words of the film will
be fixed in his mind and be constantly before his eyes.

It is, however, of the greatest didactic importance
that the dialogue of such films be brief, concise,
simple and clear. The talking film should be ac-
companied by musical comment which will lend
a special attraction to the talking film. It is not
always easy to find suitable pieces of music to ac-
company films.

In the historical film — whether it deals with a
whole period, or picks out an episode revealing
the special character of the social life of that time —
musical accompaniment is indispensable, both
from the didactic and the psychological point of
view.

The child's ear is attentive to sounds. His entire
being is focussed on the screen, and he seems to live
in the picture. One can often observe in boys who
are seeing a talking and sound picture (historical,
war, atmospheric phenomena, naval or aviation
scenes) a mixture of fear and daring, of joy and
sadness. The lads huddle down on their seats
when any sudden strange noise is heard, they tremble
with excitement. At each roar of the cannon,
they bend over further. . . more than one is heard
crying quietly. Especially in war films their feel-
ing of sorrow and compassion for the soldiers' suf-
ferings disturbs their spirits. By taking advantage
of this sentiment, we can obtain another result which
is of a high humanitarian character : the education
of the child's spirit to notions of fraternity and
peace. When it is possible to find a suitable musical
accompaniment, it should be played softly, with
grace, and a due sense of fitness for the scenes which
are being projected on the screen. Noisy music

28

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

in films has a monotonous cadence, which smothers
the sound of the individual instruments. Strong
sounds should be produced naturally, but a little
toned down, so as not to cause shock or nervous
disturbances among the public. The more one
hears and appreciates the music, the greater can
its exalting and purifying influence become.

Reason and the psychic ego will become more per-
fect and united if the music and the word are joined
in such a way as to form a complete and harmonious
whole, the object of which is to educate the mind,
the spirit and the artistic sense of the young spec-
tator.

The Teacher and the Cinema Lesson. — We
must ask ourselves what part will the teacher have
to take in this department of teaching? How, and
when is his assistance to be called into play ?

It is obvious that he must first of all have a thr-
ough acquaintance with the subject of the film.
He must also know which are the difficult points
and where he may have to stress sections in view of
the special mentality or characteristics of the pu-
pils. He must be able to consider the intellectual
level of the film in relation with the intellectual
level of his scholars. He must be quick to observe
what is being grasped, and what missed as the film
is projected.

It is always wise to introduce the picture with a
verbal explanatory lesson on the subject being
treated. Then the film can be run off in its entirety,
followed by a second projection, which should clear
up doubtful or difficult points which the pupil finds
it hard to understand. The teacher ought to be
supplied with the mechanism for stopping the film
at any moment, so that he can clarify, and illus-
trate — possibly with the use of the slow motion
projection — points and episodes which seem to
require repetition in order to secure their retention
by the pupil's memory.

A lesson given along these lines will never be
forgotten by the children, who will remember it
perfectly in a way to surprise the teacher himself,
even if the pupils are not gifted with good memories.

The Two Methods : a Comparison. — Both
sound and talking films have magnificent possibili-
ties and can both be used advantageously for

teaching. The sound films, as distinguished from
the sound and talking film, has this advantage over
the latter, that it is international in character and
cheaper to produce. The use of dubbed talking
films, which would become necessary if internation-
ally standardized didactic talkies were to become
common, must be considered out of the question.
The pupils would at once perceive the trick, for
they are very quick at observing changes and alter-
ations from what they are accustomed to expect.
We have spoken already of the bad effects of an
unsatisfactory synchronization on the nerves and
mentalities of the pupils. The pupils themselves
have pointed it out in the various symposia organ-
ised by the I. I. E. C.

Sounds, noises, cries and acoustic effects in general
can be understood by all the peoples of the world,
while the talking film is limited to the nation which
produces the picture, or under the best circumstances
to a limited number of pedagogues and scientists
accustomed to international discussions and versed
in languages. The sound film allows the distribu-
tion of didactic films with evident economic
advantages.

If pedagogues want to insist on using the talking
film for didactic purposes, we must not fail to recog-
nize that we shall create antipathies and contrasts
between nations, owing to the greater prevalence
of this or that tongue.

The use of the sound film eliminates this question
entirely, though through it we can see the peculiar
characteristics of a people, its culture, its material
progress and its type of civilization. This is a
factor not to be despised in moments of spiritual
crisis of peoples like the present one, for it can
help us to know one another better, to appreciate
our different qualities — by means of a much to be
desired exchange of cultural films — and mark the
beginning of an era of loyal friendship and conse-
quently of peace.

The sound film has therefore before it a task of
pressing timeliness and universal character : that
is, to become a marvellous instrument of inter-
course among nations. Music, which has no
frontiers, can approach all, unite and make broth-
ers of all through the universality and identity
of the emotions awakened by divine melody of
genius.

A picture is worth a hundred thousand words.

Cld Chinese Saying.

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

EDUCATIONAL POSSIBILITIES
OF MOTION PICTURES IN ART COURSES

By
Elias Katz.

THE widespread use of motion pictures is
the next progressive step in art educa-
tion. So flexible are the objectives in art
courses, and so well adapted are films to
their satisfactory fulfilment, that it is merely
a matter of time before the inevitable be-
comes actual.

However, let us not suppose that, over-
night and of their own accord, films will be-
come truly valuable educational aids in the
countless school rooms where the study of
art is daily increasing in importance. Many
obstacles, many problems must first be over-
come or solved. The groundwork must be
logically and intelligently performed, so
that future development may proceed from
a sure foundation of thoughtfully considered
facts.

Since we are necessarily destined to a
period of much good and much bad inves-
tigation, our advantageous position at the
opening of this period demands that we
analyze the present situation, and then utilize
the knowledge thus gained to formulate a
comprehensive program for the future. The
former course will clarify the usual miscon-
ceptions and will crystallize the general trend
until now ; the latter will set up definite,
tentative goals pointing towards the most
beneficial, immediate and ultimate results.

A preliminary study of the field of art
educational films raises several problems
which must be solved at once. First, we
must know whether there are any films which
have been used, or which can be used for
this purpose. Secondly, we should be able
to state the minimal essentials of a good

educational film. Next, we should know
how art courses are presented, so that proper
films may be suggested for use in them. Fin-
ally, some device must be developed, indicat-
ing precisely how art students react to the
films they see.

These may be briefly stated as follows :

(I) where are available films located?

(II) how may films be objectively
evaluated ?

(III) how may the effect of films be
clearly measured ?

(IV) how may art courses be analyzed?

(V) what films lend themselves to use
in art courses ?

Naturally these are not the only or most
important queries. However, as the fol-
lowing paragraphs will try to show, an under-
standing of their meaning and significance
is essential to proper perspective and true
insight.

(I) Contrary to the usual belief, it was
found that several types of films had been
created for art classes. Also other types
were discovered which might lend them-
selves to such use.

1 . The Models in Motion are a method
for stimulating drawing (1). In each reel,

(1) Developed in America by Charles Wood-
bury and Elizabeth W. Perkins of Boston, and pro-
duced by Eastman Teaching Films Inc., Rochester,
New York. Substantially the same method is
described and illustrated by M. Adrien Bruneau of
l'Ecole Nationale des Arts Decoratifs. in " Bulletin
de 1'Institut Psychologique ", 1920-21.

30

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

a model (animal or human) repeatedly per-
forms the round of some characteristic ac-
tion. Drawing is done either while the
films is moving, or from memory directly
afterwards.

Mr. Charles Woodbury has used films
at the Chicago Art Institute to illustrate the
action of forces in special composition, to-
gether with certain films to build a back-
ground of visual experiences. Unfortu-
nately, no report of his work is available.

2. The Metropolitan Museum of Art
has been producing and now distributes gen-
erally cultural films on various phases and
periods of art. They may be roughly grouped
into Travel, Historical, Biographical, and
Process films. As their names imply, travel
films picture lands where art is being, or has
been created, (" Digging Into The Past "),
historical films set forth an episode of the
past (" Vasantena "), biographical films
reveal the artist at his labors (" Childe Has-
sam "), and process films demonstrate man-
ipulation of materials (" Making of Wrought
Iron "). Although the films were not specif-
ically designed for educational use, they
often contain valuable classroom material.

3. Films of Natural Beauty, through the
camera s unique power to record movement,
make it possible to preserve and utilize the
magnificent range of dynamic visual ex-
periences.

4. Purposive (animated line) films, by
illustrating how space is filled, and by re-
vealing growth dictated by forces from within,
disclose a new and inspiring field for creative
kinetic design.

5. Masterpieces of Art films, by direct-
ing the spectator's attention to an outstand-
ing work, or feature, will indirectly influence
appreciation of it.

The types of films most adequate for this
work can only be hinted at, in the present
state of knowledge. Further investigation
will soon disclose a wealth of others.

(II). Assuming that the most representa-
tive known films have been viewed and care-
fully analyzed, we should be in a position

to know their common elementary compon-
ents. Those qualities might be then in-
corporated into standards which future films
should at least attain. They would be :

1 . educational criteria dictated by curri-
culum objectives and individual classroom
needs, and therefore relating to the sub-
ject matter ;

2. artistic criteria for adequate treat-
ment in the medium of the cinema (effect-
ive design, rhythm, etc.), and

3. technical criteria dealing with mechan-
ical or physical factors (photography, con-
dition of film, etc.).

Two points should be emphasized. First,
these criteria can be continually extended
and revised : definition does not necessarily
mean fixation. Secondly, these are minimum
requirements. Motion picture films can
hardly be said to have reached their superior
limits.

(III). Discovering the effectiveness of a
given factor, a problem elsewhere so ne-
glected, has received its full share of atten-
tion in the field of educational films. Indeed
the need for proving the adequacy of certain
films as methods of instruction has even
generated many varieties of measuring tech-
niques. Among the more popular and
successful ones now employed is the ques-
tionnaire.

With the aid of a faculty advisor, the au-
thor developed a crude preliminary ques-
tionnaire and presented it to an adult aud-
ience. The purpose was to discover the
effect of an abstract design (purposive) film,
" Diagonalsinfonie ", shown together with
others at Columbia University on January
17, 1933.

It was found that the general reaction to
the films was favorable ; that the film's dur-
ation was consistently overestimated ; that
there was an undetermined emotional res-
ponse ; and that the audience was clearly
aware of the film's purposive nature. Many
of the drawings stimulated by words (Ques-
tion 5 listed fourteen commonly used adjec-
tives, and asked for drawings which the

MOTION PICTURES IN ART COURSES

31

Subject associated with each word) were
directly traceable to film motifs. Finally,
immediate written reactions were largely
favorable, many of the criticisms and sug-
gestions evidencing fine comprehension of
the film's potentialities, both artistically and
educationally.

Many improvements and additions evolve
from this experience with a testing device.
In general, these might be in greater speci-
ficity for item and in wider distribution to
more homogeneous groups. That the ques-
tionnaire seems a definite beginning to this
phase of research cannot be denied. Cer-
tainly the problem of determining the effect
of films should be investigated to its logical
conclusion.

(IV and V). A study of curriculum prac-
tices at successive levels in the school system
reveals that in elementary schools, in se-
condary schools, and in colleges, the sub-
ject is stressed differently. For purposes
of convenience, an arbitrary separation may
be made into History, Appreciation, and
Practice of Art. Depending on the object-
ives of each, several types of films might be
valuable in these divisions.

In Art History, where the aim is to un-
derstand the evolution of art forms, films
are an excellent means of presenting essen-
tial facts. A travel film like " Temples and
Tombs of Ancient Egypt " (1) gives a clear
picture of important existing monuments.
An historical films like " The Hidden Talis-
man " (1) portrays an interesting story laid
in a medieval background. A masterpiece
of art film " The Pottery Maker " gives an
insight into the historical period it depicts
— American art of the 1860's.

These examples are selected from the ac-
tual attempts to create films for the study
of Art History. A better source would
probably be certain portions from regular
theatrical films like " Kings of Kings ",

Hunchback of Notre Dame ", and " Me-

tropolis ". The commercial studios are far
better equipped to produce painstakingly
accurate constructions of the past.

In Art Appreciation, two major objectives
(of the many so often stated) are " to famil-
iarize the student with past and present fine
arrangements of line, mass and tone ", and

to cultivate the habit to thoughtful selec-
tion. To fulfill these goals the following
types of films are offered.

A travel film like " Twenty-Four Dollar
Island " by Robert Flaherty, with its mag-
nificent views of New York City, will famil-
iarize the pupil with fine arrangements of
line, mass and tone in architecture. An
historical film like " The Spectre ", a phan-
tasy in a setting of Colonial superstition,
will do the same for costumes and architec-
ture of that period. A biographical film like
"' The Etcher's Art , which shows the work
of Frank Benson and others, will aid in
cultivating habits of thoughtful selection of
prints. A process film like " Glass Blow-
ing, With Specimens of Ancient and Medie-
val Glass ", will aid the critical appreciation
of glass-ware. A film of natural beauty like
" Gorges of the Giants " will widen the
pupil's experience, while showing beautiful
arrangements of moving line and tone (1).

Since Art Appreciation is the basic art
course at all periods of schooling, it seems
likely that films will ultimately be most widely
used there. Consequently more attention
should be directed to the values of motion
pictures in this phase of art education.

The Practice of Art usually demands the
ability to draw, a knowledge of effective
design, and skill in techniques. Films could
be successful in motivating these activities,
and also in furnishing valuable motifs and
models.

In drawing, the Models in Motion films

(1) These three films were produced by the
Metropolitan Museum of Art.

(1) " The Spectre ", " The Etcher's Art ",
and " Glass-Blowing " were produced and are
distributed by the Metropolitan Museum of Art ;
" Twenty-Four Dollar Island " is distributed by
Pathe , " Gorges of the Giants " is one of the Fox
Movietone Series.

32

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

have demonstrated their value as stimulation
for graphic exercise. On the other hand,
purposive films and films of natural beauty
provide any required visual experience, which
might be material for use by the student in
the problem at hand.

In design and composition, abstract pur-
posive films showing the filling of space and
the action of forces to produce a given form,
motivate activity along these lines, and fur-
nish dynamic motifs to be thematically treated
Certain films of natural beauty (as Mr. Charles
Woodbury suggests) might also be used in the
the development of a Feeling for composi-
tion ", but it is not quite clear exactly how
they might be presented.

In technical processes, it seems likely that
films give a clearer insight into simpler
procedures, and will indirectly aid in mani-
pulation of less complicated materials. Un-
fortunately no experimental data is available
on this point.

The foregoing statement of possibilities
leaves much to be desired. The analysis
of courses was arbitrary, the suggestions in-
complete, and the examples far from the
ideal. What little has been previously said
and done on the subject is so recent and
incomplete, that it could not be otherwise.

Indeed, if critically examined, the five
problems above stated are merely intimations
of what lies in store ahead. This new, fas-
cinating field is vast and unexplored, and
efforts to chart it demand definite goals and
guidance — in short, a working program
for the future.

First and foremost we shall require a cir-
culating motion picture library, wherein will
be collected the best available films. Such
a central source, distributing films at moder-
ate cost on a non-profit-making basis would
not only be a strong incentive for teachers
and institutions to make use of the films, but
would itself create a market which commer-
cial film companies would be only too happy
to supply.

Secondly, the mass of valuable information
now widely scattered in various places should
be organized and published in some easily

accessible form. An important factor in the
lag of progress until now has been ignorance
of other investigators' work (1).

Thirdly, experiment and research with
films in art classes must be encouraged and
coordinated to the greatest mutual good.
Misunderstandings, contradictions, and even
failures are bound to occur where there is no
precedent. Some method must be found,
therefore, to facilitate investigation, and to
utilize results most advantageously.

Finally, motion picture films must be
created to fill the need for good art education-
al films. Who will make them? In the
last analysis, it will not be the professional
film producer, but actually the thousands
of art teachers and supervisors confronted
with real class room situations and problems.
They are the ones who will use the films,
they alone have the power to initiate and
carry through any program which may be
adopted.

* * *

Here is a fragmentary picture of the art
educational film field. Here are the bare
outlines of a plan of attack grounded on facts
and aiming at results.

Why do we hesitate ?

Let us move forward !

(Editor's Note). The article by Mr Elias Katz
seems to us to provide a useful basis for a discus-
sion on the use of the cinema for teaching of the
fine arts and especially the graphic and plastic
arts. Instead of examining the various grades of
teaching in general so as to show the importance
of art lessons and to appreciate the conditions under
which such lessons should be given, the author
prefers to distinguish three different kinds of stud-
ies . history of art, artistic culture and the prac-
tice of art. Hoping that films may be made along
the lines of the three divisions, Mr. Katz proceeds

(1) The writer has collected the nucleus for such
a bibliography. It contains annotated lists of
forty-four books and articles, three periodicals,
thirteen film sources, and over one hundred art
educational films, and is continually being enlarged.

MOTION PICTURES IN ART COURSES

33

to examine the possibilities and conditions for the
use of the cinema in the graphic and plastic arts.
It become necessary then to proceed by a pro-
cess of elimination without, however, pretending to
attribute value to the considerations which follow.
We believe that both in the interest of the teaching
film and its advance, and also to avoid any abuse of
its employment that it is useless to ask from the
cinema what can be obtained with simpler means.
Therefore the considerations that follow can only
be of value inasmuch as they can help experts to
study seriously and debate the problems that
arise, in order to establish in every branch of teach-
ing the decree of utility of the cinema and its pos-
sibilities.

Drawings in the Primary and Secondary
Schools. — Let us look first of all at the primary
school. It is our opinion that it would be inad-
visable to impose the teaching of art by methods
more complicated than those in use, that is by
line and shaded drawings such as are to be found
in the albums of models generally used in primary
schools.

In secondary schools, the drawing lesson takes
on a greater importance, and special drawing mas-
ters are used to teach the pupils ornamental drawing.

Both in primary and secondary schools geo-
graphy, geometry and natural science lessons may
furnish occasions for drawing exercises. This sums
up the so called practice of art in the two grades,
and it is generally limited to a restricted number
of subjects because the requisite capacity is not
to be found among more than ten or fifteen persons
out of a hundred. For the other 85 or 90 % this
kind of teaching is really only a waste of time.

Until it can be demonstrated to the contrary, it
would seem then than the teaching of drawing in
primary and secondary schools requires the creation
of special films or justifies the use of the cinema.
It may be objected that the motion picture shar-
pens the sense of observation, and encourages
in the pupil what Katz calls dynamic visual exper-
ience, to which it may be replied that there are
sufficient subjects where the utility of the film is
clearly manifest without introducing it into the teach-
ing of drawing.

Technical and Normal Schools. — We pro-
pose to make mention of the schools in which qual-
ified workmen are trained for various branches of
industry rather than schools of applied arts or handi-
crafts which are connected with teaching the fine
arts.

In several trades the qualification required is,
if not high artistic capacity, at any rate a certain
skill and precision in geometrical and linear draw-
ing. Can the cinema be of use here ? We should
not confuse geometrical drawing considered as a
purely graphic art with the construction of geometric
figures for theoretical demonstrations. It is known
of course that attempts have already been made
to use the film for purposes of this kind, and not
without a certain success. It is well to remember
this, for this type of film can be used in certain
forms of art teaching, which, like architecture, for
instance, require serious mathematical studies
We must not exclude its utility in the case of the
supplementary schools for primary teaching, nor
in the secondary schools, even though the instruc-
tion given partakes more or less or an art character.

In industrial and trade schools and in evening
school courses for self-improvement in technical
subjects, the teaching of drawing has a great import-
ance. Since the final aim is to induce the student
to trace designs correctly and to make an exact
interpretation of sketches, we may ask ourselves
if the cinema will not end by complicating the
teacher's task without any corresponding advantage.

Fine Arts Schools. — We have examined three
cases in which it would appear advisable to proceed
with a more thorough study and discussion in or-
der to determine the degree of utility of the cinema
and whether it be really worth while making special
films and what the characteristics of such films
should be.

In any case, we must take account of the objects
of the teaching, and in the second place, of the
proportion of pupils showing aptitude for drawing,
which is an essential requisite for learning all
graphic or plastic arts. This second consideration
loses its effect in the case of schools for teaching the
fine or applied arts, since all the classes will be
exclusively composed of students who possess
special aptitudes and tendencies in a more or less
developed degree, such as to encourage them to
take up the study of a special art. In this case, the
inquiry into the utility of the cinema in teaching,
from the practical point of view and as regards the
technique of the art can be carried out on a more
homogeneous ground.

We will not fill up this note with quotations from
films on the technique of the various arts. It will
suffice to remark that several of such films exist in
several countries, but their utility from the prac-
tical teaching point of view must depend on the
teachers themselves who must decide if film teach-

5 — Ice ingl.

34

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

ing in this or that subject is capable of providing
a useful complementary work to the instruction
given by the master (1).

Whatever may be the opinions of teachers of art,
we cannot but admit that films like Schaffende Hande
(Creative Hands) by Hans Ciirlis, or Les Artisans
Francois by Jean Benoit-Levy on the technique of
famous painters, sculptors and decorators have
an interest not only for artistic culture in general
but also for the practice of art. This is so be-
cause such pictures show students technical sys-
tems different from those of their own teachers,
while they thus admit a certain ecclecticism into the
teaching of art. It only remains to consider in
which branches of teaching the utility of such films
is most manifest. It is perhaps when the student,
having acquired a certain mastery over his tech-
nique, begins to put the impress of his personality
on his work.

The utility of the cinema in schools of fine arts
has been considered under other aspects. Pierre
OlMER, whom we have already quoted, has stated
it to be his intention to use the film in his courses of
perspective under the belief that, by means of the
slow motion projection, it will be possible to make
demonstrations of perspective in movement. " What
is important ", said Delacroix ", is not to place
perspective in the artist's spirit but in his eye ".

The same remark is applicable to everything that
moves, both men and animals, and this is probably
what Katz refers to when speaks of moving models.
In this department, chrono-photography may use-
fully be joined with the slow motion projector,
since both systems have their own advantages.
Chrono-photography allows an individual obser-
vation which can be prolonged at will of the suc-
cessive phases of a moment. There is always,
however, a solution of continuity which the cinema
completely abolishes. It is all to the advantage
of the cinema, and especially when the slow motion
projection is used, to be able to arrest the running
of the images at that precise moment which partic-
ularly interests the students.

(1) We may cite a precedent which would go to
show that art teachers have no hostile prejudices
against the introduction of the cinema in their
courses. Last year, when taking possession of the
Chair of Perspective at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in
Paris, M. Pierre Olmer announced his intention
of taking advantage of the cinema. " It is useful
to show students ", he declared " side by side with
theory, practice, because in this branch what is
most helpful and suggestive is the example of the
great masters ".

There is no need to insist on the valuable aid
which stereoscopy can give. At present there are
too many announcements of new systems and new
inventions along this path for the student to be
able to lay his hands on anything technical and in-
dustrially practical.

One field in which the cinema would appear to
have demonstrated its utility is that of architecture.
Apart from its capacity for multiplying to infinity
the various aspects of edifices or parts of edifices,
the cinema has the great advantage of being able
to represent in a methodical and harmonious syn-
thesis the successive phases of construction in mod-
ern buildings. Films of this kind, well conceived
and properly made, can be real lessons and can pro-
vide clear explanations of some of the various meth-
ods of building, which variety depends to a large
extent on conditions of climate, surroundings, space
available : all of which have an effect on the line,
on the choice of materials, workmanship, etc. In
any case, for every form of art, a comparison be-
tween the technical means for carrying out the work
and the methods of application can prove useful,
while the employment of the motion picture is just-
ified in all cases in which the comparison can be
made easier through the use of the screen. This is
a fact which ought to be carefully taken into con-
sideration in cases of using the motion picture in
Fine Arts and Applied Arts Schools.

Artistic Culture and History of Art. — With
regard to the utilization of the motion picture for
art culture and the history of art, the latter can be
considered together. Art culture proposes to develop
the artistic sensibilities and the cult of the beautiful,
and it therefore logical to look for the elements of
such a course in the history of art .

The problem which faces us, if we follow the
methodological system of Katz, is to determine the
gradation of the elements of artistic culture and
historical notions of art which must be introduced
into films, if we want the latter to respond to various
grades of teaching in general and the requirements
of the higher and specialized courses (applied arts,
fine arts and archaeology).

It would appear to be evident that in the double
department of artistic culture and history of art,
the motion picture can be useful in all grades and
for all courses, taking only the matter of the pupil's
age and the consequent possibility of his deriving
advantage from the film into consideration. This
is a matter for pedagogues, as is also the question
of the gradation of courses and grades.

The idea of comparison seems useful to us also

MOTION PICTURES IN ART COURSES

35

for studying the composition of art culture and art
history films. Comparison as a pedagogic prin-
ciple will also reveal the possibilities of the students
in the various classes. Comparison will show the
art production of various epochs and different coun-
tries, illustrating motives, tendencies and fashions.
The indications which we possess concerning a
film made by Carl Pfluger of the department of
Public Instruction of Basle on Rhythm in Nature
and Art suggest to us certain ideas for comparisons
which might lead the students to form almost in-
sensibly a philosophic conception of art which will
certainly not possess the loftiness of that of a
Taine, but which may nevertheless, help in examin-
ing first principles.

Acknowledging a certain rhythmic analogy be-
tween nature and art, it does not seem impossible
to trace to different climates the different rhythms
of nature and their influence on the rhythms of art.

It does not seem risky to attribute to climate an
artist's exuberance or indolence, the exaltation
or pondered quality of his inspirations : all which
states of mind are interpreted in the work of art in
more or less capricious lines more or less rational
features, forming the base of all artistic creations.
We may go back into the past and recognize the
characteristics of a nation's art, its influence, super-
impositions and connections with the art of other
peoples. The economic history of a people will cast
its reflex on that people's art, and the study of one
side of nation's life must cast light on all the others.
Apart from any question of didactic value, a
comparison undertaken in various departments can
yield us elements for fixing grades in the preparation
of art culture and art history films. The foregoing
are merely suggestions for experts and may pos-
sibly prove useful for a profounder study of the
whole question.

THE USE OF THE CINEMA IN TEACHING
VARIOUS SUBJECTS

Report of the " Czechoslovak Confederation of Intellectual Workers ".

FlLM AND DIDACTICS. — New teaching methods
continue to insist on the need of bringing the school
and active life closer together and of rendering
observation for young people as easy and clear as
possible. It was in this way that the doors of the
school were opened to the cinema, which with
its special technique, is capable of improving any
method of teaching.

With regard to the subject-matter of teaching in
general, the motion picture allows of an understand-
ing of abstract things, increases the possibilities of
intuitive knowledge, and makes the teachers s
explanations clearer. Indirectly, the film can render
a good service to the school, illustrating special
themes which are closely connected with life, with
social and economic problems or wiih scientific,
artistic or ethical points of view.

When the cinema made its appearance, the bene-
fits it would later on be able to offer to teaching were
at once appreciated. The first use in the didactic-
scientific field that took place was when Fausen
utilized the motion picture for observing the passage
of Venus over the sun, which proved that the film
was particularly suited for reproducing phases of
that movement which, on account of its rapidity and
multiplicity of detail could not, without loss to scien-
tific exactitude be divided into fractions to permit
of a long and minute observation.

Another advantage offered by motion pictures used
for didactic purposes is that the spectators' minds,
observing, analysing, comparing and classifying the
phenomena explained by the teacher work accord-
ing to a unified and simultaneous policy which
permits of visual inprovements being rendered
objective and universal instead of splitting them up
into various observation centres, and making them
subjective, as occurs in microscopic observation.
Moreover, the possibility of using the slow motion
projector introduces the microscopic principle
in the measuring of time, while the accelerated
projection permits of a rapid synthesis of events
which actually require a longer time to come about
(the growth of plants, geological transformation of
the soil, evolution of the species).

In cinematographic teaching, room should be
left for the animated cartoon, which allows us to
complete the scenes of a schematic movement so
that the spectator's intuitive powers will benefit
thereby.

If the projector is fitted with a lever for arresting
the running of the picture for a moment, the ad-
vantages offered by the film include those offered by
the lantern slide or still photograph, and permit the
teacher to become independent of time and the
greater or less rapidity with which the various
phenomena take place.

36

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

We may therefore assert that the motion picture
is a precious aid for rendering natural and easily
comprehensible the ideas and concepts which arise
in the various subjects of a curriculum.

Language and Literature. — To know one's own
language and literature and the language and litera-
ture of other countries means being able to enter into
the spirit of the inhabitants of one's own and foreign
countries.

Comparison is a useful method for understanding
a language. One's intuitive ear allows one to perceive
the similarities and differences between a correct
and an incorrect pronunciation. One fault to be
avoided in phonetics is to follow too closely the way
in which the teacher articulates the syllables, espec-
ially when this is done inexactly, a fault which can
only be corrected by visual exhibition of the cor-
rect manner of articulating words. Nothing is
more helpful for arriving at a correct pronunciation
than falling back on a mode! articulation shown to
the pupils on the screen in a language-teaching film.
In this connection, good work has been done by
films towards educating deaf mutes.

In order to understand a literary work properly,
we must know the surroundings, feel, as it were, the
breath of life which links the hero and heroine of the
work with its passions. To be able to make a
trip through the ways of the world can only be the
privilege of a few. The film can take us a voyage
around the world in a poet's or novelist's dream, and
it can be readily accessible to all purses. A good film
can show us more exactly than the most accurate
explanation of any teacher that which forms the
intimate spiritual essence of the French people, of
English solidity of character, of the indolent lives of
Oriental peoples.

Why should we not unite the poet's dream with
visual reality, a reality which is therefore near us
and offers to children a complete understanding
of those longed for but hidden beauties which might
remain misunderstood. The truly beautiful ought
to form part of the universal aesthetic heritage.

The child can see and feel in a film composed of
art and literature that which can aw-aken in him sym-
pathy for the spiritual creations which the poets pro-
duce from their hearts for the general good of
humanity.

History and Geography. — To love well it is
necessary to know one another through direct contact,
or with what has the appearance of such, words are not
sufficient to show children that the history of men who
are bom, suffer and die in our little world is to be

read especially in the aspects of the differences which
separate them but which contain also the synthesis
of those efforts towards a better and a nobler humanity.

History shown us in the motion picture teaches us
in a comprehensive vision the eternally fleering aspects
of things and the continuous metamorphosis of human-
ity. No lesson by the finest teacher can be as valuable
as seeing in a film the glorious and tragic story of an-
cient Greece, of ancient Rome or forgotten Pompei.
If we want to inculcate m children's minds a love for
peace, it is not enough to give them verbose lessons on
the principles of fraternity and human solidarity. We
must arouse this mterest in something, which by
creating much deeper feelings in them, excites their
inmost sentiments. Here then is a field for good
historical, geographical and astronomical films which
have all the qualities for giving the child a knowledge
of the varying aspects of human life, from its primitive
animality and barbarism to the dream which may seem
unreal, of the humanity of the future. We can with the
motion picture show the child the folly of war and
bring his soul into closer contact with the universal
soul, we must let his spirit feel the sense of compassion,
of tolerance, of respect towards ourselves, our own
country, and the countries of others.

On the other hand, a reciprocal film knowledge of
various peoples and the peculiarities of their economic,
industrial and social life is necessary. This takes the
place of that direct contact which is generally impossi-
ble, and can never be complete. Tne teacher will not
be able to give his pupils much more than occasional
and fragmentary intuitive instruction with the use of
motionless images and maps that can only give uncer-
tain and confused indications.

Mathematics and Cinema. — Theoretical mathe-
matics, as opposed to applied, cannot by its very na-
ture take advantage of the help of the film. On the
other hand, illustrated geometrical applications can
use the film with advantage. ^Tien geometry deals
with the revolution, movement and position of bodies,
it does in fact suggest the idea of a complex and not
easily imagined movement even when a model is used.
The use of the film made out of drawings affords an
excellent aid in this case, the advantages of which have
not perhaps been entirely appreciated.

The teacher, with the use of the film, will be in a
position to offer a complete vision of geometrical
demonstrations, so that the mental formation of logi-
cal operations can be transformed, by means of the film
into a succession of visual perceptions, all following on
one another, and all leading to the same conclusion,
that is, to the demonstration of an abstract piece of
reasoning. In this way the teacher can illustrate for

MOTION PICTURES IN ART COURSES

37

his pupils the demonstration of the theorem of Pythag-
oras, resolve all the problems connected with it and
explain the operation of tangents and the origin and
nature of lines and bodies generated by movement.
There can be no doubt that geometry can be very
well taught through the motion picture, which will
greatly assist the work of the teacher.

Natural Science. — A subject which can call on
the help of the sound film is natural science. Films
showing episodes of animal and vegetable life give an
illusion of the real thing, and show us the most delicate
and less easily perceptible details.

Microscopic objects projected on to the screen be-
come accessible to all, which all goes to show the large

amount of time the teacher can save with this process
so adapted for reinforcing the powers of observation.

The slow motion projector renders clear and com-
prehensible the phenomena of biological existence,
while the accelerated picture and the animated cartoon
can be usefully employed in the study of crystalography.

Nothing can better assist the formation of the intel-
ligence than direct contact with nature, from which
children may derive a love of our mother earth. If
city children cannot easily see the beauties of nature at
first hand, the film can offer them the illusion of seeing
and feeling through the sound picture the powerful
breath of life in action. This is the synthesis and best
justification of what children and humanity in general
can expect from the motion picture.

J am speaking of a theatre that should be immensely
popular, a theatre responding to the ideas of the people, a
theatre that could circulate in the smallest village.

Michelet.

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

THE CINEMA AND CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

By
Dr. Victor de Ruette.

A GLANCE at school reports in all grades of
teaching will convince anyone that the
present excessively heavy scholastic pro-
grammes of work must necessarily lead to
overfatigue in both teacher and pupil, the
consequences of which already form one of
the problems that the medical man is called
upon to face practically every day.

Teachers generally are ready to accept the
aid of the educational film with enthusiasm
and only wish that it would become immedi-
ately and generally available. The main
difficulty to be overcome is that of adapting
it to child psychology, and this is more neces-
sary in the training than in the teaching
field.

This is the goal of all those who are interest-
ing themselves in this question : in the mat-
ter of education nothing is of such importance
as direct contact with the child. Through
treating and advising children, I have come
to know the normal and abnormal child equal-
ly well, and may be permitted to hope, there-
fore, that my psychological knowledge and
experience may constitute a slight contribu-
tion to the great work of education.

* * *

Every human being, owing to the simple
fact that he has internal sensations, is subject
to the needs inherent to his nature. These
needs are bound up with the life of the indi-
vidual and the propagation of the species,
and up to a certain point they influence the
liberty of the individual.

There is no need, for the purposes of this
study, to insist on the necessity of physical

exercise, which should be brought to the
understanding of children by means of the
screen, showing them all the systems of
physical education. The film answers a
number of purposes : it arouses the mental
activities and gives a sensation of pleasure in
the acquisition of new knowledge ; it satis-
fies the need of rest by making the assimila-
tion of scientific subjects easier ; it satisfies
emotional needs by presenting emotions
that are sound and moral.

The educational cinema has a vast field of
operations : public instruction, popular edu-
cation, physical instruction, social welfare,
hygiene, rational agriculture, tourist and
colonial propaganda, military preparation,
industrial and commercial documentation.

The aim of education should be to obtain
improvement by natural and normal means.
It should further show clearly how needs and
interests are common to all people. It should
be based on the inherited qualities and
aptitudes inherent in the individual, en-
couraging their growth in beings of tardy
development and awakening new qualities
and aptitudes wherever possible.

To make a success of this task and accom-
plish a useful work, the exact psychology of
the child and its possibilities must be under-
stood, as well as the dangers to be avoided.

Children's Suscepti- Children are very open
bility to Influences. t0 influences and sug-
gestion.

The brain in childhood, which is in a state
of continual development, is constantly
receiving new impressions. As a rule, one
impression cancels another, but the earlier

THE CINEMA AND CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

39

ones always leave some trace behind. In
fact, the child's brain not only receives new
impressions but, since its structure is eminent-
ly plastic, a strong impression leaves indeli-
ble traces in conseguence of the strong
emotional effect produced. Ideas penetrate
through the understanding, become fixed
and are then stored by the subconsciousness.

The brain is composed of an infinite num-
ber of centres formed of receptive cells :
pyramidal cells which are in a state of contin-
ual activity, with a protoplasm in a constant
state of osmosis, in which reactions take place
that are known to us only imperfectly. The
micoscope shows us only the dead cell, which
is fixed, coloured, denaturalised by a long
period of successive fixations and is no longer
an active cell that is capable of reacting.

We know, nevertheless, that these cells
react, accumulating non-assimilated detritus
which multiplies under the influence of work
and paralyses the cells under the influence of
overwork. These centres are very numerous,
and are connected with one another. Ways
of communication start from them, putting
them into action one against another. There
is an extremely complex interdependence
among these cells.

This is why an emotional shock will react
on the centres of speech, hearing, sight, co-
ordination of movements, the way of walk-
ing, of writing, of behaving.

Each shock produces humoral alterations
in the receptive cells, as a consequence of the
dynamic reaction it causes. These altera-
tions may be very serious, even to the point
of causing haemorrhage or lymphatic dischar-
ges in subjects predisposed to such trouble.

The nervous and cerebral systems become
more receptive, more emotive, more impres-
sionable by the repetition of the same emo-
tions. A vicious circle may thus be started
which, from emotion to emotion, may cause
brain fatigue, anxiety, hallucinations and
fixed ideas.

The great resource of the nervous system,
from the energetic point of view, lies in the
fact that abstractions may be formed, through
the diversity of centres, which allow a certain

equilibrium to be re-established. One centre
may rest while the others are working because
it becomes diverted from the general sphere of
activity. It must not be forgotten, in fact,
that distraction is often a source of well-being;
it is the natural and normal reaction of a
sick or tired organism.

The thing that distracts amuses at the same
time ; the thing that amuses arouses interest
and has a pleasing influence ; the thing that
has a pleasing influence convinces, and the
strong suggestive power of the cinema on
children is derived from this conviction.

Eliminating the external world, the cinema
makes a greater impression, creates new
unconscious reflexes, which form the found-
ation of the whole character and of the way
to behave ; and the younger and more impres-
sionable the brain, the greater the effect.

The cinema requires the whole attention of
the spectator owing to the simple fact that it
gives a pleasant impression, and this is espec-
ially the case with children, who are the
more easily impressed when the other fields
of physical and mental activity are in repose.

This is also the reason of the intensity of
the emotional effect produced, which consti-
tutes a danger when it is too violent, or when
moderately violent emotions are too fre-
quently repeated.

It is likewise the reason of the moral in-
fluence on the child of spectacles which ele-
vate the mind : scenes of sacrifice, laborious
lives, the prizes gained by work, scientific
discoveries, the feeling of beauty given by
a pure wholesome life in the midst of nature.

The cinema will thus help to fix the princi-
ples of education, kindness, devotion, filial
and fraternal love and the beauty of sacrifice
on the child s mind. It should arouse
enthusiasm, but only for the finest human
qualities.

The Cinema and Fa- There is no need to
cility of Learning. make a distinction be-
tween the documentary and the teaching film.
The important thing is that the teaching film
should not be tiring, boring, heavy, nor beyond
the understanding of the children for whom

40

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

it is intended. Like the documentary film,
the teaching film should stir the emotions
and give pleasure ; it should be attractive
to the mind of the pupil if it is to be really
useful. Either of these two types of film
completes the other ; indeed, we might say
that there is no sharp division between them.

In order to make learning easier and to adapt
teaching by the film to the various needs,
it is advisable, in our opinion, to use both
types. For instance, a film on valves would
help scholars to understand the theory of
communicating blood vessels, and they would
understand and appreciate better the utility
and working of valves after the demonstration
of this documentary phenomenon. The one
type helps the other, and aids us to fix on the
child s mind, both from the theoretical and
the practical point of view, the idea of the
utility and sound reason that lies at the basis
of nature's laws.

Education should be founded on the same
psychological bases as instruction. The reac-
tions of the subconscious mind, which stores
reflexes that are not caught by the reason,
should always be kept in mind.

For instance, it is a mistake to place too
much importance on the possible influence
of satiric scenes on normal children. When
the light is put on again and the children
have left the cinema, it will seem to them as
if they have awakened from a dream. The
personality begins to react, and the child
laughs at the absurdities that have been hold-
ing its attention and even, perhaps, amusing
it, and will feel nothing but disgust for the
trivialities it has been seeing.

If the teacher desires to make use of this
natural power of reaction that belongs to the
child, he must not be afraid to act on it by
contrast, although he must do this always
within certain limits. Scenes dealing with
slothfulness could be used to excite a spirit of
initiative and industry ; but we must insist
on the fact that the most important thing is
a sense of proportion, of reason, and a great
capacity of adaptation to the child's environ-
ment, age and aptitudes.

On the other hand, it must not be forgotten

that the critical sense and vigilance of the
spectator is liable to be in abeyance during
the projection of a film, and it is therefore
not wise to rely too much on the child's power
of resistance to the impressions received.

Nor must we forget that the lack of relief
in film photographs makes them less realistic,
and of itself is sufficient to give the impres-
sion that what we see on the screen is some-
thing that is outside of us and can therefore
be dominated by us. The natural result of
this is a feeling of pleasure which deadens
our sense of criticism and power of resistance,
and gives the spectator the pleasant impres-
sion of a dream.

A child's psychology is different from that
of an adult. It is more impressed by action,
that is to say, movement. Ideas are more
easily conveyed to its mind by means
of pictures, so that great benefit can be
obtained by making use of this medium in
certain branches of teaching.

The child is attracted by the life of the film
even if it does not understand it : animals'
movements, emotion, anger, laughter, ob-
jectionable sentiments, abnormal situations
such as scenes of llltreatment, comical atti-
tudes of animals, fairy tales, etc., all interest
it. It will also grasp details that escape
adults, such es a piece of cabbage in soup, a
litter of pigs, a torn dreos, shoes that are too
large for the wearer, a hat that is too large or
too small.

Care must be taken to avoid such details as
may be noticed to the detriment of the sub-
ject or main theme, because in that case the
educational film will fail in its aim. Unessen-
tial details that may be included should be
such as will make the film restful and pleas-
ing to children, but they must be introduced
with discretion.

A sympathetic atmosphere will be created
by a film that is made really interesting to
children. Since synthesis is more in their
line than analysis the film may abound in
good descriptions, although it must contain
nothing pedantic or heavy.

The chief faculty required before the
screen is perception, which opens the way to

THE CINEMA AND CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

41

concepts. Without perception, the educa-
tional cinema will fall short of its purpose,
and it is just in the development of this
possibility of defining the multiplicity of
sensory stimuli that we can make a distinc-
tion between the normal and the abnormal
child.

Like every other psychic process which is
developed in the child, this faculty must
follow the line of least resistance. A child
absorbs an ideas much more easily through
the visual sense than through any written
or spoken explanation. The child is there-
fore primarily visual and impressed by move-
ment. The reaction of a child to a moving
object is quite sufficient to show this, the
impression received in this case being strong-
er than that caused by colour or light.

When we explain an idea to a child in
words, we first give it the indeterminate idea,
the abstract idea, and then come to the con-
crete thing whereas the filmed presentment of
an idea, a fact, a story, a journey, at once
impresses itself on the child's brain in a pre-
cise and determinate form. All this is ac-
complished without effort and what is even
better, in a pleasant and entertaining way.
In addition to this, the darkness of the room
helps to concentrate the attention.

In geography, for instance, the idea of the
sea and of mountains takes a clear, exact and
definite form in the child's brain. The pic-
ture, devoid of anything that may distract its
attention, becomes a part of its mind. It
constitutes a pleasant but at the same time
useful exercise of the faculty of attention,
and as it is good for the development of any
faculty to make it work independently of the
others, it may be observed that at the cinema
the attention is concentrated solely on the
film.

A boy, who is unconsciously accustomed to
concentrate his attention on the mountains
when they appear before him on the screen,
will do the same thing quite naturally when
he happens to go to the mountains in his
native land. He has already learnt to con-
centrate his attention on this object and by
analogy and the spirit of imitation this pro-

cess will be of use in fixing his mind on the
other beauties of nature, to the undeniable
benefit of his faculties of attention and obser-
vation.

The Cinema in Learn- The utility of the sound

ing Languages. n]m m teaching foreign

languages has been

abundantly illustrated. (F. Juer Marbach).

By means of superpositions and the simul-
taneous representation of sound, sound
images and gesture, the cinema can make the
teaching of modern languages both easy and
pleasant, and what is more, it can stress
details such as the use of prepositions, which
are so difficult in languages that are not our
own. It serves for the association of the
mental image with symbols and sounds of
the spoken language, and further, it exactly
represents the thing to which the word refers.

A boy will read on the screen the word
describing the object or action represented :
table, seat, etc., walk, eat, take, gather and so
on. Naturally, he must always be taken grad-
ually from the simple to the complex.

These words will correspond to something
real in his mind, and we thus have the asso-
ciation impressed on the brain automatically
and without fatigue.

This method is particularly useful, in our
opinion, for learning the exact meaning of
words, which is such a rare thing nowadays,
not only among students, but also among
learned persons. Certain schools manage to
give a practical teaching of languages very
rapidly by an objective method, whereas in
colleges the students cannot even express
themselves properly after years of study of
a foreign language.

Projections, and Quick- The cinema sharpens
ness in Perceiving tne facuIty 0f 0bser.
Phenomena. yation< and teaches

us to fix it quickly on what is happening
on the screen.

Absorbed by their interest in the scene, the
children, who are now in an eminently recep-
tive state, immediately observe the things
that strike them. There is nothing to distract

42

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

them in this moment, and the movement
and phenomena succeed one another on the
screen with such rapidity that they cannot
stop to observe them slowly if they do not
want to lose an interesting part of them.

This constitutes a very useful mental exer-
cise for children, whose mental faculties act
slowly when they are tired or distracted but
quickly when they are interested. Their
spirit of initiative is thus strengthened, and
the mental exercise is good for them.

In this way, the boy creates within himself
unconscious reflexes of perception. These
reflexes, fixed in his subconscious mind, will
afterwards function automatically. They
will not only manifest themselves, but will
be simultaneous with the reproduction of
the object or scene that aroused them for the
first time. An association of ideas will thus
be formed that will call up the conception as
soon as the visual image is presented before
him in fact, and the mental exercise will devel-
op the liveliness of his perceptions.

The Faculties of Ob- Children do not pay
servation and Pre- mucn attention to the
cision. passing of the seasons,

even in the country. Rain, clouds, wind,
differences of temperature make little impres-
sion on them. They know very little of the
earth, the woods, the animals that surround
them, or the stars that shine in the sky. And
this is even more noticeably the case in towns.
It is just in this that the film can be so
useful, for it develops the faculty of observa-
tion.

Children do not observe the phenomena of
nature because they are distracted by their
games, by the details of their daily tasks, by
their habits, which follow a regular cycle ;
and they do not learn, therefore, to use their
primordial faculties.

The film eliminates these outside distrac-
tions. When the life of the bee is shown
on the screen, for instance, the child's atten-
tion is drawn to what is happening there. It
sees the bee pass from flower to flower, col-
lect the pollen, separate the wax and set it
aside, form the cells with it, fill them with

honey, cover them with a uniform layer of
wax, and then begin its work all over again.

All this manifestation of life arouses the
child's interest, takes his fancy, teaches him
how to observe, that is, how to look at a
phenomenon of fact and to analyse it apart
from all its exterior contingencies. The
cinema is therefore of great use to the student,
because, far from suppressing the direct ob-
servation of things, it teaches him to observe
them of his own initiative. When he is
alone, if he sees a bee, he will remember the
whole interesting life of this insect, its work
and the organization of its hive. He will
instinctively note, then, the details he may
have missed on the screen ; he will try to look
at the bee's operations more closely, and the
spirit of observation aroused in him by the
cinema will thus be developed.

The pupil will learn to observe the germin-
ation and growth of a plant, the opening of a
flower, the life of animals in water, in the
air, in the fields. In his daily life he will
compare what he sees with what he observed
on the screen, and he will inevitably become
interested when he realizes that he had not
examined these things before with the neces-
sary attention, being distracted by every-
thing around him.

Having thus acquired the habit of disting-
uishing the special attributes of one animal
from those of another, and so on, he will
henceforward look for these differences
unconsciously, and so will continue to devel-
op his faculty of observation.

' There are people who pass through life
with open eyes, seeing nothing " (Blakie).
How many adults there are who suddenly
discover with amazement that for years they
have been seeing an infinity of things which
they have never noticed ! This happens
because, although they possess the organs
of sense, they have never sufficiently exercised
them. The child must therefore be taught
to understand what he sees, and to see every-
thing that lives around him and may
interest him.

To this end, the several senses must be so
developed that they yield the utmost of which

THE CINEMA AND CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

43

they are capable. The necessary time for
analysis must be allowed, and therefore we
must proceed methodically. It is useless to
try to force the mind to cover too vast a field
all at once.

The child must be first accustomed to
consider a certain detail : a flower, the colour
of a flower, its form and dimensions. He will
learn to differentiate the several elements
constituting a conception. He will then note
the difference between two flowers of separ-
ate species, and thus, after having uncon-
sciously learnt the details, he will come,
likewise unconsciously, to generalize them
and observe what is around him without efforti
simple objects, more complex ones, the
aspect of clouds, of the stars, of the firmament
then, following this, a storm, the clear sky of
summer ; and finally, he will observe much
better, because he will have formed, between
his senses and his subconsciousness, auto-
matic reflexes that will enter into play from
this moment under the influence of external
things.

Projections and the The film can be espec-
Memory. jally useful m tnjs

field by facilitating the assimilation of ideas.

A picture or drawing, with a few brief words
of explanation, will give a better understand-
ing of a machine or an incident of history
than pages of print. And when one learns
easily, one is spared the effort of assimilation,
for the brain that is not fatigued is much more
receptive.

The most dangerous rock that is encoun-
tered in the course of modern teaching lies
in over elaborate programmes, which do not
give the memory time to fix the concepts
that follow one another too quickly. A tired
brain cannot store up ideas ; and as children
understand best what they see, this psycholog-
ical peculiarity should be utilized to teach and
educate them with as little fatigue as possible.
This system is bound to make the teacher's
and educator's task easier, too, for education
consists in causing knowledge to pass from
the consciousness to the unconsciousness,

and nothing fills the mind more easily than
pleasant and restful teaching.

Remember the principle of association, in
virtue of which, when two impressions have
been produced simultaneously, it is enough
for one of them to be presented to the mind
afterwards for the other to be immediately
connected with it. It is the function of the
memory of facts at work, and the image of
facts can be made much stronger by the emo-
tion that a living picture arouses.

Projections, and De- In the country, where
velopment of the the daj]y manifesta-
Creative Faculties. tions of Hfe are yery

restricted, the screen presents possibilities
to children of which they could form no exact
impression otherwise.

Country children have open minds, they
are pleased to learn new things, see new
things, and when they return home, their
great pleasure is to try and reproduce railways,
make windmills on little streams, use any-
thing they can get hold of to imitate whatever
they have seen : foot-bridges, pioneer works,
the cottages of colonists or Alpine huts, etc.
They try to reproduce, with the imperfect
means at their command, the objects they
have only seen in pictured form. This is a
magnificent mental exercise, which arouses
and sharpens the creative faculties.

Children in towns, who are accustomed to
move in the midst of crowds, would be lost
if they found themselves alone in the country
and would be frightened of the first animal
they met.

The education to be given to them is to
arouse and develop the idea of suiting them-
selves to their environment, to show them
what they ought to do if they get lost in a
wood, if they fall in the water, if they find
themselves near a forest on fire. They must
be taught to seek for means of being of use
to themselves and others.

The cinema can enrich the mind of the
child with innumerable new ideas and teach
it to make things that may be useful to it.
Necessity itself will encourage the develop-

44

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

merit of its creative faculties ; and there are
examples of this that could be multiplied
ad infinitum.

The Cinema and It is in the field of

Character. character especially

that the educational cinema goes beyond the
limits of the teaching film.

It has a great influence on the character of
children, on account of the fact that their
great sensibility reacts to it without their
having the adults possibility of discrimina-
tion. Emotion arouses an analogous reac-
tion, encourages the formation of images and
of the sensations aroused by a scene or an
entire film. This reaction is thus connected
with the phenomenon of imitation.

Observe the spectators during a football
match, and see how they make their muscles
tense at critical moments in the game, and
unconsciously follow the movements of knee
and foot that the player makes or should
make. This shows that emotion creates a
pronounced state of receptivity, and that it
also necessarily awakes imitation.

Now, imitation does not confine itself to
the physical and muscular parts only ; it is
more especially notable in the sensory, intel-
lectual and moral fields. Demoralizing
spectacles depress the character, giving rise
to impressions and ideas which will become
fixed in the subconsciousness and impress
an unconscious and involuntary tendency on
it through the repetition of demoralizing acts
and scenes.

Inhibitory restraints that are the result of
education or of natural instincts, will coun-
teract these impressions, but the stronger the
impression the greater difficulty they will
have in counteracting it, and they may not
succeed after all, and in the end may leave the
field free to morbid and harmful impulses.

The production and repetition of these
mental processes create susceptibilities and
habits which influence and form the character
reacting on the conduct of life. Good hab-
its which have been formed by a succession
of previous acts and suggestions are the most
powerful restraint on evil reactions. They

constitute a reserve of sound, moderating
concepts and ideas which can act as restraints
on the worst instincts, ideas which are
aroused in time to counterbalance bad
impressions. In other words, they consti-
tute a system of salutary reflexes.

The individual's way of living and behav-
ing is due to the number of ideas of this sort
that he possesses and their quality. Nothing
helps the acceptance of an idea so much as
the pleasant, uncontroverted suggestions the
child receives from the cinema. If the film
is a moral one, the child's mind will be en-
riched with sound ideas and moral restraints
on the worst instincts. The film will have a
good influence on his character and conduct.

It is in this way that the cinema influences
the formation of character. It arouses the
feelings that lie dormant in the mind ; it pene-
trates the mind and soul of children, who are
averse to every form of written education.

Some magnificent films could be made out
of the old tales that have passed from gener-
ation to generation : tales of the most noble
legends of humanity, stories from the Gospels,
Aesop's fables, the fables of La Fontaine, etc.

Possible Psychologi- If the cinema is to
cal Dangers of an maintain the place to
Exaggerated Use of which ;t has a rigk(

both teacher and pupil
must be convinced that
it is not to be considered as a simple enter-
tainment, but as an aid, an explanatory means,
an animated repetition of the master's lesson,
just as a chemical or physical experiment
completes a lesson on the theory and is
frequently necessary in order to make the
latter clear.

If the pupil should be inclined to look upon
the school cinema as an entertainment, and
should compare it in his mind with the pub-
lic cinema, he would soon come to the con-
clusion that the public variety is much more
interesting and amusing, and would end
by hating the school cinema. The utmost
discretion must therefore be used in dealing
with this aid to teaching. Illustrations may
be used to enrich a classic, but a proper

the Cinema in
Schools.

THE CINEMA AND CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

45

equilibrium between pictures and text must
be maintained.

Care must be taken to avoid tiring the chil-
dren when using the cinema in school. The
sittings should not be too long, nor repeated
too frequently. If the children were to
remain in the darkened hall too long, their
nervous system would be tired, and the film
would end by no longer holding their at-
tention.

We are of the opinion that two hours weekly
would be just about right for this purpose.
It could be divided into half-hour projec-
tions every other day, if necessary, but
there is a risk of the film becoming mechan-
ical when broken up in this way, and we
think it is much the best arrangement to
condense all the matter that is to be used on
the screen into one projection weekly.

It is useless to discuss the pros and cons
of film versus lantern slide. Each system
has its advantages, and the ideal thing would
be to use both alternately and in combination,
according to need. Lengths of slow film
can also be interpolated in certain cases, or
the projection can be stopped to give the
pupils time to assimilate and appreciate the
scene or object presented.

We must mention here a danger to be
guarded against in historical films. Only
too frequently the pupil, seeing a historical
film, says to himself that the actors perform-
ing the part are only men of our time mas-
querading as men of the times gone by.
Such a thought arouses the critical sense that
is so highly developed in children. This
must be avoided by informing the children
beforehand that the only object of the projec-
tion is to help them to understand text books
and classical writers, so that they will realize
they are not going to see a simple entertain-
ment, but an instructive film. The prestige
of all teaching methods must always be
maintained.

It is quite possible that more time may be
taken over a course by adding the cinema to
the theoretical teaching, but this difficulty
can easily be overcome. In fact, there would
be no real waste of time except in the case of

very impressionable children, who might
react abnormally to unrealistic films that have
not a close connection with the theoretical
part of the lesson. The film must therefore
be suited not only to the age, sex and social
environment of the pupil, but also to his
special temperament. Normal children may
benefit by films intended for abnormal sub-
jects, relatively, but the opposite certainly
cannot be said. It is undoubtedly the case
that too much cinema may distract the pupils
from some of the theoretical courses, and the
master must therefore use his judgment and
the film in due measure.

The cinema is, without question, a valua-
ble aid in the educational field, from both the
intellectual and moral point of view ; but,
used without discernment, the best method
in the world will fail in its aim. Moralists,
teachers and neurologists must therefore
combine their efforts to reach perfection in
this field.

Visibility and Illu- The eyes must not be
mination. trJe(l unduly Dr fa-

tigued. Only too many of our children suf-
fer from eye trouble as a result of the con-
tinuous strain of reading badly printed books,
books placed on desks that are too high or
too low or are ill-lighted. The same trouble
may exist where the cinema is used in schools.
The children should not be placed too close
to the screen ; the picture should be exactly
focussed on the latter, and it should not
flicker. The light should not be too glaring.
The pupil and crystalline lens of the eye
must not be strained to adapt themselves to
the image passing before them, or the eye may
become so fatigued as to give origin to some
form of short sight. The retina nust not be
allowed to suffer irritation through excessive
luminosity. Tension of the external muscles
of the eye may cause painful reactions and
even headache. The screen must not be
placed so high that the children have to
throw back their heads in order to see, thus
straining the muscles of the neck, nor so low
as to strain them in the other direction.

All these faults may pass unobserved for a

46

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

long time, injuring the children's well-being
and interfering with their assimiliation of the
lesson and, if continued, causing disturban-
ces of adaptation that may influence the whole
of their lives.

Sub-Titles and Tea- Let us take the case of

cher s Lessons. an acJult as an example.

Go to a cinema, as A. Gemelli did, with the
determination of resisting the suggestiveness
of the environment and keeping yourself
under firm and active control.

If you find the conditions customary to
these places, namely, a quiet, dark hall, not
much music, and what there is suited to the
picture, and an attractive film, your power of
resistance will be gradually undermined, and
the moment will come when you will be com-
pletely absorbed in what is occurring on the
screen. If you are to reach this point, your
attention must not be distracted, either by
long and unsuitable explanations, or reactions
that have nothing to do with the film, or music
that is too loud, or imperfect darkness in the
hall.

The child likes to get away from the world
of reality and enjoy the world of fiction ;
its enthusiasm for marionettes is a proof of
this. It should never be asked to look at
things that are above its comprehension.

This is a difficulty which must be solved by
the teacher and educator. The comments
made must always be suitable, of course.
The pupil must be accustomed to remember
technical expression, and scientific name of a
flower or object, and it is also very useful to
tell him at the same time, the popular name,
which will interest him much more. Any-
thing pedantic must be avoided, for it disturbs
the dreamlike sensation produced by the
film, which is so favourable to the impression
of ideas.

We psychological physicians have a daily
experience of this sort with the nervous,
morbid, excitable little patients whom we
have to tranquillize. And we know that a
favourable environment must not be dis-
turbed by extraneous impressions.

In a word, sub-titles and the lesson given

by the teacher must be suited to the film, age,
social condition and sex of the little spectator,
and also to his psychic development.

The Educational Cin- This is a very difficult

ema and Abnormal subject, necessitating

Children. distinctions that should

be treated in a separate work.

Let us first separate children of simply
tardy development fron abnormal children ;
the former can be classed with normal chil-
dren of few years.

Those abnormal children, who may be
considered as such only on account of their
psychic deficiencies, do not differ from normal
children except in regard to the psychic facul-
ties, and are of but slight interest for the pur-
poses of the present examination. We can
show sound films before blind children with
the greatest success, because their hearing
is much sharper than that of ordinary chil-
dren and they are extremely receptive, so
much so in fact that they are apt to be very
impressionable.

Children who are mentally abnormal are,
on the contrary, very difficult to educate,
and it must be admitted that the really mag-
nificent efforts that have made to educate
them in every country in the world have not
met with the results that might have been
expected. There is no reason to be discour-
aged, however, for the few successes that
have been obtained here and there are
sufficient to justify the continuation of these
efforts and the making of fresh ones.

The cinema is likely to have a great in-
fluence on the abnormal as on the normal
child. It is a means that must not be given
up, even though there may be a doubt as to
whether its effects will be good or bad.

There is a class of abnormal children which
cannot be passed over in silence, namely the
morally diseased. These are the most
difficult beings with whom the educator has
to cope ; and it must be admitted that in
spite of the money and effort expended in
the attempt to improve these deficients, in
spite of the numerous institutions established
for the housing and training of such children,

THE CINEMA AND CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

47

the results obtained do not compensate the
trouble taken. When these children are
gathered together in communities, they be-
come worse instead of better.

This, of course, is not a reason for relin-
quishing the task, but rather for redoubling
our efforts and refusing to be discouraged.

If there is even the slightest chance of
deriving some benefit in this field from the
cinema, we should make the utmost possible
use of it for that purpose.

Just as abnormal children constitute a
danger to the normal children with whom
they come in contact, on acount of the conta-
gion of example and the corrupt acts they
commit, so abnormal children are themselves
liable to be influenced by anything that effects
their senses, although they may be refractory
to simple feelings of average intensity. It is
through the senses, and therefore by means
of a spectacle, that physical impressions
produce the greatest effect.

In order to see what work is to be done, we
should begin by classifying abnormal chil-
dren in four separate groups :

1 . Those affected by moral atrophy ;

2. Those suffering fron moral perver-
sion, with an irresistible tendency to evil and
without any restraint that keeps them from
yielding to what they themselves know to be
wrong-doing ;

3. Those suffering from moral inversion
who cannot be trained and are anti-social,
doing evil for evil's sake ;

4. Unstable characters.

It is with this last class that there is most
hope of gaining some result, on condition,
however, that the attempt to train these im-
pressionable, unstable and changeable char-
acters to make persevering and continuous
efforts is maintained without ceasing, and
that similar efforts are made to prevent the
development of their infirmity.

With regard to profoundly abnormal chil-
dren, they are unable to carry out either the
central transformation or the mental rectifi-
cation necessary to connect a personal idea
with the view of an object, in the variety of
conditions under which an idea or an object

is presented on the screen. There is no
rectification of the sensory elements in this
case. There is not sufficient discrimination
between the sensation, the impression received
by the senses and the representation or men-
tal perception. It is a question of fleeting
impressions, which are of the greatest im-
portance in the cases under examination.
The visions presented to these children must
be the simplest possible, and the visual per-
ceptions must not be distracted by a music
that would detract from its reality.

It is equally obvious that excessive comment
would spoil the interest of a fine film in these
cases. Nothing fatigues the ordinary man
more than to see a film where the actors
speak a foreign language, with explanations
in his own tongue projected on the screen.
This necessitates a useless effort of the audit-
ory centres, which lessens the benefit the
spectator might derive from the film, and
also distracts his attention. If this is the
case with normal adults, it is obviously much
more so with abnormal children, in whom
such an effort would produce irritation in-
stead of restfulness and end in mental fatigue.

The human being is interested in what
resembles him, and simple views and perform-
ances and ideas are the proper thing for
simple minds. The films intended for ab-
normal children must therefore be simple,
although they may legitimately follow a
story.

In order to avoid fatigue, the scenes must
not be hurried, nor must pictures be shown
that might distract the elementary mind of
the spectator.

A certain degree of sentimentality is quite
permissible. The abnormal being is more
accessible to sentiment than the normal, and
it will often be necessary to make use of senti-
ment to induce the former to accept an abstract
idea. It must not be forgotten, however,
that nervous children are more impression-
able, or rather, they are impressionable in a
different way from normal ones. More prud-
ence is needed in their case, and it is there-
fore useful to know what manifestations are
likely to be produced.

48

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

Nervous states are shown by the intensity
of the character reactions, and unfavourable
impressions last longer in nervous than in
normal children. The reactions of the char-
acter are often paradoxical : a thing which
produces a pleasant impression on an ab-
normal child may be unpleasant for a ner-
vous one. We find this happen in the field
we are interested in, the case of colours and
noises. Care must be taken to avoid exag-
gerations of the more emotional reactions to
laughter and weeping seen on the screen,
which may give rise to regular crises or attacks
of rage. Nervous children may be fright-
ened into fits in this way.

Cinematograph projections may give rise
to a form of delirium in children with a
predisposition that way, to night terrors, to
talking in their sleep, to impulsive outbreaks,
insomnia, extravagant talk, obsessions, un-
controllable agitation, fits of trembling,
paltitation, headache and forms of hypersen-
sitiveness of the optic nerves.

These phenomena are manifested only in
exceptional cases, and we therefore merely
mention them in passing, but the conscien-
tious teacher must always be on his guard and
repress them as soon as they appear.

Projections, and Ex- There is not the sligh-

cessive Brain Fa- test joubt that brain
gue' fatigue exists and be-

comes more and more frequent during school
courses, and it is quite useless to try to deny
this fact. We see evidences of it every day
in our consulting rooms.

It is due first of all to the excessively heavy
school curricula, to methods of teaching which
are based too much on the study of books, to
lack of variety in intellectual effort, to lessons
that are too long, to the difficulty of the sub-
jects that have to be assimilated and their too
great condensation.

It is not only the pupil who suffers from
this form of fatigue ; the master also is a
victim to it.

The evil is shown by an excessive irritabil-
ity, by a form of boredom at the very
thought of studying, by physical instability,

a difficulty in fixing the attention, a weakening
of the memory and an incapacity to acquire
and retain ideas. And these states are
followed by ill-temper and a feeling of discon-
tent and incompleteness.

If not attended to in time, these symptoms
may lead to nervous exhaustion, and, finally,
to mental symptoms that approach precocious
dementia, characterised by what is usually
called " lack of will power ", but is rather the
unconscious refusal of the will to assimilate
any new mental equipment.

Laziness is often nothing but a fortunate
reaction of the tired organism, which refuses
to work any longer. A physiologist once
gave voice to this paradox : ' happy are the
idle ". This, however, is quite comprehen-
sible, since a too zealous child does not react
by refusing to make an effort, but goes on
from effort to effort, from fatigue to fatigue
until it is exhausted, and in this way reaches
a state of intellectual disaster which is often
irremediable. There may still be some anchor
of safety, but only on condition that the child
enjoys a period of complete rest together with
a medical treatment that must be rigidly
followed.

In this field, the cinema might be a valua-
ble ally of the educator and teacher, with the
variations it can bring to the methods of
education and instruction, its inherent fascin-
ation, which has such a cheering effect on
the child's mind, and the facility it affords the
teacher in expounding his ideas and the child
in understanding and assimilating them.

What a difference there is, for instance,
between a badly printed and badly expressed,
unillustrated text-book and one that is well
printed on good paper, with the subject
carefully explained, and illustrated by engrav-
ings that arouse interest and assist the under-
standing of the text !

f~( In the same way, a lesson illustrated by
suitable projections completes and facilitates
the work of instruction and education.

Conclusion. The screen, therefore

is a powerful aid to the educator and teacher.
Perhaps we may be permitted to add one

THE CmAmmmCHlW/RSYmVLOGY

or two suggestions that may be of use in
future experiments.

When observing children, the educator
must disregard his own personality, and study
the_children as much as, possible in their own
environment, . in their customary reactions.
He must mistrust , unconscious, suggestions ;
he must remember that< oaly tojo. often the
child will, answer as* if i he wishedjto make an
impression on the- teaehep.1 The child' is-
never 'the same in" public oriri' school as he
is wHen with- his family- or alone ; he always
has a desire to shpw off.

Ffecocipus,. children may^ find encourage-
ment for their worpb instincts? And. bad, habits
in.,fi|m perfprmances,. but th.,at , is npt a,suf,7.
ficieintv reason, for, guying; nR this, educational
possibility) A negative; criticism rlesads .no?r,
wherec , What isj necessary id lam : exact ;un der *
standing1 of' the possibilities of' the screen!
The riiost ' solid education is> that ' founded lort
experience; and' each teacHer" must indicate
the results in his. particular field "of action, so
that , ajt rnay benefit by thern,

Whereas theatrical performances are rest-!
fuLand", give, pleasure by, appealing to our,
aestfeetjfi, sense, the s cine-ma^gives,, the ;seRsan,
tion of a dream, of abandonment* ofireposei
Thefsupesiorityr offitheicinelMavliesiju&tiiri this
fact? which is- basfed'oftthelawof- least re*-
sisftattce-. It 'takes1 us'awayfrom* reality ,and:
mafes the conviction- of' the things we h'aye
id.

The rapidity of movement, the diversity of"
the scenes, even the mannerisms, of the actors,
draw. us., nearer, tp^ the , sensations,! fejtf iijia
djeam fc e^ch, ; scene-.,, cpntajn^its , own 3 logical,-,
explanation^ Tfois is, quite enough' for maxf,,
who does not, feelitbe^ need- of* relief in the.
figures.. The scenes' succeed oneL another;
and impressions' arc independently0 formed'
of the details of reproduction. The interest'
of the cinema lies in the story and in the

subject of the film, not in certain technical
detail*. .

An educated person who goes to a fine
theatrical performance will be bored if he is
under the influence of his own troubles, but
at the cinema, in spite of the greater power of;
resistance and inhibition, he will find a fascin-
ationan the darkened hall that will conquer
him little by lHtle and; make him forget his
worries, while his:' power of inhibition' will
completely ' disappear.'

When the light is turned 'on agaip., he will
have the impression of waking from a dream.
The cinema reposes and suggests,, and the
educator, should profit ; by thegei facts, tP
teach and. educate without fatigues '

Practical Proposals. Asi pedagogical

researches of a psychological order are now
carried on extensively in the field of film edu*
cation, they must' be completed by experi-
ments made, bef ore the screen, if we are to
haye well conceived and well produced films
and practical methods for their utilisation
(fetixi Lamp?),

We! must; th^efprei make ; a continually,
closer; study of ,( the>; influence; of. cinemalXK.
graph projections; on thevatious i classes. f or i
abnormal children : those suffering from'
physical and mental abnormalities and those
wHo are morally diseased/

It would be of great use to find the type of
projection suited , to children at different
ages» for teaching them to observe objectively
and, interesting .them,, and ajsp to find which
films, are best fprj boys and which for girls„i,

Observations! on the kindof projection most
Hkely to i stimulate the several intellectual I
faculties should be continued; lightening
programmes, and facilitating the teachers'
task; Such conclusions, should as far as
possible, be based oh individual exper-
ience.

v

^ Ice ingl.

50

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

THE CINEMA AND ABNORMAL CHILDREN

Report of the Orthophrenic Normal School of Rome.

In connection with the Rome Orthophrenic School
for abnormal children, there are 15 out-patient
clinics known as " Classi differenziali », or special
classes operating in collaboration with the six
schools of the municipality of Rome. These
institutions receive 375 children of both sexes
from the age of 6 to 12 years inscribed in the pupils'
lists of the first three elementary grades of the city's
schools. The opening of these special classes only
begins in November after the pupils have been
picked out by the teachers of the ordinary classes
and notified to the authorities. The children are
attached to the special classes as the result of an
examination given by specialized teachers attached
to the Orthophrenic School. Teachers from this
school see to the education of these abnormal chil-
dren.

The children subjected to the regime of these
orthophrenic grades must be considered abnormal
in the matter of temperament more than anything
else, that is, they are intolerant of such mental
effort and discipline as are required of pupils in the
schools of the Governorship of Rome in the elemen-
tary grades. Many of them surfer from physical
disturbances of one kind of another, and the major-
ity from an exaggerated form of sensitiveness
which is revealed in irregular attention, impul-
siveness and contrariness.

In view of the time-table and the general condi-
tions under which the scholastic work takes place,
it is rarely possible for the school-children and their
teachers to witness motion pictures together in one
of the specialized classes for abnormal children.

The teachers have answered inquiries laid before
them with regard to the working of the cinema
classes for abnormal children and the attendance of
the latter at the same. The following is a summary
of the teachers opinions.

(a) The poor economic conditions of the parents
of the children who frequent the specialized courses
organized in connection with the Rome Ortho-

phrenic School do not permit of the pupils visiting the
cinema regularly. In some of the classes though,
teachers have noticed a certain frequency of atten-
dance, especially among the boys.

(b) The boys prefer detective crime and adven-
ture pictures, while they like comic films greatly.
The third elementary class shows some preference
for historical films. The girls prefer films with a
sentimental background.

(c) Only one of the teachers observed subsequent
acts on the part of the pupils that called for reproof.
All the others teachers agreed that the films produced
no evil consequences among the scholars There
was a tendency to imitate the manners and tricks
of some of the actors, especially Charlie Chaplin and
Tom Mix among the boys, while some of the girls
occasionally made attempts to imitate some of the
mannerisms of the great lady stars of the film.

(cz) In general it may be said that the replies do
not agree. Some of the women teachers deny that
the picture have any beneficent influence on abnor-
mal children. Other, again, think that the children
derive some moral benefits from seeing motion
pictures. Some teachers specify these benefits as
touching things like patriotism and encouraging
the heroic sense, etc.

(e) Children consider the cinema as a most desir-
able entertainment. Their preferences are for such
actors as Chaplin and Mix, whose tricks and man-
nerisms they attempt to imitate during their games.

(/) The interest aroused overcomes fatigue, and in
some cases the interest is so lively that it is possible
to show children the same film repeatedly without
wearying or boring them.

(g) and {h) The majority of teachers, not having,
as has been pointed out, attended cinema shows in
the company of the children, agree that the pupils
find sound films more interesting and amusing than
silent pictures. The children, it seems, are also
very fond of music, which has often obviously emo-
tive effects on them.

" Hipparcus had inscribed on tablets situated at the cross-
ways the chief precepts of morality in order to remind passers-
by of their duty ".

Plato.

ESSENTIAL FACTORS IN THE MAKING
OF FILMS FOR CHILDREN

By
Nazzareno Padellaro.

Ispector General of Primary Educaction in Italy.

THE cinema for children, despite some
sporadic attempts, is still in the hands of
the amateurs. The prospect of its numerous
possibilities has disorganized regular, con-
tinuous effort. It may seem a paradox to
attribute the poor results obtained in this
sector of cinematography to excessive enthu-
siasm. Enthusiasm which does not mean the
beginning of a calm and planned action is
only a stimulus or a tendency. Enthusiasms
which follow in waves are not very different
from rhythmic noises, which in other words
mean a confusion that repeats itself.

Points in the Chil- I wiH refer briefly and

dren's Cinema. m a summary fashion
to certain elementary ideas which ought to
help remove the attempts to build up a
collection of films for children out of the
hands of the amateurs into those of scientists.

Our first investigations ought to be directed
towards what Lavelle calls " the dialectic of
the senses ". Studies of this kind are not
much in favour. Biologists think them extran-
eous to their work, psychologists pass them
by, and the philosophers despise them.

The researches and reports of the above
mentioned Lavelle are almost unknown. A
work like " La Perception visuelle de la
Profondeur " which ought to be " The Dia-
lectic of the Sensory World ", the vade-
mecum for those studying the questions of the
cinema for children, is ignored.

Neither can it be argued that problems of
this kind can be taken for granted, for that
amounts to ignoring them, and no science
can rest on ignorance.

Is the visual world an image and not a

reality ? If an image, why is it an image ?
How comes it that the memory which carries
all our past in us necessarily transforms suc-
cessive actions into simultaneous images ?

Why is this simultaneity spatial? Why
and under what conditions is the sense of
sight the sense of illusion?

Why is it that to distance oneself from
objects in space is like distancing oneself
in the past ? (Parenthetically we may add :
how many effects can result from a clear
application of this principle !).

Up to what point is vision the concrete
realization of the possible ?

I have barely outlined a few points which
ought to form a propaedeutic for those who
really desire to proceed to the creation of a
science without trusting in chance or inspir-
ation.

Is a course in philosophy necessary then ?
No, a course in philosophy would be perfectly
useless. What is required is a systematic
research along the lines indicated.

I should not hesitate for a moment to refer
those interested in the problems connected
with the sound film to a work by I. Nogue
" Site et Champ ". Students of this subject
should also have a knowledge of the works
of Gelb and Herring.

Time in Relation to Another point of im-
The Image. portance which must

be faced is that concerning the valuation of
time in relation to the image.

In order to set forth this question properly,
I must notice some recent interesting theories
which are beginning to be examined seriously
iu scientific circles. For instance, does

4* — la Ingl.

52

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

astronomical time coincide with psycholog-
ical time. Is not the former perhaps the
result of an abstraction ? Is not concrete
time really physiological time ? If this be so,
then it is useless to measure physical time in
units of psychological time.

P. Lecomte du Nouy of the Pasteur Insti-
tute has demonstrated that young and old
people, joined in the same space, live in
separate universes, where the value of time
is completely different.

For a man of 50, time passes four times as
fast as for a child of ten years. Adults who
condemn children to remain five hours a day
on their school benches never realize that,
psychologically and physiologically speak-
ing, five hours amount to 20 hours for a child.
Then they are surprised at the impatience
of young things. When they realize these
facts, will they still insist on the school hours
and the curricula at present in vogue ?

If we add to the foregoing considerations
further observations relating to the different
duration of the attention when it is auricular
and when visual — the relation is in the ratio
of 10 to 40 — the necessity of solving the
problem of the pupil's scholastic life with the
systematic introduction of the cinema become
more evident. Its use, moreover, should not
be regulated by caprice, chance or circum-
stances, but according to a well thought out
programme besed on the curriculum.

The Adult Cinema I will now turn to
in the Impressions another kind of consi-
of Children. deration. The cinema

is based on emotion. The emotional quali
ties and content of a film are the factors which
determine its success. The sentiment in-
forming the picture is expressed in scenes and
action. The scene is like the solution of
a problem with no unknown factors. It is
indeed an operation rather than a problem.
Our first efforts, in my opinion, ought to
assume the form of taking the educational
cinema destined for children away from
the emotive plane and placing it on another.
There should be a law preventing children

frequenting cinemas intended for adult
persons. It is difficult to imagine the im-
moral contagion that spreads from even one
of the more innocent type of erotic-sentimen-
tal films. If the child is ingenuous, he be-
comes bored and disgusted with the series
of embraces, and has an instinctive feeling
that a mystery that should be revealed as
an impulse is being cut up into synthetic
fragments of film. There is for him in such
pictures a sensual incentive which he does not
understand. Who would think of taking a
child into the company of fast women, and
what in most cases is the cinema star when
playing a love part but such a woman ? I
have examined thousands of exercises and
essays in which the pupils have narrated
their Sunday impressions after visiting the
cinema. Some of these studies do not dif-
fer very much from the yelping of little dogs
taken to a concert hall and irritated to vocal
rivalry by the sound of one of the instruments
in the orchestra. Other essays show that
a period in a young person's life has begun
when hypocrisy and double meanings cover
up vice. I will not touch on the hygienic
considerations which are self-evident and
can be seen in the ill effects deriving from
over-crowding, bad air, smoke and nervous
excitement.

Making Films for If we are going to keep
Children to Suit children away from the
their Psychology. cinemas for grown up

people, we must undertake the preparation of
films for children.

This is a point where it seems to me
ideas are not very clear, nor is there much
agreement as to what is wanted.

It is vaguely believed that films which
amuse and instruct children are the best that
can be hoped for.

Amuse and instruct : these are two anti-
thetic terms. It is no paradox of mine to
state that what arouses interest does not
instruct, while still less instructive are the
things that amuse. To believe we can elim-
inate effort in the spiritual formation of any
being is only a sugary pedagogic Utopia.

FACTORS IN FILMS FOR CHILDREN

53

So called interesting pictures are without
any spiritual interest. Then, in any case,
how are we to organize this programme of an
interesting cinema ? According to the com-
mon opinion, what is interesting is emotive.
Now there are very strange ideas existing
about emotion. It is often thought that emo-
tion is born where the conception of moral
values ends. The truth is otherwise. Every
emotion is the somatic translation of the
struggle engaged in between two opposed
concepts. To seek to accumulate acts and
exterior words without stimulating the ideal
nucleus of an idea is a vain undertaking.
Nothing is less emotive than what germinates
beyond the field of values.

This is why, for example, a great part of
the literature designed specially for very
young children is despised by them. They
look rather for the human touch where the
adult has traced some moral concept or some
lively argument.

What has happened in the case of infantile
literature, ought to serve as an indication in
the preparation of films for children.

It is argued : let us make special versions
of masterpieces universally recognized as
such and make motion pictures of them.
We cannot go wrong. But, is it possible to
extract a masterpiece from another master-
piece ? Can we, for instance, build another
Milan cathedral with the stones of the famous
duomo ? I think not, and the same thing
must be said of the masterpieces of literature.
What was created as literature will only have
its proper appeal in the pages of a book.

Without waiting for the general verdict on
the film recently released in America, Alice
in Wonderland, I am now prepared to state
that the youthful Anglo Saxon who has read
the book of Lewis Carrol will find the char-
acters he loves much in the condition as if
they had given their blood for a transfusion.
The conclusion is simple. Film masterpieces
must be born film masterpieces, that is the
piece must be conceived and executed for
seeing. Loans from literature are dangerous.
I can understand that in Italy we may project
Alice and read Pinocchio, while in America

they should read Alice and film Pinocchio.
This is the only real intellectual exchange
possible, and its advantage lies in overcoming
the language difficulty and the different
conception of things, transposing the work of
art on to another plane. If anyone feels the
desire to read the masterpiece in the original,
so much the better. The desire will lead the
student to learn the language of the original
work. It is evident that this question of
intellectual exchanges applies to other kinds
of exchanges, including those interesting the
adult world.

Didactic Films. Two words on the so

is called instructional film. There are a vast
quantity of illusions and errors common here.
Some people think that the cinema can explain
all mathematical theorems and reduce all the
demonstrations and problems of geometry
to a collection of catchy motives. I must
repeat that nothing can be learnt without
effort. The cinema ought not to endeavour
to eliminate effort, but rather to strive ta
make it productive. The vision of things
begins its dominion where the word fails to
penetrate. Natural sciences and the arts
are the most suitable subjects for cinema
teaching, as everyone agrees. One point
that, in my opinion, has not yet been suffic-
iently considered is the possibility of increas-
ing the potentiality of the word and informing
it with meaning by means of the image.

We can express best that which we have
seen, but it is not enough to have seen to be
able to put what we have seen into words.
It is necessary to create a series of synthetic
and vocabular relations between sight and
word.

The films that should enrich our linguistic
store ought to suggest the word and the
construction. They should therefore contain
a very long series of legends that translate
the pictures, and there should be recurrence
in the sequences to avoid definite repetition.
Humility is not only the first virtue in life,
but also in didactics. There is no intellectual
progress which can be compared to that great

54

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

step forward which the illiterate person makes
when he learns to read. The merit lies all in
the humble alphabet. The visual-phonetic
relation is a mutual aid relationship. The
great novelty and the great utility of the
cinema ought to lie precisely in the fact that
this relation, in which at one time numerator
and denominator differed by a large number
of units, can be reduced to fractions of
practically equal terms. Spiritual harmony
will gain considerably ; there will be greater
objectivity and less incoherence. The stock
of notions will become enriched with less

fatigue and less loss of time. There is no
truth in the fallacy that the child's world is a
different world from that of the adult. The
child does not understand the adult's vice,
but admires and envies him his virtues. All
that which is pure, generous, ardent, and
heroic in the human heart is a kingdom of
delight for the child. The child loves
adventure because he does not understand
intrigue, he loves the fable because he thinks
that reality is creation, he adores the heroic
since heroism is the vocation of every
man.

VENICE NINETEENTH BIENNIAL EXHIBITION

MAY 12 TO OCTOBER 12

The Venice Biennial Internationa] Exhibition of Art is the greatest and most important
World Exhibition of Modern Art. Fifteen nations are represented every two years, with shows
in their own pavilions.

ITALY
Belgium - Czechoslovakia - Denmark - France - Germany - Great Britain - Greece -
Holland - Poland - Spain - United States of America - Switzerland - Hungary - U.R.S.S.

THE NINETEENTH BIENNIAL will include the First World Exhibition of Nine-
teenth Century Portraiture. Decorative Art Section.

IN CONNECTION WITH THE VENICE BIENNIAL

First International Theatrical Congress. July 7 " 28.

Second International Exhibition of Cinematographic Art. August 1 - 20.

First releases of new films by all the big houses of Europe and America. Pictures in orig-
inal versions and language. The most noted cinema stars will be present. International meeting
of Film Producers.

Third International Musical Festival. September 6-16.

International exhibitions of Classical Dances ■ — ■ Open Air performances by the principal
schools of Europe.

Exceptional Reduction in Railway Fares *•> Foln-'Dowe and
~ Spowting Festivals and Touvneys at Venice and the Eido ~

USE AND ABUSE OF THE CINEMA

By
Dr. Mario Bernabei,

Asst Professor Chair of Pedacogy at the University of Rome.

I. Cinema and the Tt is no longer sufficient

Life of Today. I today in order to de-
monstrate an averagely respectable degree
of culture to read the daily papers and oc-
casionally scan the literary and scientific
reviews. It is necessary to frequent the
cinema. In all circles of ordinary culture it
is imperative for a person having any preten-
sions to living even a restricted society life
to be able to give his opinions on current
pictures, criticizing this or that film and prais-
ing the sensation of the week. In certain
circles which one might call intellectual there
can even be observed a sort of rivalry concern-
ing who has seen the most films, and is best
acquainted with the movements of the stars.

The cinema has penetrated into our every
day life as few other institutions have done.
It has got into our blood and become one of
the reagents of our nervous system. Look
at the young generation. There is not a boy
of our time who does not become intensely
interested in three things : football teams, the
makes of automobiles and the cinema. Every
professor in these three subjects becomes a
scholar, every scholar a professor.

I have no intention of regreting the happy
times when the cinema did not exist. I am
enthusiastic about the motion picture, and a
keen admirer of Charlie Chaplin, the most
gifted artist of our epoch.

My own personal culture for some consider-
able time has been indebted to the cinema for
many things. I recognize that if in the vast
sea of commercial film production then, are
some pictures which are not worth a penny, it
is not rare for us to see others which compel
admiration by their power and oblige us to
think.

It is necessary to say this, because, apart
from any unjust charges, I may be permitted
to advance a little criticism ; to insert a trifle
of doubt of a healthy and not ill-intentioned
character into the mass of boundless praise
and glorification of the film. Evil has never
been anything else but a degeneration of
good ; the abuse of the most healthy things
may prove as harmful as a use of dangerous
things. When we hear nothing but loud-
voiced praise of the beneficent effect of the
sun's rays, we are in danger of forgetting
that it is the sun which sometimes causes
sunstrokes.

2. Cerebral Hygiene. We ought to accustom
The Brain should ourselves, I think, to
be respected. speak of the cinema as

one speaks of and considers coffee, tea,
cocaine, that is as of a substance that can be
pleasurable but is also dangerous, owing to
the strong excitement it L capable of produc-
ing in the most delicate nervous centres.
Those who are enthusiastic for the instruct-
ional and educational cinema as a new and
most effective method to which children's
delicate minds can be subjected ought to
reflect on this point seriously. I am sorry to
have to act as a damper on enthusiasms, but
to adopt the luminous projection in a dark
room to impress notions on infantile brains
is handling a double-edged waepon, which
can be both useful and at the same time can
cause disaster.

The same thing occurs in the treatment of
nervous disorders with X rays. The identi-
cal rays used in differeut doses can cure the
disease when it exists, and cause it when it
does not exists.

56

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

The origin of this idea is not mine. I
found it for the first time in an article by
Professor E. Pennacchi which appeared in this
Review of Educational Cinematography in
September 1930 (p 1084), and I must admit
I was greatly struck by it. With his nervous,
coldly scientific prose, Professor Pennacchi,
who is a doctor in a provincial lunatic asylum,
and therefore an expert in such cases, put
his finger without error on a symptom of ill
health : the symptom, that is, of child atten-
dance at the cinema.

There is no question that this sore spot in
the social body esists and that people are
aware of it. Recent Swiss legislation
(June 1933) is a proof of this, as we can see
from the Draconian regulation issued which
lays down that, apart from shows specially
organized for children, no child or young
person under 16 may enter a cinema hall,
whether accompanied by an adult or not.

I do not think this is an exaggerated type of
regulation. We cannot have children fre-
quenting the cinema as and when they like.
Apart from moral considerations of a more or
less Calvinist character, we forget that the
primary conception of education is biological
rather than philosophical. If I subject my
brain to periodical strains, I cannot be said
to be educating it and improving it. The
abuse of any organ means just the opposite of
educating it.

Apart from any question of the morality or
immorality of its content, the film, beyond cer-
tain limits, acts like a narcotic, and any abuse
of it is therefore unhealthy and undesirable.
The infantile brain, a delicate organ in process
of development, must be safeguarded as much
as possible by law from all such dangerous
influences.

These facts ought in my opinion, to be kept
well in mind by those who, carried away in a
burst of enthusiasm, would like to cinema-
tographize all teaching from top to bottom.
The cinema is, in a way, like arsenic or
strychnine. If we want to make use of it,
we must administer it in minute doses.
Posology is a recent branch of medical science,
but one of fundamental importance.

What is the idea which inspires with so
much enthusiasm all the ardent defenders of
the instructional cinema ? That the cinema
amuses and does not weary. It will be
easy then — it is argued — to make the child
learn with pleasure by its means many of
those things which he now learns from books
without any pleasure and with considerable
fatigue.

I will consider the scarce intrinsic value of
knowledge acquired without any exercise of
the will and without effort : like the English
learnt with a gramophone through the sub-
consciousness while shaving every morning.
It is a mistake to believe that looking at a
motion picture on the screen does not cost
any fatigue. The pleasure we derive may
disguise the most ennervating of all kinds of
fatigue ; that is fatigue of the optic centres
which are placed in a most delicate position
in the posterior part of the brain.

There is an unquestionable degree of
fatigue in all the brain, in all the body, even
in its muscular structure caused by witnessing
pictures, and this fatigue can be registered
after each projection by proper physiological
apparatus suitable employed.

For me this is the most significant of the
studies of Pennacchi. Intense pleasure wears
out our cerebral resources much more than any
fatigue. The cinema in fact is so intense a
pleasure that it logical on this account to be
mistrustful of it. Cave voluptatem.

3. Passivity and A second objection,

Activity. which is not less grave

than the preceding one : how are we to
conciliate the totally active policy of modern
pedagogy with the absolute passivity of the
child before what is shown him on the screen ?
In opposition to the old methods in use in
schools of the past which all more or less coun-
ted on the pupil's passivity all ready to swal-
low a ready made knowledge prepared in
easily digestible doses, the stronger tendency
of the new modern pedagogy holds that the
student ought to be an active agent free to
construct knowledge by himself. What he
learns ought to be the fruit of his own spon-

USE AND ABUSE OF THE CINEMA

57

taneous effort, the product of his mind and his
hands. It is only on these conditions that
what he learns will leave a durable impress on
his memory, and make a man of him, that is a
character

He must plane, saw, learn how to drive in
nails, make something useful, even if it be
only a table or a drawer, but he must do it
with his own hands ; and even if he bruises his
fingers or cuts them, it does not matter.
He must construct : that is the essential thing.
He must learn that to make always means
fatigue and risk, a responsibility all the time,
where all mistakes are inevitably punished by
insuccess. There is a great moral teaching
in all this, that is all the more efficacious
because it does not come from a sermon but
is allied with action.

In the same way, he must construct his
culture, almost with blows of a hammer, if it
is not to be and erudition, a dead weight to be
thrown away after the examination, instead
of a lasting conquest, a live and integral part
of the boy's personality.

All the plans, methods and systems that
go by various names, from those conceived
by our Montessori to Decrely and Ferriere
from the Dalton method to that of Winnetka,
although differing from one another very often
considerably in their particular applications,
are all of them remarkably in accord in pro-
claiming the absolute necessity of the pupil
working himself, manually and mentally, at
the construction of his own knowledge. This
link joins the most diverse tendencies in
pedagogy, from the realistic system of
Kerschensteiner to Ferriere 's ecclectic method
from Codignola's idealism to the system of
Lombardo-Radice.

How are we to conciliate all this which may
be called the most important conquest of
contemporary pedagogy with the undeniable
state of pleasurable passivity of the pupil-
spectator in front of the cinematographic
vision thrown on the screen ? It cannot be
denied that the pictures unrolls independen-
tly of his will and any creative effort of his,
apart from that very small participation or
disagreement which his desires or taste may

add to the phenomenon. The picture in its
scenes and movement is completely removed
from the creative activity of the audience.
It is a fact shown in motion, and there is
nothing to do but to take note of it pas-
sively.

In other words, the whole thing lies in sit-
ting comfortably and looking on.

Of no value is the objection which might be
raised that even when he is reading the pupil's
mind is passive, and that the ideas in the
book are the author's, and thst therefore,
following this argument, books ought to be
excluded from schools.

In fact, modern pedagogy, following
Rousseau, has not even hesitated to condemn
books, and would like to see them, if not
exactly suppressed, at least reduced to a bare
minimum in view of the relative passivity in
which the person who reads comes to find
himself with regard to what is written in
the book.

We can answer back, in fairnesss that
reading a book is a much less grave sin of
mental passivity than is generally believed,
and certainly much less grave than seeing a
film. Reading is an effort in itself, even if
rendered easy by long practice, since in order
to read one must have decided to want to
read. Once the will is brought into play, it
must continue its force, line by line, for there
is no one to prevent a person putting his
book down. Reading, moreover, only gives
us words from which we ourselves must draw
images and ideas. This is often hard work
for the fantasy and the reasoning powers in
certain books.

In the case of the motion picture, the case
is quite different. That small amount of
activity required to read a book is completely
absent here. It costs no effort to sit still and
watch. One must see indeed even if one
does not want to as, for instance, in the case
of films which do not attract one. In place
of the word, the vision on the screen gives us
the image all ready made, a succession of
images relating to a significant fact, all shown
in a way that makes understanding perfectly
easy.

58

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

To take children once in a while to see an
instructional film will certainly cause no great
harm, but to base all scholastic teaching on
the cinema, as some people would like to do,
means nothing else but returning to the old
systems which counted upon the physical
immobility and mental passivity of the
scholar.

4. The Cinema and As we can see, the two

Hurry. fundamental objections

that can be raised against the efficacy of the
cinema as an instructional and educational
means are simple but serious.

I will repeat what I have said : a film shown
in school to the children once in a way is all
right. But if by the instructional and edu-
cational cinema we are to understand a
special kind of cinema to be introduced
regularly into the school for the use of the
children as the most efficacious means of
education and teaching, then I am a total
sceptic as to results.

We all know the curious phenomenon in
virtue of which even the best things suffer in
that as soon a? they are introduced into the
school, they immediately become boring and
wearying. What is boring is quite non-edu-
cational.

The humble blackboard where teacher and
pupil design the desired figures with their
own hands is sufficient in the majority of
cases. It answers the requirements of being
easily available and requiring some effort,
which is not the case with the cinema. Hand
and eye must be used together and gain
practice in this way. It accustoms the vast
aspirations of a human being — always by
nature a magalomaniac — to be content
with little, which is one the best things one
can learn of life. I do not look forward with
any pleasure to see it substituted, out of a
crazy love of modernity, by a means which is
technically superior, but morally much in-
ferior.

In other cases, the fixed projection, the
magic lantern of our youth, with or without
those colours which the cinema has not yet

given us, is more useful than the film. In
teaching the history of art, for instance,
the fixed image, instead of being tiring, holds
the attention better, assists the memory,
while the moving picture does neither.

Even a simple drawing, a well made design,
the photograph in a book are often enough
better than the cinema for supplying that
indirect intuition of things which it is hard or
impossible to obtain directly. The drawing
and the photograph are there on the page,
with their characters, which are always the
same, fixed in a settled attitude, at all times
and seasons. We look at them time after time
weaving our fancies round them, so that even-
tually they become as familiar to us as the
persons of our household. What did they
do before ? What will they do in the future ?
Count Cavour who looks at us in a thought-
ful way through his glasses is not only the
able diplomat of the Crimean war, but is
some one who asks us each morning as we
open the book of history : " Well, have you
finally made up your mind to go over that
lesson ? " Thus in front of a simple illustra-
ted page of a book the child's mind is led bit
by bit to dream and reflection.

This is alas ! not the case in the cinema,
where everything is fleeting and nothing
lasts. Here every impression is the passing
impression of a moment, a typical expression,
if you like, of our century, where speed is a
fundamental canon, and the breathless rapid-
dity of actions disguises superficialty, preca-
riousness and the rush of all feeling and
thought.

5. Instructional and For me, the most ser-

Anti-educational jous worries of the

Cinema. educationist in the

matter of the cinema are to be found outside

the school rather than inside.

There is no need to create the instructional
cinema, for it already exists. The kind of
cinema which some people would like to
make especially so as to introduce it into
scholastic buildings could not be other than
a copy, an unsuccessful imitation, almost a

USE AND ABUSE OF THE CINEMA

59

parody, something so instructive and peda-
gogic at all costs that it would cease to be
cinema.

The public, the vast anonymous mass that
crowds the cheaper seats of our cinemas be-
comes a child again in front of the silver
screen, and swallows everything offered it.
Films of every kind follow one another on
our screens. In some, the moral intention is
clear ; in others it is only a mask to hide
something unworthy. The infant public
undergoes the completest mental subjection.
It is dominated by the image, a prey to orgasm
and nervous tension.

There are an infinite number of things
which are not taught in schools, and these
things the child is most anxious to learn. In
many of these things, the cinema is his best
master. For example, how do grown-ups
make love ? We who talk and think such a
lot about the healthiness of the race today
ought not to forget that the cinema is often
turned into nothing else but a real stimulus of
the generative instinct, and that in the most
dangerous way through the cerebral nerves.
The motion picture often enough resolves
itself into a mental aphrodisiac for adults and
children, with this grave disadvantage that
the adult has a reasoned experience to oppose
to evil suggestions, which is quite lacking in
the child. I propose to transcribe here
what I wrote recently in this connection in
my book Sex Education (Educazione del
Sesso) :

" The adolescent does not yet know in its
reality the joy of the woman's kiss or embrace,
and the cinema does little more than show
him, as inevitable part almost of every film,
the musical vision of these kisses and em-
braces.

One of the most tormenting ideas of the
boy is the knowledge of woman's real nudity ;
the ideal nudity of works of art being quite a
different thing and incapable of satisfying
him. The cinema spares no opportunity to
offer him a photographic semi-nudity, which
is often enough very near actual nudity.
The instinct, half -satisfied, on the one hand in
imagination, is exasperated, on the other, by

the lack of a real satisfaction. Female nudi-
ties seen on the screen in acts of languid
abandon and provocation return both in
sleep and in the waking state to disturb the
boy's imagination ....".

What are we to say, moreover, when instead
of a lad a mere child is taken to the pictures ?
It is useless to object that the child is too small,
does not understand, does not know. The
child understands, knows, learns still more,
and remains silent. If he does not know,
he learns, because the atavistic instinct which
is sleeping in him requires very little to awaken
it, when it stirs up impulses and remembran-
ces which no one has ever taught him.

To this we may add that the cinema projects
on the screen an artificial world, a world that
is radically false, both in the logic by which
circumstances are joined together, and in the
sentiments which animate the characters,
and also on account of the sympathetic light
which is made to surround things and beings
which and who are often far from being ad-
mirable. Bit by bit, the young person comes
to believe that the actual reality of life is
shaped in this fashion. In the matter too of
love and the sentimental life which concerns
him and of his possibilities of attaining it and
living it, the cinema insinuates into the virgin
mind of the youth, who is anxious to try things,
a completely false conception detached from
social reality which may lead him to commit
in reality grown up people's follies.

Even if the plot of the film does not con-
tain anything immoral, it is nevertheless
founded on incidents of an emotive character
which keep the nervous system in a state of
continuous tension. Let us consider for a
moment the special delicacy of the undevel-
oped encephalic-spinal system of a young
lad. This system is subjected to a strain to
which we must add the impressionable
nature due to the boy's age, the effect of
remaining in a dark room, the music, the fat-
igue, the power of the excitant and the means
of its employ and we cannot marvel if in all
the so called cinematographic psychoses and
neuroses which doctors have studied the
erotic obsession always returns with a constant

60

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

frequency. This is all the more true when the
subject is predisposed by hereditary nervous
taint.

Conclusion. We must take care of

the boy and young person. We must concern
ourselves also with the case of the adult who
in certain ways and in certain things is no less
a child than the child in years.

What is wanted then is an intelligent not a
fanatical propaganda on the one hand to
persuade the big public that too much cinema
is bad, just like too much wine, or too much
tobacco. It is strange to hears people some-
times boast of going to the cinema every
evening after the labours of the day — just
to rest themselves, they say.

We need also an energetic work by those
charged with watching over public shows
to control still better, not only the quality
but the duration of the performances. Cine-
mas, even the best ones, ought not to be
allowed to offer two entire film programmes
for some trifling charge in an entertainment
lasting three hours. Three continuous hours
of the cinema, with few or no intervals, is a
complete negation of the most elementary
rules of hygiene.

As to the desired regular commercial pro-
duction of educational films, I do not wish to
see the pedagogues become over anxious about
it. If it does not come to the establishment
of motion picture firms for the production
of educational films, no great harm will be
done. It is something like the case of edu-
cational books written expressly for children,
which rarely turn out to be real works of art.
In Italy, apart from Pinocchio and Cuore, we
have no examples. What we should do is to
choose among existing works of art those,
which — though not written expressly for
children — are the best suited to their mental
and moral development.

The world cinema production offers a
large choice. For example, I remember the
picture Nagana, which has plenty of instruc-
tive material (the tse-tse-fly and sleeping
sickness, the methods used by doctors for

neutralizing the effect of a microbe). The
educational element was also present (a
Japanese doctor sacrifices himself for science ;
another places duty before love). With all
this matter the picture was a success in the
cinematographic sense, that is, it was vivid,
alive, and without any too obvious pedagogic
intent to render it heavy.

I do not think it would be difficult to sketch
out other films that should be instructive and
educative without setting out to be so spec-
ially. This is the best type of educational
film. Many animated cartoons are small
masterpieces of humour. A little joyous
serenity flavoured with the comic is always an
excellent educational factor.

Just as there are papers for children
which grown-up people do not disdain to
read, so it should not be difficult today to
create a cinema for children in every city.
Children's Cinema, which should not be in a
school, should be a place where every father
and mother could take their children light-
heartedly, certain to be all amused, without
running any risk of harming the minds of
their offspring with unsuitable pictures and
scenes. Such shows should be short, gay,
serene, and all passions and evil thoughts or
actions should be inexorably excluded
from them.

This should be the rule up to a certain age,
until which no child should ever be allowed
to enter a cinema for adults.

To sum up :

The cinema with all its drawbacks is
essential to civilized life today. To suppress
it or prohibit it, is unthinkable.

Nevertheless, the cinema has drawbacks and
disadvantages, among which we may mention
as one of the worst, the cerebral excitement
and strain in the nervous system which it
can cause.

We must therefore use extreme care when
we show a child a motion picture. In the
schools, little or no cinema. Preference
should be given to other didactic means,
which are often as modern as the cinema
itself, and assist calm activity and the child's
natural creative instinct much better.

USE AND ABUSE OF THE CINEMA

61

Both with regard to the cinema within and
the cinema without the school, children
should be absolutely forbidden to visit
ordinary adult shows. The civilized nations
will not be long, I fancy in perceiving that
Switzerland is right. As a consequence :
we must organize special controlled projec-
tions suitable for children. We need a more
careful watch over the duration of a projec-
tion, even for shows intended for adults.

If, in connection with simple and benefic-
ial measures like these which I have sug-
gested, the International Institute of Educa-
tional Cinematography thought well to spon-
sor a widespread movement of reciprocal
understanding between the nations for a
common legislation which should safeguard
both child and adult, it would be worthily
fulfilling what is perhaps the most important
part of its educational task and would render
itself well-deserving of the old and new
generations.

(Editor's Note). Our contributor. Professor Mario
Bernabei, raises one of the most delicate problems
connected with the cinema, not merely or even
principally with the cinema in its didactic but in
its general or essentially theatrical aspect. Namely,
the use and abuse of the cinema.

It is an old theory that the normal use of a right
cannot in itself constitute a contravention of the
law ; and that, in fact, anyone whose actions are
kept within the limits of right must be considered
as morally honest. But when the exercise of any
right interferes with the normal rights of another,
either directly or indirectly, it may become an
abuse, even though it keeps within the terms of the
law.

This rule can be applied to the question we
are considering. The cinema, as we have said
repeatedly, may be equally the instrument of
destruction or of life to the spirit. It can open
wider and serener horizons before the mind, which
respond more closely to spiritual needs than the

restricteds horizons of heretofore, and is therefore a
spiritual comfort and refuge. It can also open
horizons which are opposed to everything that is
normal in life, and thus lead astray those whose
nerves and mind are not firm and well tempered.
In other words, use and abuse.

This, in brief, and leaving technical definitions
aside, is the substance of our contributor's thesis.

We must have a clear and definite idea of the good
and evil that may be done by the cinema. It may
be that no really definite ideas on this point are pos-
sible yet, because this formidable means of divulg-
ing and spreading thought in still in process of
formation, and we cannot yet discover its ultimate
ends, no matter how hard we try, and perhaps
never shall. It is just on account of the life that
the cinema can offer us, just because of all the multi-
ple suggestions that can be expressed on the lumin-
ous space of the screen, in its radiant waves rof
sound, music and word, that psychologists, psychia-
trists and all those whose chief business is concern-
ed with the necessity of safeguarding childhood
and youth in this field should use every endeavour
to find the best and reject the least suitable types of
film, and to decide how and in what direction the
cinema, that seventh power of social life, may be
utilized.

It is possible that the cinema may constitute a
danger in the life of today in the eyes of those who
make a study of social problems. Books also appear-
ed to be a danger, not so very long ago, to say
nothing of pictures, statues and engravings which
displayed the beauty of strength in individuals and
in races. Iconoclasm must be avoided, as well as
undue insistence on what may constitute a source
of danger.

But if the thesis of our contributor, who is a man
of science, is correct enough in principle, it is still
the duty of the Congress to call all its friends, near
and far, to the discussion of a problem which is
occupying everybody, and which is the closer to our
minds since it is a subject that intimately concerns
our children and young people, who will be the
artificers of the life of tomorrow, and to whom we
must offer simple, linear, easily understood things
which are above all suited to minds and spirits
in formation, without any deformations that may
be injurious to them.

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Editor and Responsible Manager

Rome — « L'Universale > Tipografia Poliglotta.

62

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FEBRUARY
1934

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

Monthly Publication
of the INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY (L. of N.)
Rome - I-a, Via Lazzaro Spallanzani - Rome

YEAR VI.

FEBRUARY 1934

N. 2.

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

THE CINEMA IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH — THE CINEMA IN
VARIONS PHASES OF WORK — THE CINEMA AND AGRI-
CULTURAL LIFE

R. Alessandri - S. Visco - E. Herz - A. Busi - A. Asca-
relli - E. Preisecker - M. Venditti - L. Barzetti - L.
Dreyfus Barney - G. Raffaelli - V. Hendrych - V. Co-
lombo - A. Marescalchi - A. Marozzi - K. Koefinger -

LlNDEMAN.

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING BODY

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of State, Professor of Law at the University of

Rome, President.
LUMIERE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.
BROWN J. W., Director of the British Film Institute.
CARTON DE WIART Count Henry, Minister of State, Member of the Child Welfare

Committee of the League of Nations.
FOCILLON Henri, Professor at the University of Paris, Member of the Permanent Committee

of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.
GANGULEE Nagendra Nath, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor of Agriculture and Rural

Economy at the University of Calcutta.
KOZMA Nicolas de, Ministerial Councillor, President-Director of the Hungarian Telegraph

Agency.
LLOPIS Rodolfo, Deputy in the Cortes, ex-General Director of Primary Education at

Madrid.
MISTRAL Gabrielle, Authoress, Ex-Directress of the Lycee for young girls at Santiago.
OPRESCU Georges, Professor at the University of Bucharest, Member of the Permanent

Committeee of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.
ORDYNSKI Ryzzard, President of the Polish Film Producers' Association.
REYNOLD Gonzago de, Professor at the University of Fribourg, Member of the Commission

for Intellectual Cooperation.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,
The President of the International Agricultural Institute,
The Director of the International Labour Office,
The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the LCI. C, Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW.
Dr. Luciano de FEO, Editor.

P. Berne de Chavannes, Ernest Holzer,

Giuseppe de Feo, Edward Storer,

Jose Maria GlMENO,

Maria Elena Apollonio, Secretary.

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

CINEMA AND SURGERY

BY

Professor Roberto Alessandri,

OF THE UnIVERSISTY OF RoME,

I think I may safely affirm that the only
really important progress made in recent
times in the technique of teaching has been
effected by the cinema. I propose to leave
aside a consideration of what can be done in
other fields and to confine myself to the de-
partment of medicine and more particularly
to the cinema teaching of clinical surgery
and operative medicine, which I was the first
to start in Italy. In a very interesting article
published in Scuole Fasciste (Fascist Schools)
Dr. Luciano de Feo recalls the now distant
time when we began those series of
surgical pictures, which were completed
through the work of the LUCE Institute, and
are still being continued. Even in those
days, Dr. de Feo, who was a pioneer in this
department, perceived the possibile develop-
ments of the idea. The first attempts on
these lines had the usual disadvantage of
being made and shown on too small a scale.

The operating surgeon and his assistants
were clearly visible, but not so the details of
the operation being filmed. With the ordin-
ary film then used, the blood made the whole
field of the operation seem almost black.

Since then we have devoted much time
and enthusiasm to improving the quality of
the pictures, especially from the point of
view of their didactic value. From the early
pictures which, as I have said, recalled those
of Doyen, where one saw chiefly doctors
and nurses and next to nothing of the opera-
tion which, owing to the blood, looked like one
uniform stain, we have come to make films
where the field of vision is entirely occupied

by the operation itself with just glimpses of
the surgeon's fingers. The enlargement that
is now possible allows a perfectly clear view
of the surgical technique followed, while the
panchromatic film diminishes and almost
eliminates the black aspect given by the blood,
which prevented a sight of the tissues under-
neath. To be able really to speak of the di-
dactic value of a film, this must be technically
perfect and adapted to the purpose it is sup-
posed to serve. I must insist on this point.
The question cannot be considered one only
of photographic technique, of careful focus-
sing of the lens, of proper distribution of
the means of illumination. The surgeon's
part is supremely important in motion pic-
tures of this kind, for we must remember
that through one eye a thousand eyes are
looking. Wherefore it is essential that the
details of the operation be executed and
projected in the most perfect and precise
manner possible. Neither hands or instru-
ments should obstruct the sight of the actual
operation. The motions of the hands and
the instruments should be shown as super-
ficially as possible, and it is better if they are
projected as slowly as possible.

It is only a film which can be considered
perfect from the didactic point of view that
will prove useful in teaching. I sometimes
wonder if we have yet succeeded in making
the right kind of surgical pictures, and I am
inclined to think that our success has only
been partial because an expert watching the
picture must realize that some phases of the
operation are very far from being clear.

72

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

Then we have those motion pictures which
consist partly of photographs and partly of
drawings. In my opinion, it would be per-
fectly possible to abandon the photographic
part of these combinations.

I do not deny that the explanation of the
movements of a needle in sewing up a wound
is much more easily explained and rendered
evident with an animated cartoon rather than
with a photograph, but this only means that
cinematogrephic technique has not risen to
the height of its task, because there can be no
doubt that the visual revelation of a good
photograph and an animated cartoon are two
very different things.

I do not mean these remarks as a criticism
of any recently projected pictures about which
I shall have to make some observations la-
ter on.

I think I am, up to now, the only professor
of Clinical Surgery who has systematically
introduced into the school the use of the
cinema for teaching, and who has a three years
experience of crowded halls like that of the
Rome University, in which the teaching is
obligatory for three years, with an average of
200 students per year. If I really wanted to
fulfil my task as teacher, illustrating the tech-
nique of operations to more than 400 students
at a time, with ordinary didactic means, I
should not be able to do so. The facts have
indeed borne this out. It is not possible
today to imagine showing delicate surgical
operations or even phases of them to more
than 500 students, if only on account of the
fact that the distance in itself would not allow
a proper sight of what takes place or even an
understanding of it. As often as not, in
operations, it is only the surgeon's assistant
who is able to see and follow thoroughly all
the phases of the operation. The students
cannot always do this. If, however, we place
our motion picture camera close to the field
of the operation and project the film so
obtained, those 500 students will be able to
see, follow and understand the intricacies of
the operation just as well as the surgeon's
assistant.

There is another important factor in the

case. During the actual operation, the sur-
geon can spare very little time to explain what
he is doing, to point out the different organs
of the body and the technique of the operation
Generally he cannot do more than give a
few hasty words of explanation which must
certainly be incomplete. In the case of the
filmed operation, nothing of this sort takes
place. On the contrary, the professor's own
words can illustrate the operation exhaust-
ively, leading the student up to perfect
understanding and grasp of what has been
done. This form of explanation can now be
given contemporaneously with the picture of
the operation, thanks to the sound film.

During a recent lecture tour in America, I
took with me some films showing operations,
and personal methods of technique. I was
able to add a sound comment in English to
some of the pictures, so that the illustration
was both visual and oral.

In my clinic, where I give six lessons a
week, one of these is dedicated to the projec-
tion of a film which reproduces an operation
on a man who has already undergone a pre-
vious operation that has been shown on the
screen. I generally use fixed photographs
to explain the nature of the operation, and
show the part of the body concerned. Then
I explain what the operation purposes to do
in the particular case before us, again using
stills or drawings. I then give the picture of
the actual operation to minds which have
already been prepared to understand it.

My experience during the last three years
has convinced me that this method of teach-
ing is very valuable, and that there is nothing
at present to take its place.

Having thus shown and affirmed through
experience the didactic importance of the
surgical film, a large number of serious prac-
tical questions arise. Ought we to seek to
create a repository of pictures by various
authors, or is it more useful to have personal
pictures at our disposal ? When the students
are not very numerous, the question can be

THE CINEMA IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

73

answered by accepting the first hypothesis,
but not in other circumstances. Like all
arts, surgery has always a personal touch to it,
which is far from being unimportant, and we
cannot think that teaching can be done by
adapting one's ideas to those of another.
Dr. de Feo has stated that there are over fifty
motion pictures of operations for appendicitis,
and there is nothing to be surprised at in
this, because there are a great number of
possibilities of variations of technique in
this connection. For the purpose of teach-
ing students, it is not advisable to vary the
technique much. The picture should be
made to follow the lines of how the operator
ordinarily does the operation.

Otherwise, the picture will be more suitable
for a student already acquainted with the
technique, and be rather a finishing method
than anything else. We have, as a matter of
fact, such finishing schools already in use
for men holding degrees, and they are gener-
ally frequented by surgeons anxious to learn
the latest ideas m technique, especially for-
eign school technique.

Surgeons often visit other clinics and
hospitals for this particular purpose, and also

to watch the latest developments. It is
therefore logical that they should see opera-
tions on the screen, which system costs much
less, is more convenient and more profit-
able, and will continue to be more so as the
technique of the film improves.

It is therefore to be hoped that with this
end in view exchanges of surgical motion
pictures be encouraged among the various
national and foreign schools, since films of this
special character are naturally limited in num-
ber, and must belong to the major institutes.

The difficulties of spreading a didactic
means, which is so important as this, depend
less on technical than economic reasons.

If we teachers take the matter in hand, the
solution of the problem ought not to be dif-
ficult, and it is hoped it will be solved in a
short time. The sub-standard film is a step
in the right direction. Under the auspices
of the International Institute of Educational
Cinematography, it ought not to be difficult
to arrange a free or at least a semi-gratuitous
exchange of films between the various best
known scientific institutes, confining the
matter for the time being to university schools
and post-graduates courses.

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

THE MOTION PICTURE IN RESEARCH
WORK AND THE SPREAD OF SCIENCE

BY

Professor Sabato Visco

of the University of Rome.

Necessity of Auxili- T^he scientist.wheth-
ary Means in the 1 er ne ;s exam.
Exact Study of ;mng phenomena by

Science. ■,• L

direct observation or

trying to produce them by complicated and
extremely delicate experiments, is always
concerned about being exact.

Under the spur of this need, he continually
refines and improves his methods of inquiry
and defines their possibilities and the limits
within which they can profitably be utilized,
because he knows that it is only the truths
which are discovered under these conditions
which will form an enduring addition to our
store of scientific knowledge, and be of ser-
vice to humanity in its spiritual and material
life.

In view of this need of exactitude, the ap-
plication of mathematical calculations to
scientific research becomes daily more im-
perious and widespread, and the modern
scientist is fully conscious of the fact that real
progress is made every time he is able to
express a fact by a number, because it is only
then that he believes himself to have suc-
ceeded in defining the phenomenon in the
aspect most necessary for him, namely the
quantitative aspect.

In view of this necessity for precision and
exactitude, the possibilities of direct obser-
vation become constantly more limited, and
the results continually less precise and de-
finite, while, on the other hand, instrumental
research becomes more widespread and of
greater importance.

Our senses react to stimuli that are contain-
ed within limited boundaries, and therefore
everything that is outside these boundaries
escapes direct observation, and we can get
some notion of them only if we make use of
devices that will transform them into sensa-
tions which we can perceive.

It is well known, for instance, that the
hearing is affected only by vibrations of a
frequency of between 1 1 ,000 and 50,000 per
second, and that anything below or above
this frequency is not perceptible to our hear-
ing. It is equally well known that all vibra-
tions of the ether do not produce a sensation
of luminosity, but merely those which vary
in frequency from 4,3.1 014 and 7,5. 1014 per
second.

Nor are our senses infallible ; on the con-
trary, they have made man commit colossal
errors, from some of which he has succeeded
in liberating himself only after centuries of
laborious research and close reasoning.

Having freed himself from the prejudice
that the senses are infallible, and having re-
cognized their limited possibilities, the scien-
tist has had to look for auxiliary means to aid
him in his search for truth, and has found
them in instruments of precision which have
revealed to him the existence of unknown
fields in those very worlds where direct ob-
servation had been absolutely without fruit.

In the analytical effort to decompose into
its simplest elements a phenomenon which
is too complex to be understood easily and
with certainty, the scientist, as Marey ob-

THE CINEMA IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

75

serves, has succeeded in creating more power-
ful senses for himself, making his sight more
penetrating by using the telescope, to explore
the immensity of space, and the microscope,
to bring to light the world of the infin-
itely small. With balance and compass he
has been able to determine with exactitude
the weight and volume of bodies, which he
could have done but very roughly by
simple touch.

When a phenomenon is so minute or is
produced so rapidly that we cannot perceive
it, or when it develops at such a slow rate
that it would be impossible for us to follow
it through its various phases, when, that
is to say, it occurs within those limits where
the eye ceases to see and the ear to hear, or
the sense of touch to feel, or also when our
perceptions deceive us, these instruments
reveal senses to us that are of portentous pre-
cision and become the indispensable inter-
mediaries between mind and matter.

Nothing can be done in physics, chemistry
or astronomy without the aid of research
instruments, and physical and chemical agents
are more completely demonstrated and are
better defined by the characteristics which
are revealed by instrumental analysis alone.
The naturalist, when he realized the need of
no longer having to restrict his activities to
the observation of the forms of animal and
plant organization and desired instead to
investigate the conditions and manifesta-
tions of life, was likewise forced to have re-
course to instrumental analysis and to pro-
ceed in the same way as the chemist and
physicist.

It is only in this way that the human mind
has been able to get outside the circle in
which it had been enclosed for centuries, con-
templating the superficies of objects and the
less important manifestations of the phenom-
ena of nature, and consuming in sterile
dialectics that power which it uses today to
carry out rigorous observations for the sat-
isfaction of its need of causal explanation.
If we leave aside the telescope, microscope
and a few other apparata, it may almost be
said that the progress of instrumental re-

search began with the first years of the nine-
teenth century, increasing from then on-
wards in a marvellous way which detaches
inquiry more and more from direct obser-
vation and eliminates every element of sub-
jectivity from the description of phenomena.
The first instruments to appear and take
firm hold and impose their use were those
of graphic registration ; but this method was
found to be not altogether satisfactory for a
large number of phenomena, and was grad-
ually replaced by optical registration, which
opened new paths that are still being fol-
lowed with magnificent results.

The Cinematograph We come now to the

Applied to Scien- moment when the pos-

tific Research, and sJbi,itJes and adyan,

its Principal Funo . t L , , .

tages or photographic
tions. .

registration were be-
ginning to be realized, and to the first stage
of those experiments and studies which were
later to culminate in that most perfect of
instruments, the cinematographic camera.

In the beginning, scientists saw only a
powerful aid for the analysis of certain
phenomena in photographic registration,
and their experiments were therefore restrict-
ed to the search for those subjects which
would allow of the taking of a large number
of photograms in a unit of time. The
utility of the decomposition of the synthesis
of movements into their constituent elements
was not realized until later, when scientists
had a clear notion, through the very results
of the analysis, of the advantages that could
be drawn from the recomposition of move-
ments under the most suitable conditions
for studying them.

Cinematography, applied to scientific re-
search, fulfils two distinct functions. The
first is of a documentary nature, and there-
fore enables us to see, study and repeat at
will the demonstration of photographically
registered facts. The second is intended to
compensate the insufficiency of one of our
senses, and thereby to render visible a vast
complexity of phenomena which are inacces-
sible to direct observation.

76

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

The documentary function of the cinema-
tograph is of self-evident utility, because it
faithfully reproduces common events and
phenomena or those which occur at long
intervals, such as astronomical events ;
because it fixes the evolution of delicate ex-
periments which necessitate the use of costly
material or of difficult technique, or which
cannot easily be repeated ; and because it
serves to facilitate the exchange between stu-
dents of the knowledge of certain technical
processes which even the minutest descrip-
tion fails to illustrate in all their clearness and
completeness. There are pathological phe-
nomena which occur bu trarely, surgical opera-
tions, which necessitate a special technique,
telluric movements, etc., all of which can be
fixed and documented by the cinema to re-
main only as permanent records, but also
as objects of detailed study since the view of
the phenomenon or phenomena can not only
be repeated as often as necessary, but can also
be compared with similar phenomena veri-
fied in the past or in other parts of the world.
Where, in fact, we used to make drawings,
with all their inherent limitations and inevit-
able subjective quality, we are now gradual-
ly substituting cinematography, which gives
us an objective and dynamic view of every
fact and event.

The Study of Mo- The cinematograph is
vement and Ac- snown to be a valuable
celerated and Slow instrument 0f sc;en_

Motion Reproduo -r i

tine research every

time that it is applied
to the study of movement.

There are movements which take place so
rapidly that the eye cannot perceive their
different phases, so that they give the im-
pression of being instantaneous, while there
are others which develop so slowly that they
appear stationary. In both of these cases,
the cinema is found to be a marvellous instru-
ment of research.

The beat of an insect's wing lasts only the
fraction of a second, and the flight of a rifle
bullet as it passes before our eyes is so swift
that we do not see it. Such movements as

these can only be analysed by means of the
motion picture, because it is only the cinema
which can both register them and also repro-
duce them under the most suitable conditions
for their study.

The growth of a plant, for instance, is such
a slow phenomenon that it is extremely dif-
ficult to follow it throughout its whole cycle,
which often lasts for years ; and therefore
we can follow its development in those per-
iods when it is important to know it, only
very imperfectly. The cinematograph, how-
ever, can register every one of these mo
ments, and when we need it can give us a
dynamic reproduction of the phenomenon
in being and the effect produced on it by the
various natural agents, sun, light, water etc.

Thus we may throw on the screen in the
space of a few moments, all the details of
certain phenomena which are spread over a
period of years and which, without the aid
of the cinematograph, we can know only
in their different stages without being able
to follow their development in its continuity.

The cinematograph, therefore, acts on
time, modifying the development of certain
phenomena, which cannot be fixed by direct
observation in consequence of the speed or
slowness with which it takes place (Coman-
don). The two most important processes of
the scientific cinematograph are based on
these possibilities namely, the accelerated
and slow motion reproduction of phenomena.

Micro-cinematogra- In the last few years.
phy, Dynamic Aer- through the work of
ial Research and certaJn bioiog;stS) we

the Cinema. L j j •

have succeeded in com-
bining the cinematograph with the micro-
scope and the ultra-microscope, thus opening
new and unsuspected possibilities for scien-
tific research. Micro-cinematography and
ultra-micro-cinematography are already be-
ginning to give a valuable contribution to
the growth of our cognitions.

In the domain of biology, the cinema is the
necessary complement of very many studies
of living elements, because it enables us to
analyse and synthetize and define the methods

THE CINEMA IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

77

of reaction to the various stimuli with the
utmost exactitude.

Fundamental results have been obtained
in the studies on " vitro " cultures which
have been made in nearly all the biological
laboratories of the world, and especially in
the biological laboratory of the Rockfeller
Foundation in New York. The researches
made by Faure, Fremiet, de Francoise Frank,
Vies and many others on the kinetics of de-
velopment form a fresh treasury of facts
wrested from science. Jolly and Comandon
have registered the movements of the chro-
mosomes in the canocinesis of the haema-
tia of tritons.

In other fields there have been, perhaps
fewer applications, but the results have cer-
tainly been no less important and signifi-
cant. Victor Henri has registered and ana-
lysed the Brownwinian movements of the
minutest particles suspended in liquids. Dr.
Siedentopp has made motion pictures of the
photo-chemical transformation of white phos-
phorus into red phosphorus.

In ballistic studies, new light has been
thrown on the speed of projectiles and the
way they pass through certain resistant bod-
ies, and new progress has been made in
this field.

Aero-dynamic research has found a val-
uable aid in certain cinematographic ma-
chines which have been expressly manufac-
tured and which enable us to take a simultan-
eous registration of three images, that is to
say, the object, the chronometer at 1/500 of
a second and the registrator of the angle of
horizontal displacement. These apparata
enable us to measure the speed of air ma-
chines at the moment of starting and land-
ing.

Scientific Institutes In the field of the scien-
and Cinematograph tjnc organization of la-
Applications. boui% the dnema con,

tinually gives us more numerous and more
important contributions. Indeed, certain
great manufacturing organizations have set
up psycho-technical laboratories of their
own where the cinematograph is frequently

made use of for special experiments and for
the examination of men seeking work.

The principal scientific institutions of the
world are continually improving and develop-
ing their cinematograph installations. In
France, for instance, the cinematograph ser-
vice of the army, the navy and aviation makes
an extensive use of moving pictures for the
improvement of machines and motors and
for ballistic instruments. The National Re-
search and Patent Office possesses a special
organization which makes use of the film
for purposes of investigation and documen-
tation. In the Marey Institute, the cinema-
tograph is one of the means of study most
used, while the College of France has a
complete and well equipped micro-cinema-
tographic installation which is under the dir-
ection of Mde Francoise Frank, and another
in the Cancer Institute of the Medical Fac-
ulty in Paris. The University of Lyons has
also a modern micro-cinematographic labor-
atory. (Comandon).

In England, Germany and Japan, cinema-
tograph organizations for scientific research
are continually growing in number and
importance. In the universities of Yale and
Harvard, special pavilions have been built
and fitted out with every modern camera and
projection apparatus, while in Russia, at
the instigation of Pawlew and other illustrious
scientists, the application of cinema apparatus
to scientific research is rapidly gaining
ground.

The Use of the Cin- There are two fields

ema for Science ;n wnjch a knowledge

Classes in Schools. c j . 1

or science needs to be

spread, namely in schools and among the

general public. In the former case, we use

didactic films ; in the latter, films belonging to

what may be called cultural cinematography.

Forty years have passed since the first

presentation of the cinema to the public,

and thirty-six years since the youthful Dr.

Dayen had a film made of one of his surgical

operations. The problem of the didactic

cinema is still with us, and is the subject

of lively discussions, which seem likely to

78

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

continue. Some teachers still have doubts as
to the utility of the film in teaching, while on
the other hand others are of the opinion that
by this means we shall at last be able to solve
all the complicated didactic questions that
have been so much discussed. There is
complete disagreement on this question,
for instance, in the philosophic world, and
side by side with enthusiastic supporters
of the cinema as an excellent means of teach-
ing in philosophy, we find others who strongly
deny this possibility, and even go so far as to
maintain by a series of subtle arguments,
that the adoption of the film is more harm-
ful than useful, since it stultifies the teacher's
didactic aptitude and distracts the pupil.
Each of these points of view contains an
exaggeration, but as a matter of fact, while
it is not easy to understand what real aid the
film can be in the teaching of philosophy,
the assistance that it can give in the didac-
tic explanation of several other branches of
knowledge is obvious. Horace's dictum
" est inter Tanain quiddam socerumque Vi-
seli. . . ' might be used in this case also.

The use of the film as a visual aid in
teaching is rather limited in Italy, but it is
very widely used abroad, with different aims
and procedures, in schools of all degrees, so
that we have in hand the results of a long
and widespread experience which enables us
to draw fairly sure conclusions on the im-
portance and efficacy of the didactic film.

Wherever the didactic cinema has been
used with circumspection, it has given ex-
cellent results and has shown itself to be one
of the most suitable means for aiding the
teacher in his work. This holds good for al-
most all subjects and schools, from the kin-
dergarten, where it stirs the children's
imagination, to the university, where it re-
produces before the students the most im-
portant natural phenomena and the most
complicated and difficult experiments.

The cinema brings movement and truth
into the school ; it brings life, broadens the
narrow horizons of our minds, reveals the
different aspects of the universe, and brings
near to us the most distant beings and things.

It not only serves to fill our minds with use-
ful knowledge, but it also raises them to the
ideal.

It is a long time since demonstrations on
the blackboard began to be a valuable aid
to teachers ; and the screen may be con-
sidered as an improvement and development
of the blackboard. Facts live and palpitate
on it, and take a tangible form that cannot be
forgotten.

Moving pictures show events and phenom-
ena in their successive phases, and are
therefore immeasurably superior to fixed
projections, wall pictures and so on, which
show only one aspect of the phenomenon,
one moment of its development.

Further, what is seen always leaves a deep-
er impression than what is narrated, and we
may say with Horace, in his " Poetic Art "
Segnius irritant animos demissa per aurem,
quam quae sunt oculis submissa fidelibus et quae
Ipse sibi tradit spectator. . .

The question becomes more serious, and
opinions are in greater disagreement when
we try to settle what form the didactic film
should take and how far it should go, when,
in other words, we discuss the relation that
should exist between teacher and film.

The Didactic Film, The didactic cinema
Scholastic Grades js above all illustrative,
and the Teacher'. and should serye as

a demonstration of
what the teacher is explaining ; or it should
reproduce phenomena which the teacher is
describing. Films must vary in content
and form of execution according to the grade
of the school for which they are intended.
It is, I consider, a fundamental error to sup-
pose that a teaching film can be suitable for
schools of different grades, and this is one of
the reasons, and perhaps not the least, why
the didactic film has not yet arrived at that
universal use which it ought to enjoy.

The film may to some extent be considered
like a book in which the descriptive part is
reduced to a minimum, and the illustrative
part developed to the highest degree. Since

THE CINEMA IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

79

a book is of value only for the class for which
it was prepared, so it is with the film.

For the boy who goes to school for the
first time, taking with him the living sensa-
tion of the country, moving objects, and
the life that flows in and from everything
with the same restlessness as from his own
muscles, the film should be based more on
formative than on informative criteria, and
should be the reproduction of simple natural
scenery ; so that the boy has the sensation
that life continues around and before him in
the school just as out in the world. A film
based on such a conception may be used,
except in certain special cases, in both town
and country and in different sectors of the
same nation. Further, in schools of this
grade, where the didactic qualities of the
teacher have not even the possibility of being
fully utilized, it seems to me that there would
be no harm in making use of films that re-
produce entire lessons. Films of this kind
stimulate the faculty of observation in the
pupil, and frequently avoid the difficulties
caused by the use of a too scientific language.

A child understands the meaning of what
it sees reproduced on the film, and although
it may not be able to give an exact descrip-
tion of it or make use of the proper expres-
sions, it will at least remember the meaning
and succession of the facts that have appeared
before its eyes. Educators know that it is
better for the pupil to make an effort to
find the proper words to express an idea or
a concept than for his mind to be filled with
terms whose meaning he does not know.

On the basis of these considerations, some
of the big cinematograph firms and cultural
associations, and the numerous State and
State subsidized organizations have prepared
and continue to prepare daily many series
of films, which may render considerable ser-
vice in teaching if they are properly utilized.
The problem becomes more difficult when
the teaching reaches a higher grade and the
didactic aptitude is of more importance, when
in substance, the efficacy of the teaching is
closely bound up with the personality of the
teacher and the method of teaching he adopts,

Now, these personal qualities cannot be
revealed in any way when the film reprodu-
ces an entire lesson ; and the teaching that is
based on rigid lines is empty, cold and life-
less. The lesson that is all ready, cut and
dried spoils good teaching, and does not im-
prove bad teaching.

A firm which produces didactic cinemato-
graph material recently prepared several
series of films which have certain qualities
that are worth recording. In the first place,
each film is executed in such a way as to con-
stitute a complete lesson on a well defined
question. The scenario is prepared with the
same care and exactitude as when a model
lesson or a school primer is bemg prepared,
and each film is entrusted to a specialized
director, after the elements composing its
have been examined and approved by a ri-
gorous and meticulous technical expert.
Each film is also accompanied by a pamphlet
of ten or twenty pages describing it scene
by scene, indicating the points which should
be particularly studied by the master be-
fore the projection is given, and suggesting
comparisons and questions to be put to the
pupils.

What object is served by these films, which
I have seen highly praised in certain news-
papers ? Is it possible that their authors do
not realize that they reduce the teacher's
function to that of a cameraman, and that
by making use of them the master will
find himself forced to walk on chalked lines
which he dare not leave without risk of dis-
turbing the order and evolution of a lesson
which is frequently quite differently arrang-
ed from the way he would like to give it,
and which more often still is quite unsuited
for his pupils and the lines on which he
wishes his teaching to proceed. The con-
tents and technique of a didactic film must
be changed gradually wth the rising grade
of the school, and such films must be a
supple adiumentum in the hands of the teacher
which he can make use of as the needs of
his explanations require.

Each film must reproduce detached facts,
and phenomena of short duration. Im-

80

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

pressive surroundings and anything that
merely serves to enrich the scenes must be
eliminated, and the reading matter must be
reduced to a minimum, like the titles of
chapters in a book. These films must also
be so arranged that they combine together
and complete one another, like a series of
lantern slides, according to the different
ends the teacher proposes to attain.

The subjects must be well chosen, and the
examples given must be typical. Further,
it must be remembered that the cinemato-
graph serves merely for the reproduction
of the images of moveable objects, and it
is useless to employ a film when a lantern
slide would serve the purpose. There is
not much sense, in fact, in giving moving
views of scenes that are immoveable or of
quiet roads, etc.

The film, therefore, must not take the
place of experimental material or models or

the laboratory, since nothing can improve
the didactic value of experiments made be-
fore the students, or the presentation of
objects just as they are found in nature.

Even with these limitations, the cinema has
become at the present day one of the most
powerful means for the spread of scientific
knowledge, and indeed, it should have an
increasingly wider application in our schools.

Use should be made of it in the teaching
of every science ; and to the chemist and
physicist, the mathematician and engineer,
the biologist and the doctor it is indispen-
sable.

The advantages that it offers in the teach-
ing of medicine in general and of surgery
in particular are absolutely incalculable ;
and therefore any financial sacrifice which
may be required to endow our teaching insti-
tutions with such an efficacious didactic
means will be fully justified.

SCIENTIFIC CINEMATOGRAPHY IN MEDICINE

By Dr. Ernst Hertz, Professor at the University of Frankfurt.

In all special branches of medical science the stu-
dent must always remember that the phenomena
examined take place in a living organism, and that
therefore the student has to do with natural phenom-
ena, the rule governing which is evolution from
one state to another. It never happens that the
entire body, is in a state of absolute immobility
right down to its smallest parts, as long as it it is
alive. There is always some active process going
on, for life is this : never remaining still in one state.
Life is not immobility, life is movement, and it
moves in a very precise direction governed by regu-
lar laws. The manifestation of such vital move-
ments is not only shown by the active man in his
various actions and motions. The internal organs,
the heart, lungs and stomach have movements of
their own ; blood runs through the veins, the lymph
passes from cell to cell. Even the cells, the smallest
elements in the human body which seem apparently
immobile, manifest signs of motion as a proof of
their very existence. Our skin does not cover
us like some inanimate sheath, but its individual
cells are continually changing shape, splitting up,
dividing and moving about, as active as all the

other parts of the body, the movements of which
can be observed with the naked eye.

It is not possible to describe all the wealth of the
phenomena of movement which the body presents
and all their variations in the diseased body. A
knowledge of such movements and activity, however,
allows us to understand very clearly why medicine
takes advantage in its scientific laboratories of a
discovery consisting of a mechanism known as
" the writing of movement ", in other words, the
motion picture. The object of the first series of
scientific motion pictures taken by Muybridge was
to settle, if when a horse gallops or trots it is suspend-
ed in air for any portion of its movement. The
physiologist Marey constructed a special apparatus
to study the walk of man. He also invented the
photographic rifle to analyse the flight of birds.
H Many of the improvements in cinema apparatus
come from the work of scientists who built them-
selves special machines to study motor phenomena
which it interested them to analyse. In the mean-
time, the motion picture conquered the world. The
further it got from the scientist's laboratory, however,
the further it departed from its true purpose, which

THE CINEMA IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

81

is to allow a study of movements and motion. What
we see often enough on the screen today is too fre-
quently not a composition of actions and movements
but a succession of images following one another.
The scientific film differs from the film with a
subject especially on account of the fact that there
is in the former no building up of images more or
less detached from reality, but a reproduction of
natural facts which are useful for teaching or analysis.
The original use and meaning of the cinema cannot
therefore be cancelled from the mind by what has
happened since its introduction. The cinema
is, in the scientist's hand, an instrument like the
microscope to reveal minute tissues, or like the
telescope to bring far off planets within our ken.

To begin with, naturally the motion picture is
used for establishing a series of movements from
which the spectator will gain the impression of
certain facts with the same clarity as would be avail-
able in a first hand impression. In written explana-
tions, the most minute and precise description can
never equal the impression given from first hand
acquaintance with the object being described. The
film can give this identical first hand impression, and,
moreover, can repeat it at will. In this way there
came into circulation a large number of demonstrative
instructional pictures illustrating most of the various
branches of medicine which it is unnecessary to set
forth here. It will suffice to mention a few essential
points. In all practical branches of medicine, the
motion picture demonstration is specially important
when it comes to giving a visible exhibition of func-
tional disturbances, operations and medical manipu-
lations. It is often enough, to show the picture once
to secure its being understood, but the addition of
explanatory " stills " is useful for clarity's sake.
Recently, A. W. FlSCHER (Deutsche Medizinische
Wochenschrift, 1932 N° 14) (Walzel Eichelter.
D. M. W., 1932 N° 26) has insisted on the impor-
tance of the motion picture in teaching surgery.
It is possible ' with simple apparatus to photo-
graph typical manifestations of the exterior of the
human body which are important from both the
therapeutical and diagnostic points of view. The
cinematograph action must be composed in such
a way as to interest and strike the attention im-
mediately . In addition, it is necessary to reproduce
particular observations and rare operations which
are special cases for teaching students. The cinema
technique of filming operations has not yet been
sufficiently developed, although the manufacturers
of motion picture cameras have gone so far as
to construct apparatus which prevents the camera-
man from interfering in any way with the opera-

tive act. Machines of this kind are generally arrang-
ed above the field of the operation and set in motion
with motors regulated from a distance. In this way
it is possible to have a clear and complete picture
of the operation without disturbing . its progress.
The use of cameras using two colour film (Busch
machines) helps the clearness of the pictures, because
the blood which flows in an operation produces a
completely black effect in an ordinary monochrome
film. The film of an operation is not exclusively
a didactic picture. It affords the surgeon the oppor-
tunity of running it off for his own benefit and
watching his work in comparison with that of other
surgeons. It is often the case that a student of
facts and phenomena can get a better idea of them
from a motion picture than from actually seeing
them happen in real life. It is almost impossible to
describe the movements of single parts of the body
of an agitated person who is making uncontrolled
gestures and movements without the attention
being distracted by movements of other parts of
the body or by vocal expression. The mechanical
apparatus is much surer than the students's waver-
ing attention. The machine registers what it sees,
and is indifferent to anything else. If we use more
than one camera we can obtain close up pictures of
the details of movements as well as an image of the
whole phenomenon.

Cameras for motion pictures must have special
characteristics when we wish to use them in connec-
tion with X rays for registering internal phenomena
of the human body. X rays are not refracted in
photographic lenses, and can only be used by means
of a screen, which is an indirect process.

With the Janker Gottheiner e Jacobson system,
it is possible to take motion pictures with X rays at a
speed of 1 6 photograms a second, and it is even poss-
ible to make pictures that can be used with the slow
motion projector or with accelerated running off.
Especially interesting analyses have been made
possible through a combination of X ray cinemato-
graphy and the sound track. (See Leo Jacobsson :
Sound Film and X rays on the Human Heart.
D. M. W. 1933 N» 9).

Serums, bacteriology, histology and anatomy
require micro-cinematographic cameras, that is
cameras to which a microscope is attached. In this
way, through subsequent enlargement, we can
throw on the screen in perfect visibility for a large
public phenomena only ordinarily visible under the
microscope.

The kind of motion picture which we have
spoken of so far only includes reproductions of
facts which we can see with our naked eye or by

82

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

using glasses. A cinema apparatus made in a
special way allows us to render visible motive acts
which would otherwise be unobservable. We
cannot in the ordinary way perceive the growth of a
flower or the opening of the folds of a bud. It is
only possible by making references to intervals of
time to establish the fact of the movement, that is
its growth and development. By means of the accel-
erated running of the picture, it is possible to
quicken these slow movments of flowers and plants
without destroying their proper individual rhythm.
A whole new world has been revealed by this discov-
ery. Phenomena such as the growth or division
of cells which up till recently it was only possible to
study through single and casual images can be ob-
served today as one complete event, the intermediate
phases of which no longer require intellectual
representation in order to be understood. The
technical characteristics and the working of the accel-
erating process with other connected questions are
treated in detail in a work by Kolle, Laubenheimer,
VoLMAR. (Internationale Lehrfilmschau, October
1932).

It is not true that films of this kind are only useful
for demonstration purposes. Specialized cinema
apparatus have become the starting-point for a
whole series of biological researches, and have led
to the study of a variety of problems, the importance
of which is not yet sufficiently recognized. The
use of the motion picture to obtain a better under-
standing of motive processes in the field of physiology
and pathology of movements has proved an indispen-
sable aid. The motion picture fixes the wavering
process of movement, and the image thus fixed allows
us to make an analytic study of its development.

The comparison between diverse images observed
in different places and at various times allows us
to make valuable conclusions. This is the reason
why the film was chosen as the means to classify the
states of agitation in mental disorders which in gener-
al are very difficult to distinguish from one another.
An accurate analysis of complicated motor phenom-
ena has been made during the last few years in
the clinic for mental and nervous diseases, of
Frankfurt (Director : Professor Klesit). In
proceeding with the classification of various images,
it was possible to observe recurrent positions.

The observations and deductions which it has
been possible to make in the course of a number of
years have rendered it practicable to perceive with a
certain probability of correctness the hyper-cinetic
psychoses capable of cure, (Motor psychoses and
disturbances : Kleist), also cathatonies of a malig-
nant nature and the exterior aspect of certain states

of agitation. Numerous other problems have been
treated in this fashion ; such as cases of paralysis,
encephalitis and other morbid conditions having their
origin in the brain. Similar or identical motor
phenomena with those perceptible in endogenous
psychosis leading to a study of cerebral psychopathy
provide subjects for similar studies.

In cases of mental diseases with symptoms of
restlessness, it is generally sufficient to project a
film of the case once or twice to recognize the charac-
teristic motor symptoms, as well as for distinguish-
ing expressive or reactive movements or paracinesis
as well as for making observations of the irregular
return of certain phenomena. When, however, we
are not dealing with certain known motor charac-
teristics or with determined developments of actions
but rather with single irregular movements of similar
aspect, we can only observe and register their charac-
teristics and particularities by means of more minute
cinematographic analysis. In order to differentiate
between the various forms of restlessness and mental
disturbance, it was necessary first of all to establish
the type of the movement, its rhythm, the alternat-
ing phases, the course of the individual movements
and the manner of their succession. In this the
simple projection of the film is not enough. It is
necessary to study in a slow motion projection the
individual sucessions, examining them often, image
by image, and comparing movements, attitudes and
positions. In the case of very rapid motion, as in
tremours or the tic, it has only proved possible to
attempt the analysis after having slowed down the
movements with the aid of the slow motion projector,
because in an ordinary succession of images, the
effect would be far from clear. By counting the
number of the photograms, it has also been possible
to establish the time and to determine the rhythm
of the action as in tremours of the body. In any
case, such precise form of research is required be-
cause it is impossible to classify determined groups
and include them in definite phenomena in any
other way. (See Hertz ; Amiostatic Phenomena of
Agitation, Leipzig, 1932 Ambrosius Barke).

When a complex of movements is formed from
single and individual movements with small starts
and tremours and when, moreover, these brief
movements take place quickly, the human eye cannot
appreciate the particulars without some assistance.
The motor reflex actions due to fright (Strauss) the
movements of the pupils, (LoWENSTElft) and the
movements of nystagmus (miners eye disease)
can only be analysed through a careful study of indi-
vidual photographs. We cannot even observe and
register the subtle particular differences of the tipyca

THE CINEMA IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

83

manner of movement of individuals which give them
their individuality and characteristics by mere
naked eye observation. The study of individual
motor action of persons would require the use of
the motion picture.

I became convinced of this by studying the move-
ments of an orchestra conductor.

The film should also have considerable utility if
used for expert proof of personality by fixing defin-
itely the fleeting but characteristic movements,
attitudes and gestures of an individual, so as to pre-
sent them in the form of irrefutable evidence.

The individual scientist who uses scientific films
for his own analyses ought to keep it clearly in mind
that the object of his precious material does not end
with him. It is inconceivable that motion pictures
made in clinics and laboratories by scientists should
be kept to a restricted circle and afterwards be for-
gotten in film archives. For purely practical rea-
sons, and also to assist the progress of science, such
material ought to be distributed in the form of
scientific didactic motion pictures.

Only a film manual, put together with the collabor-
ation of all those who use the film for scientific
purposes, is capable of giving a proper knowledge
and understanding of the various motor processes
and disturbances of the human body. Work has
already begun in Germany on a list of all extant
medical motion pictures. Some small attempt only
has so far been made to place such material at the
disposal of those anxious to make a didactic use of it.
These attempts ought to be supported by a central
body. An International Central Institute would be
able to avoid useless repetitions of scientific films by
a process of concentration. A list of existing pic-
tures would assist the scientist in his choice.

The idea that it might be possible to know from
one week to another the state of the production and
the available quantity of scientific films ought to
give a strong help to any initiative for classification
of didactic pictures. Finally, a central body could
easily overcome the difficulty of financing the
enterprise, in this way freeing labour and energy
for the benefit of science.

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

X - RAY CINEMATOGRAPHY

BY

Prof. Aristide Busi

Director of the Institute of Medical Radiology at the University of Rome.

A NYONE entering a

The Study of the

Human Body. £~ \. dissecting room

for the first time and seeing a human body
dismembered piece by piece, with the organs
and viscera laid bare and isolated, cannot
help feeling, in addition to a sense of pity
and wonder, a desire to understand how that
heart which lies red and flaccid on the marble
was pulsating only a few days before, and
how those lungs that lie shrivelled at the
side were swelling in the fulness of life.

But who could ever divine, looking at the
bloodless, rigid face of an unknown man,
the complex, conscious play of those muscles
that formerly expressed the slightest emotion
of his mind ? When has death ever succeeded
in giving us the whole truth on life ?

Anyone, passing from the anatomical
examination to an Institute of Physiology,
that he may learn, for instance, with what
movements of preparation and propulsion
food, passing from the mouth to the pharynx,
is directed into the aesophagus, what checks
and releases occur to it on its way to the
stomach, how the latter becomes animated
and seizes hold of it and works on it, or
that he may learn how a heart beats, will
find that there are two different ways of
studying the same thing.

Systems of Other
Times.

One of these is very
complicated, and con-
sists of certain writings traced on smoked
paper by needles which oscillate in response
to the movements transmitted to them, by
means of special devices, from one or other

of the internal organs of the body. But these
writings are in a language that is clear only to
the initiated.

The other is atrocious. We see the living
heart at last, but through the split-open
breast of an animal, which thus pays for the
terrible privilege of having a viscera which
is identical with ours, which functions like
ours and beats like ours for love or pain. I
still remember, in the second year of my
medical studies at the university, my first
lesson on the physiology of the heart. I can
see the little dog tied down, with his breast
cut open, and at the bottom of the bleeding
gap something that was moving rapidly. I
see the crowd of my companions standing
round in silent wonder. I see the professor,
who shows us the movements and explains
them, and at the end suddenly cuts the
heart from its peduncle and lifts it up, still
palpitating, while the imploring eyes of the
little dog slowly film over.

X-Rays. The Divine Being, to

whom the laments of so much suffering flesh
had risen for years and years from the living
things that were sacrificed to our scientific
needs, real or presumed, decided at last, in
1 896, that the time had come to setisfy our
desire to see within the living body, without
death or pain to any living being, so He sent
us the miraculous gift of the X-rays, through a
professor of a little German university,
C. W. Rontgen.

The walls of the living body fell, so to
speak, before these rays, and we saw, in the

THE CINEMA IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

85

still intact animal, the bones, the brain pan,
the organs of the thorax ; and later on, by
the aid of new discoveries, we were able to
see the marking of the different cavities of
the alimentary canal, the urinary apparatus,
the brain itself, the gall bladder, the circu-
lation, etc. We can fix these markings on the
photographic plate by means of X-ray
radiography, or study the movements of some
organ through its shadow thrown by the rays
on a fluorescent screen (radioscopy).

Even those who, like me, were among the
first to interest themselves in the new resear-
ches and to dedicate themselves to medical
radiology, that admirable and youthful
science which is so overwhelming in its pro-
gress, so abundant, indeed, so inexhaustible
in its discoveries and disclosures, and to
which we undoubtedly owe at least the half
of our exact diagnoses today, are still full
of wonder when they see a heart beating be-
fore their eyes in a body that not only does
not suffer, but feels not the least discomfort
from this process. Fear of the darkness and
the strange, mysterious method may cause
the heart to beat faster, but the persuasive
words of the physician soon calm it ; mean-
while, as the lungs swell out, they grow more
transparent, and the diaphragm falls and
rises with the inspiration and expiration of air.

The Difficulties of But if radioscopic ob-
Radioscopy. servation enables us to

work out an immense programme of research
on the seat, form and movements of any
organ, there are still two results which radio-
scopy does not give :

1) Its moving images cannot be seen
by many persons at a time. In fact, the light
of the fluorescent screen, that is to say, of
the special section that is made luminous
when the X-rays beat upon it, is weak ; it is
of twilight intensity, and therefore necessi-
tates a long period of waiting in the dark and
close vicinity to the screen itself, if it is to be
perceived. On account of this compulsory
limitation, we cannot make use of radioscopy
for demonstrations before a number of per-
sons.

2) It does not enable us to analyse exactly
all the single movements of the body's organs,
some of which are very delicate and not infre-
quently form part of a very complicated whole,
movements that are continually passing one
into another, sometimes with great rapidity.
Yet it would be of the greatest use if we
could fix indelibly one by one, the single
phases in their natural succession, and even
reach the point of re-composing them in
their complete animated cycle, so that we
could study them at length in the quiet of our
institutes, away from the serious danger
connected with the X-rays, or show them
in public for the delectation, joy and edu-
cation of all.

X-Ray Cinematogra- The necessity of

P°y« discovering some

special technique that would permit of a
perfect cinematography with X-rays which
would be identical in its results with that
obtained by ordinary light, was realized even
in the very beginning of medical radiology. It
was also realized that it was necessary to reach
the point of obtaining graphic notations of
each movement on a photographic plate by
means of X-rays (Rontgenchimography).

I need not deal with this latter phase, which,
started in 1912 by Gott and Rosenthal with
good results, has been applied practically in
Italy by Professor Cignolini of the Uni-
versity of Genoa, to a point that may be said
to reach perfection, especially for the com-
plicated pulsations of the heart.

I will confine my remarks, rather, to
X-Ray Cinematography, which is the subject
of my report.

It has a very short history, and two very
different methods were followed in develop-
ing it.

1) Through cinematography, making
use of radiography by means of the X-rays.

2) Through cinematography, photo-
graphing the image revealed by the X-rays on
the fluorescent screen.

And from these two procedures a third
and much more modest method came to
birth, namely :

2 — la

86

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

3) Slow seriography, which also deserves
at least brief mention.

X-Ray Cinematogra- The chief difficulty en-
phy with Direct Ra- countered was always
diography. due tQ ^ abso,ute

necessity of taking at least sixteen pictures
per second of the organ in movement, so that
when they were projected in the same order
and in rapid series on the screen, they would
give the retina the sensation of a single image
in the course of its natural movement. Very
short poses had to be adopted, therefore, so
short that they were almost instantaneous,
that is to say, they must be from a 32nd to
a 100th part of a second. This neces-
sitated an excessively rapid change of the
radiographic plates and the diminishing in
size of the radiograms thus obtained, in order
that they might be projected. Lastly, the
number of images obtained in this way had
to be sufficient to reproduce every phase of
the movement under examination.

Photography by means of X-rays began
with the direct utilization of ordinary plates,
that is to say, glass prepared with a layer of
gelatine. But, unfortunately, these plates
had to be very large, at least 18 by 24 cm.,
especially for the heart and gastro-duodenal
region, which are the viscera most studied.
It must be obvious to anyone that the neces-
sity of changing glass plates of this size at
the rate of 16 per second makes the task of
taking good cinematographic pictures of
this kind excessively difficult.

It was quite impossible, in the early days
of radiology, to take really correct pictures
of this kind. I will limit my review to the
most important stages.

The first attempts go back to 1897-98,
when Roux and Bathazard studied the stom-
ach movements of small animals by means
of the radiography of a moving film, which
they repeated twelve times, with poses of one
second at regular intervals. Thus began the
first steps in Rontgencinematography. The
experiments were resumed in 1905 by Levy-
Dorn and in 1907 by A. Kohler, with
results which, when presented to the various

Congresses, aroused the admiration and
hopes of all. But these authors and their
followers had necessarily had recourse to a
trick, which, for that matter, they frankly con-
fessed : they had taken a large number of
radiograms, with a maximum pose of one per
second, and thus fixed, of course by chance,
the most varied phases of the movement,
and had then combined the images one after
another in a series that gave the impression
of the real movement, when the reduced radio-
grams were projected on the screen. Levy-
Dorn, for instance, radiographed 20-22
phases of movement in 20 seconds, and each
phase was repeated twice, one after another.

In 1908, Eijkmann succeeded in obtaining
X-ray cinematographs of the act of deglu-
tition. The slight thickness of the organs of
the throat had enabled him to take instan-
taneous radiographic poses, that is, poses
corresponding to an opening of the primary
current of Ruhmkorff's coil. Unfortunately,
his process, which was easy to carry out with
suitable electric controls and very small plates,
laid the operator open to all the dangers con-
nected with the excessive use of X-rays,
causing the hair to fall and provoking erythe-
ma, and in addition it could not be used for
large organs like the s,tomach and heart, which
would have necessitated enormous intensities
of X-rays for the taking of radiograms of such
short duration, and we had not these intensi-
ties in these days.

But great improvements soon began to be
made in radiological apparata, which, with
the elimination of the closing currents, gave
us a very high intensity of X-rays, namely,
100 and more mA, while our technique, which
was continually making progress, was en-
riched by the so-called reinforcement screen,
the first really excellent examples of which
were constructed by Gehler of Leipzig.
The reinforcement screen is formed of a plate
which is very easily penetrated by the X-rays ;
it is covered on one side by a salt that trans-
forms the rays into ordinary light. If this
covered side is closely attached to the sensi-
tive surface of the photographic plate, we
can make use of this system to take much

THE CINEMA IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

81

shorter poses than those that would be
necessary otherwise, using the same intensity
of Rontgen rays, with excellent results. It
was thus possible to reduce considerably
the time required to make a good radiogram,
even with a not excessive intensity, without
fear of ruining irreparably the gas ampules
used at that time, even though the operation
should be continued for some seconds.

Already in 1909 Grodel, making use of
radiographic films placed between two
reinforcement screens instead of photograph-
ic glass plates, was able to obtain, at 60-
70 cm. radiograms of the thorax and abdomen
of from one-fifth to one-twentieth of a second.
By means of this improvement and of a spec-
ial mechanism for changing the plates,
Grodel made some experiments in X-ray
Cinematography, and projected a film of the
movements of the heart, which he obtained
by a series of 6 radiograms per second, before
the Congress of Internal Medicine which was
held in that year at Berlin. I must mention
here that Grodel's clever idea of making use
of the film instead of radiographic plates,
and two reinforcement screens instead of
one was later improved upon by the late
lamented engineer Luboshez, who invented
the double emulsion film, to be used between
two reinforcement screens, a sensible system
which is still in use today.

Returning to X-Ray Cinematography, even
Grodel's process was only an experiment, and
although it came a step nearer to perfection,
it was still very far from that goal and was
not in any case a practical method. The
number of radiograms obtained in a second
was still much too small for reproducing in
projections the actual movement exactly as
it takes place, however reduced the radio-
grams might be, and even on condition of
repeating the same series several times.

It seems, however, that Grodel has recently
succeeded, according to what we read, in
taking 16 direct radiographs of the heart in
one second, by means of a special very rapid
transport of the film (a ribbon reel moving
between two reinforcement screens).

In 1909, Kastle and Rosenthal made

known a method they had worked out, which
allowed of the direct taking of many instan-
taneous radiograms of an organ in movement,
one after another, for the entire duration
of its kinetic activity. They called this the
kiorontgenography, instead of Rontgen Cine-
matography, since, like the preceding methods
it did not reach the intent of reproducing the
actual movement in the projection, while it
was, on the other hand, sufficient to give a
fairly exact sensation of the complex life
animating the moving organ during radio-
graphy.

By means of this system, the authors
could give an idea, not only of the principal
phases of the movements of an articulation,
which can be made to move slowly, and of the
gastro-duodenal system, where the peristaltic
waves are sufficiently slow, employing from
10 to 12 seconds in their course from the
cardia to the pylorus, but also of the heart
and respiration. Their biorontgenograph was
constructed for radiographic plates, 18 by
24 cm. in size, and for a series of 13 radio-
grams and the total duration of 20-22 seconds
(on 30-60 mA and 220 volts). The 1 3 radio-
graphic frames containing one film each were
collected in a vertical pack in a special
support, against one side of which the patient
was placed during the radiography. The
first film having been sensitized, the frame
that enclosed it was automatically dropped,
by a special mechanism, into a collecting
receptacle, and its place was automatically
taken by a second film, and so on.

The right moment for lighting the Ront-
gen ampules and changing the film was
regulated by electrical devices. It is to this
instrument of Kaestle and Rosenthal's that
we owe particularly the more complete
analysis of gastric peristalsis ; and it is the
instrument which enables us, by means of
outline drawings traced over the images of
single radiograms, to superpose the single
pictures obtained, and then to make a syn-
thetic total of all the movements of the
stomach. But, while it attained the object
aimed at for purposes of study, it marked
scarcely any real progress in the field of

88

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

radiological cinematography. Therefore it
was very little used, especially in view of
the fact that almost the same results were
obtained by means of a much simpler appar-
atus, which cost very little and could be used
by all, namely, the seriograph devised by me.

Summing up, it was not po sible, with
direct X-ray Cinematography, to make use
of the continuous photographic method, and
in the various experiments made it was found
necessary to adopt the method of intermittent
photography. The continuous direct cine-
matography of an organ in movement ne-
cessitates extremely rapid turning of a film
with poses of about the thousandth part of a
second, that is to say, with a fabulous intensity
of X-ray, which no radiological apparatus can
emit, especially for the duration of several
seconds, apart from the danger which the
patient would inevitably run.

Too many difficulties were encountered in
the attempts made to take the necessary
16 radiograms by means of non-continuous
or intermittent photography. It is true that
one of the obstacles was removed by the use
of the double emulsion film placed between
two reinforcement screens, the sensitivenes
thus reached being very high ; but it was not
completely removed, because the reinforce-
ment screen, when exposed to the X-rays,
still retains for some little time a residual
light which limits its use even for very short
poses which succeed one another at short
intervals. This difficulty of direct X-ray
Cinematography was recently overcome by
R. J?nker of Bonn, who described an ap-
paratus of his (in 1931) in which a strip of
film, turning rapidly, passes between two
strips of reinforcement screen, which also
run with same speed and the same stops
as the film, but in the opposite direction. So
that the new film is continually being placed
between fresh and rested sections of the
reinforcement screen, sections, that is to
say, in which the fluorescent light is already
extinguished.

Janker used his method with excellent
results, but, so far as I understand, only
on animals. The danger of lesions to man

is still too serious, which means that even his
apparatus cannot be applied to the X Ray
Cinematographic study of human physiology
and pathology.

Slow Seriography. If the various experi-
ments in cinematography of early times are
considered in the light of facts, we see at
once that even in the most nearly perfect of
them the number of radiograms per second
obtained was always too small for a correct
projection. They reproduced, in fact, only the
principal phases of a movement. This being
the stage reached, I asked myself, in 1912,
whether, by still further reducing the num-
ber of radiograms, that is to say, reducing
them to 4 or to 8 at the most, in one or
two seconds, we could not collect in series
and usefully the movement of certain organs
the activity of which is not too great or is
slow, the stomach being of the first order and
the articulations of the second ; and thus,
with a more limited programme and fewer
pretensions, and without the need of costly
and complicated apparatus, get a good idea of
such movements under both physchological
and pathological conditions.

I at once put into practice this realistic
and eminently practical conception of serio-
graphy by means of a very simple slide,
with which I experimented for a year in the
Radiology Department of the Ospedale
Maggiore of Bologna, in the most varied
researches and with great success : for in-
stance, on the aesophagus, stomach, duode-
num, bladder, flexion and extension of the
knee, etc. At the suggestion of the late
lamented Professor A. Codivilla, Direc-
tor of the Rizzoli Orthopaedic Institute, I
presented the results of my experiments to
the meeting of the Medical Society of Bolo-
gna which was held on January 2, 1913.

The method was as follows : in the radio-
scopic apparatus for standing patients (ortho-
scopy) the fluorescent screen was replaced
by a lead plate one or two m/m in thickness,
which had a rectangular opening in the
middle 12 by 15 cm. The plate was fixed,
at the desired height, on the wooden side
of the orthoscope. The fluorescent screen

THE CINEMA IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

89

could be used to close the opening when
desired, thus giving a preliminary radioscopy
to discover whether the visceral part to be
observed was entirely included within this
opening, or as much of it as was needed.
After this verification, the fluorescent screen
was taken away, and we then proceeded to
make the radiograph, applying the quarter
of a radiographic frame of the dimension of
24 by 30 cm. (the photographic plate at
that time was a double emulsion film placed
between two reinforcement screens) on the
opening of the leaden plate for each exposure.
The duration of the pose was as short as
possible.

This radiographic system could be used
not only with standing patients but also with
those lying on a bed, or with an ampule
functioning from above or from below.

I illustrated this method at the 1 st Congress
of Italian Medical Radiology at Milan in
1913 ; and, because it was so practical, slow
seriography was introduced into nearly
every Institute of Medical Radiology not only
in Italy but also abroad, although its source
was never stated. The idea was so simple
and grew so naturally out of previous exper-
iments in X-ray Cinematography, that it is
no wonder if other have worked it out, quite
apart from any suggestion of mine ; nor could
there be any question of plagiarism. I was
very pleased, however, to see that the work,
given as the first on seriography in the most
serious and complete Radiographic Biblio-
graphy that exists, published by Professor H.
Goht of Berlin, which gives all publications
on our branch of medicine, was mine.

Cinematograph Films In 1908, and at the

Obtained by Photo- same Congress where

graphing the Images Gr6deI had presented

Revealed by the X- , • D •• .

_. „. his Kontgencmema-

Kay on fluorescent , f , ,

c tographs or the heart,

Biesaldski and A. Koh-
ler illustrated a process, worked out by
Kohler the previous year, consisting in the
cinematographic photography of moving ima-
ges as they appear on the fluorescent screen.
This brilliant idea occurred again, later on,

namely, in 1911, to two French radiologists,
Lomon and Comandon. Their technique,
which was used for the first time in the
Physics Laboratory of Professor Broca of the
Faculty of Medicine of Paris, also consists
in cinematographic photography, with a spec-
ial lens, of the images on the fluorescent
screen. I have summarised it from their
works published between 191 1 and 1924.

The practical realization of indirect X-ray
Cinematography depended on various factors.

(1) The fluorescent screen, which ought
to furnish enough light to impress the photo-
graphic emulsion in a period of time not
exceeding 1/32 of a second.

(2) The photographic film, which ought
to possess a very high degree of sensitiveness
in respect to the special light emitted by the
fluorescent screen, in order that the image
might be fixed almost instantaneously.

(3) Intensity of X-rays, which, in order
to stimulate the necessary amount of light on
the fluorescent screen in relation to the sensit-
iveness of the photographic emulsion, ought
to be very strong, but not so strong as to
compromise the durability of the Rontgen
ampule which is always a very costly instru-
ment, by working continuously or intermit-
tently for several seconds, or so strong as to
cause injury to the patient, who, exposed to the
excessive action of this singular light, would
undoubtedly run the risk of a very deep and
serious and painful necrosis in the part
irradiated, which might last for years and
even prove incurable. This can now be
avoided by making certain preliminary tests,
to fix the innocuous intensity of the X-rays.

(4) Lens of the cinemtographic machine,
which ought to collect the maximum light of
the fluorescent screen, which is not in itself
very intense.

(5) Protection of the film against the sensi-
tizing action of the X-rays.

The other questions to be settled in connec-
tion with indirect cinematography were the
same as those connected with direct cinema-
tography, but those associated with the
changing of the photographs were extraordin-
arily facilitated by using a film reel which was

90

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

so narrow that it could be turned very
rapidly.

Lomon and Comandon took all these five
points into account and tried for a solution
of them, but they succeeded only imper-
fectly for the human body, except for those
parts of it that are of slight thickness.

If their method has the inconvenience of
utilizing only a small part of the luminous
energy of the fluorescent screen, as the
doctors themselves confess, it still has the
very great advantage of enabling us to take
with ease a large number of images (18 or
even more) per second. This disposed of
the difficulty encountered and not overcome
in previous experiments with direct radio-
graphy, of reaching the number of 16
radiograms necessary for projecting the
phenomenon under examination at its actual
speed. In fact, in experiments with direct
photography, each film of a minimum size of
18 X 24 would have had to be presented
before the region under examination, remain
fixed in that position during the radiography
and move away after the pose ; and no more
than one sixteenth of a second could be
allowed for all these complex evolutions.
That is to say, an impossibly short time with
isolated changes, in view of the inertia of the
use of a film turning on wide reels would
prove complicated and costly.

Lomon and Comandon were able to obtain
instantaneous photographs on ultra-sensitive
films, illuminating the fluorescent screen by
means of very powerful beams of X-rays
(corresponding to 300 mA of a Coolidge
therapy ampule on 80 K. V.) and using
specially made fluorescent screens and em-
ploying a lens with a really exceptional open-
ing, namely, F : I. 55 (designed by Florlian
C. E., then engineer to the firm of Lacour-
Berthiot). The cinematograph apparatus of
the Pathe firm was so modified as to increase
as much as possible the time of the pose in
relation to the time of obturation. The
fluorescent screen and the cinematograph
apparatus were made solid and firmly fixed
on a rigid frame, which in its turn was fixed
to the ground. The focussing was very

difficult on account of the slight depth of the
field of the lens, and in any case was bound to
be absolutely exact, was fixed once for all.
Among the various fluorescent screens exam-
ined, the authors, after many trials, chose
those of calcium tungstate, like those used
for reinforced screens, but coarse-grained.
Finally, the lens, which is the essential part
of the apparatus, was calculated for photo-
graphing a flat surface emitting ultra-violet
rays, and was therefore composed of sub-
stances which are transparent to them,
namely, quartz, uviol glass and glycerine.
The time which is sufficient to obtain at least
two revolutions of the heart is about three
seconds, and therefore this period was not
surpassed for cinematographing them. A
large number of positive copies were printed
from the negative obtained, and these copies
were joined together so as to connect also
the movements of the organ photographed,
thus forming a fairly long strip for projec-
tion.

Lomon and Comandon s method of cine-
matography has not been widely used, on
account of the danger either to the apparatus
or to the patient (cutaneous burns by X-rays)
by the use of so strong an intensity.

Various other authors followed the same
route : Chamberlain and Cole in America,
Melville and Russell J. Reynolds in England,
Gottheimer and Jacobson in Germany, but
they all encountered the same difficulties as
Lomon and Comandon, and therefore the
various apparatuses have not come into prac-
tical use : at the most they could be used in
practice, like that of Russell J. Reynolds,
only for small animals, which, however,
always constitute a valuable means of study.

Dr. B. E. Luboshez who, with great
enthusiasm and at considerable financial
sacrifice, dedicated himself to these studies
of X-ray Cinematography by means of the
direct photograph of the fluorescent screen,
presented the first results of his work to the
Italian Congress of Medical Radiology in
1928, and to the International Congress of
Radiology at Stockholm the same year. Since
then he has so considerably improved his

THE CINEMA IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

91

system that his most recent results appear
to be admirable and really practical and
applicable also to man. Whereas in the
beginning he had succeeded in obtaining
X-ray cinematographs of the movements of
the heart and respiratory organs only, he was
later successful with the stomach also, thus
showing by these two extreme examples,
a very rapid and a slow movement, that no
organ in movement can present difficulties
any longer.

His first cinematographic apparatus dif-
fered from the ordinary apparatus by its
special lens of the exceptional focus of 0.625,
which is extraordinarily luminous and was
invented by Luboshez. The new definitive
apparatus, shown by him at the National
Congress of Medical Radiology at Parma in
1932, has, among other improvements, four
object glasses or lenses instead of one.
Unfortunately, only one instrument has been
constructed so far, on account of its high
cost and the difficulty of finding firms willing
to manufacture such apparatuses.

This apparatus, which will be illustrated by
Luboshez at the International Congress of
Educational and Teaching Cinematography
to be held in April, will take pictures at a
normal as well as at an accelerated speed,
and project them without the need of another
machine. It works electrically and auto-
matically with the cardiological apparatus ; it
has a device for counting the meterage for
a film 30 metres long and for a duration of
five minutes per reel, while it works with films
of 16 m/m, which cost about Lire 100 a reel
of 30 metres. Finally, it is complete for every
form of photographic manipulation and can
be charged or uncharged in the light. For a
normal picture of some seconds it is suffic-
ient to feed the Coolidge type ampule with
50 mA, on 75 K. V. ; a modest regime repre-
senting the greatest safety for the apparatus
and the patient.

We have arrived at this stage thanks to
Luboshez, who has thus done credit to the

illustrious name of his late lamented father.
Not only the activities of medical radiologists,
but also biological medical and general cul-
ture are enriched by the inestimable aid of
a method of study and of cinematographic
demonstration which completes the already
widespread vision of external forms by the
internal view of the body.

The only inconvenience of Luboshez's
method is the high cost of the photographic
apparatus, but that is only for the moment,
for it will soon be considerably reduced if
the method becomes as widely used as it
deserves in the ordinary cinema also. We
shall be able then, at the cost of a 40 or 50
lire each time, to obtain cinematographic
pictures, for instance, of the pneumothorax,
which today represents the most efficacious
cure of pulmonary tuberculosis ; or of cer-
tain movements of the duodenum which
may indicate a hidden ulcer ; or the
much discussed emptying of the pre-pyloric
region ; or the movements of any of the
articulations and pictures of the normal heart
at every age and the pathological heart in any
disease. We shall be able to put together a
valuable collection of cases, not only of the
most demonstrated but also of the rarest
types, and to exchange them, whenever neces-
sary, for teaching purposes and special com-
parative research. We shall even be able to
project X-ray cinematographs of the healthy
heart, by means of synchronizations of the
tones and possible cardiac murmurs with
the pulsations to which they correspond, while
it will be very easy to combine cardiac cine-
matography with the tracings of the elec-
trocardiogram.

The pathologist will be able to illustrate his
lectures to students, as has been done already
in the most important schools of clinical sur-
gery, among others, at the one in Rome direct-
ed by Professor Alessandn: He will thus be
able to hold the attention of students, which,
without the aid of visual facts, so easily
and so often wanders during the spoken
lecture.

The suffering patient, gasping and in pain,
will be able to remain undisturbed in the

92

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

comfort of the hospital ward and still offer the
cinematography of his poor heart for schol-
astic demonstration.

From man we can proceed to X-ray Cine-
matography of animals, for the comparative
study that is often so absolutely necessary.
And the crowd of great and small, instead of
following the succession of human events
on the screen in a cinema which frequently
presents things that are untrue to life and

accustom them to fruitless dreams or stir up
depraved instincts, may at last see revealed
the most hidden secrets of our bodies
and follow their most obscure and intimate
movements. For instance, the unborn child
in the matrix, which already reveals itself
and moves its skeleton image ; or the life
which already has the signs of death and
is announcing the inevitable at only too
early a date.

THE CINEMA AND ITS POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS
IN THE DOMAIN OF MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE

BY

Prof. Attilio Ascarelli

of the University of Rome.

THE organizing committee of the import-
ant International Congress to be held
in Rome, among the other reports prepared in
connection with educational film has entrusted
me with the task of illustrating the possibil-
ities of the use of the cinema in medical
jurisprudence.

These applications of the cinema are
included in the vaster field of the didactic
cinema, which for some time has included an
infinite variety of subjects.

Didactic pictures are used in several
branches of teaching. It has been generally
recognized that the cinema, especially when
used to illustrate conferences and lectures,
keeps the attention alive and watchful to a
much greater degree than the mere words of
even the cleverest lecturer. The attention
is held by the interest and pleasure which the
film projection offers, with the result that the
teaching proves very efficacious.

It is a fact that the educational and teach-
ing cinema is being used more and more
widely. Numerous teachers make use now-
adays of this potent means of propaganda
and instruction.

The subject in which the cinema has been
most widely utilized is in general and special
hygiene. I remember the beautiful films
offered to the students by the film repository
of the National Hygiene Bureau and the
National Committee of Defence against
Tuberculosis which publishes a special pro-
paganda picture every year. There are also
a number of didactic films in the departments
of surgery, dentistry and medicine generally.

The use of this valuable instructional aid
is becoming more frequent in other branches
of learning.

It is therefore a praiseworthy idea on the
part of the organizing committee of the Con-
gress to sponsor a vast debate on the utility
of the didactic film in the various branches of
learning and in various special subject mat-
ters. The film will in this way take the
place of the still photographs or lantern
slides as a means of illustrating and develop-
ing the professor's words.

Medical jurisprudence or forensic medicine
cannot and ought not to remain apart from
this movement which has, by its very nature,
a wide field of experiment and which, appeal-

THE CINEMA IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

93

ing to a public that is often heterogeneous,
has therefore need of all the didactic means
offered by science.

Forensic medicine is a subject of study
which has the lofty task of contributing to
social progress, the defence of justice, the
proper interpretation and just application of
the existing laws of a country. It therefore
appeals to the magistrate and the jurist, the
doctor and legislator, the functionary and the
sociologist, supplying each of them with
the findings and laws of science, pointing out
the proper method of applying the law, so
that it may be in harmony with scientific
progress which moves on parallel lines with
social progress.

Forensic medicine should spread its work
into the social life and operate so that the
decisions of legislators, magistrates and
doctors are based on certain and irrefutable
facts and knowledge of biology, medicine,
physics, chemistry, etc.

We have here a good reason why medical
jurisprudence which spreads and permeates
the greater part of medical and juridical
teaching, is, more than any subject, under the
necessity of equipping its methods of instruc-
tion with all the means that are most easily
understood, taking advantage of very kind of
scientific progress to adapt it for didactic
purposes. Nothing answers these require-
ments better than the cinema which throws
the subject-matter right before the observer's
eyes, showing the diverse peculiarities of the
facts, the difficulties that are likely to arise
and the different ways of getting round
them. The filmed picture remains fixed in
the mind and the memory, assisting in this
fashion those psychological complexes of
re-evocation which are so useful in the actual
practice of teaching.

Among the various sides of medical juris-
prudence, I will make mention of one,
teaching of which can be usefully assisted by
a use of the motion picture. In view of
the fact that forensic medicine is a science
which not only applies the principles of
other subject matters, but has its own original
doctrines, not included in the main body of

medical science, but having a vast field of
application in social laws, we can speak of
medical jurisprudence in general, of a special
medical jurisprudence and of a social juris-
prudence. The new departments of forensic
medicine which have arisen of late, owing to
the spread of social laws governing the activ-
ity of bodies of employes, belong to this
section of medical jurisprudence. Let us
think for a minute of the enormous develop-
ment given to the work of doctors in connec-
tion with workmen's accidents and accidents
in general. These are branches of medical
jurisprudence which have come into being
with the development of labour laws and
laws governing employment and the relations
between employers and employes. Again,
criminal anthropology, created by the genius
of Cesare Lombroso, has assumed a vast
social importance nowadays, leading in its
turn to other branches of professional activity
such as the scientific police and prison med-
icine. We have arrived during the last decades
at the concept propounded by Puccir-otti and
Ramazzini, which considers medical juris-
prudence as civilized jurisprudence. This idea
obtained fresh impetus from the strictly
Roman point of view of Guido Baccelli,
who recognized the importance of medical
jurisprudence in the twentieth century as an
aid in securing the adoption of social laws,
and wrote that time would show us political
medicine as counsellor to the legislator.

In each one of these branches of medical
jurisprudence, of which I have enumerated
the commonest and most important, the cin-
ema can well find a place for spreading
knowledge and teaching, and for preparing
medico-legal experts. This category of
experts is at present lacking in efficient
exponents, so much so that it will become
necessary to impose on the attention of govern-
ments and supreme juridical bodies an urgent
reform of this department of justice. This
becomes necessary in order to limit, if not to
impede the condemnation of innocent men
or the acquittal of a guilty prisoner, deplo-
rable incidents, which happen much oftener
than is generally supposed, and frequently

94

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

remain buried and forgotten in the abysmal
medico-legal ignorance of the expert and even
the magistrate.

In forensic traumatology, which deals with
the study of wounds, and the manner in
which different wounds are caused, of the
effects of various instruments and harmful
mechanisms, a well conceived film would
be of considerable didactic value. If we
proceed to the social application of traumato-
logy, that is to its effect in accident cases, we
shall see how extensive and useful would be
the field of teaching that could be covered
with motion picture assistance, both for
avoiding and repressing accidents.

A number of countries have already con-
cerned themselves with teaching workmen
how to avoid avoidable accidents. In Austria,
the Central Institute for preventing accid-
ents (Oesterreichische Zentralstelle ftir
Unfallverhiitung) has issued several propa-
ganda motion pictures along these lines. The
Austrian association has thought well to
add an attractive and pleasurably recreational
element to the purely didactic character
of the pictures, disguising the rules and
notions in an anecdotical form. Thus it has
produced the picture Danger in Ambush
(Scenes from the World of Work). (See
the Review of International Cinematography
February 1933) " The Film for the Preven-
tion of Accidents in Austria " by Vicktor
Hendrych.

It is certain, however, that from this field of
operations we must proceed to pure didactic
cinema expositions in the domain of accidents
and preventing and repressing them. We
must show workers, for instance, the easiest
way of protecting themselves from industrial
injuries and wounds ; we must show engin-
eers the consequences that can arise from
these wounds and injuries for the worker's
life and usefulness, while we must also show
doctors the mechanical instruments that can
cause injuries, and examples of these injuries
and wounds, which it will be their duty to
cure and look after. In this way we shall be
engaged in a useful social activity. Since
this kind of instruction must be addressed to
different categories of persons, awakening

interest in each category and urging each
class to collaborate with the other classes or
categories, no better method than the film can
be found to develop this didactic force
capable of inspiring also a psychological
protection against workmen s accidents.

The same thing may be said of the preven-
tion of illness and disease, in which department
we must, however, recognize that much has
already been done, both in Italy and abroad,
by means of various hygiene propaganda
bureaux, etc. The idea could, however, be
well carried a step further, and be extended
to the illnesses of miners, workers in the rayon
industry, in the mercury, sulphur and lead
trades, etc. Great things could be done
along these lines for the health of the workers
and also for the national economy, especially
now that a provident law has made workmen s
insurance obligatory for certain special
illnesses and diseases dependent on certain
forms of labour.

If we turn from the question of preventing
accidents to repressing them, we find the
employment of the didactic motion picture
equally useful.

I should like here to allude to the advan-
tage that could be derived from letting the
workman know the damage he makes himself
liable to in taking a fraudulent part in simu-
lating illness or in purposely inflicting injuries
on himself. The doctor too should be shown
how such self-wounding or auto-lesions can
be discovered, for this is a matter hedged
round with difficulties, some of them seem-
ingly unsurmountable. Often enough, the
doctor, though convinced that the workman s
injuries have been self-inflicted, cannot prove
this clinically and in a medico-legal way. He
cannot, that is, prove to the magistrate the
absolute veridicity of his diagnosis that
the injuries are self-inflicted, or that the
illness is being simulated, so that the magis-
trate can deal with the fraud with all the
rigour of the law. If the author of such
frauds remains unpunished, he is likely to
become a dangerous source of infection for
similar frauds with great and evident damage
to society.

If we leave the traumatological and medico-

THE CINEMA IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

95

legal aspect of workmen's accidents alone for
a minute, and pass on to the thanatological
side of the question, that is the branch of
forensic medicine which is concerned with
problems of diagnosis and the date and cause
of death, we shall find it possible to apply the
motion picture here too, all to the benefit of
teaching and the students. How can we
illustrate better than by a bio-chemical
microscopic film the successive phases of
organic death, which passes from tissue to
tissue ? Although death is marked by the
permanent cessation of the heart and the
respiration, it takes place through a gradual
dying of all those biological phenomena which
constitute the so-called post-mortem vital
phenomena which are of such importance to
forensic doctors in determining the precise
moment of death.

Even a motion picture illustrating the
various phases of a legal autopsy would prove
very useful to explain the technique of this
particular operation to students and would-
be experts. Such operation can only be
studied with difficulty on the actual subjects,
but a cinematographic reproduction makes
their illustration easy and profitable to the
students.

Nor is this the end of the list of the possible
applications of the cinema to medical juris-
prudence. In forensic medicine, or to be
more precise, in inquiries undertaken by the
juridical police, the application of the film
to instruction would help to render more
evident the successive phases of a fact or
series of facts, and would effect an improve-
ment in the workings of the detective and
central police tending to make them more
scientific and up-to-date. Improvements
along these lines, have already been made by
the institution of superior police schools (in
Italy through the work of Ottolenghi). Here
the detectives, the magistrates and officers of
the scientific police acquaint themselves with
those objective methods, analyses and deduc-
tions which form the essential groundwork
for their activity.

For instance, it is now always the common
practice to make proper scientific photographs

of any place, site, person or object under
examination by the investigating police.
Still more useful for the purposes of recon-
structing scenes and events would be the
making of short motion pictures, which in
grave cases could reproduce with perfect
verisimilitude not only the locality where the
crime had been committed, but also the
modality of the crime, because a series of
photograms in movement will always prove
more convincing than any single photograph
however well made. It may be objected that
a cinematographic reconstruction will contain
fantastic and imaginative elements capable
of falsifying the facts rather than of establish-
ing them. This would be true if the recon-
struction were to guided by mere fantasy,
instead of being based on well proved facts,
established to the magistrate's satisfaction.

We cannot deny the utility of a clear motion
picture projection of the scene of a murder
shown in court, with the locality clearly vis-
ible, the position in which the murdered
man was found, the precise spot and any
signs of a struggle that might be present.
Such a picture would assist magistrates or
judges to realize the crime much better than
any still photograph.

So extensive are the fields open to medical
jurisprudence, so useful and comprehensive
is the use of the motion picture in teaching
forensic medicine in its numerous forms, that
is is superfluous to insist on details such
as the various aspects of cases of asphyxia, of
legal obstetrics, of questions of personal
identity and indentification marks on bodies.

It is clear enough, after the foregoing
remarks, that film teaching would be of the
greatest assistance in teaching and generally
spreading a knowledge of medical jurispru-
dence, assisting at one and the same time
science and justice.

The didactic film cannot hope to reach all
the possibilities of its application hinted at
in this brief report unless it evolves and
adapts itself to the requirements of specialized
teaching and to special cases of medical
jurisprudence, intensifying throughout the
world the already existing interest therein.

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

THE USE OF THE MOTION PICTURE IN MEDICINE

BY

Dr. Ernst Preisecker

Asst. Professor at the Gynaecological Clinic of Vienna.

THERE are two branches of medicine in
which the film is of great use, whether
for scientific research and theory, which
cannot do without the cinema or for clinical
work that aims at the practical improve-
ment of the student. Both use the motion
picture more and more every day. Teach-
ing is becoming more visual and vivid, and
any professor will recognize that the student's
ear follows the teacher's remarks with greater
interest when the lecture is accompanied by
animated pictures. There is also the advan-
tage of being able to do without living subjects
for demonstrations, which is an important
factor in these times.

In anatomy, which is the chief base for
the teaching of medicine, the film has gained
a firm foothold. There are a number of
excellent pictures in this field. Owing to
the periodical and embarrassing shortage of
corpses, it has become impossible in anatom-
ical halls for each student to prepare the
various parts of the human body as once was
the case. We must therefore repeat cinema-
tographically the work of an expert on the
human body, so as to give the medical stu-
dent a substitute for that study which it is
scarcely possible now to give him in the direct
way. Thus several anatomical pictures
have been made for the second chair of
anatomy of Vienna ; a number of films
\\lustrating the anatomy of the human head
and neck. Studies of the extremities have
also been filmed, and some pictures on the
anatomy of the chest and stomach are in
course of being made.

Physiology too can derive great advantages
from this type of teaching. A series of
reduced size films has been produced in the
Scheminsky Institute. There is no need to go
into the point here of how far and to what
extent substandard films can be used for
a large body of students.

Microscopic films are beginning to gain
ground in Vienna since it has proved pos-
sible to make them with relatively simple
apparatus.

In clinical branches, apart from surgery,
we may take the department of neurology
which finds a useful ally in the motion picture.
Some years ago the utility of the motion pic-
ture in this branch of medicine led to the
making in Vienna of some of the first films
of this kind. There are a number of neuro-
logical pictures in Vienna which have been
made chiefly in the Psychiatric University
Clinic and the Neurological Institute.

In surgery we already possesses a fairly
large repository of instructional pictures,
some pictures being of an orthopaedic charac-
ter and others strictly surgical. There is an
almost complete series of films on the surgical
treatment of pulmonary tubercolosis, pro-
duced by the surgical section of the Wilhel-
minen-Spital of Vienna. In the First Surgi-
cal Clinic at the Orthopaedic Clinic (Professor
Lorentz) as well as in various other sur-
gical and neurological schools, about 30 films
have been made, some of them over 1000
metres in length. There is a practically com-
plete series of films of eye operations in the
Ophthalmic Clinic (the late Prof. Dimmer).

THE CINEMA IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

97

In operative gynaecology, the sister branch
of surgery there are a number of instructive
and educative pictures. The two methods of
operating for cancer of the uterus (Wertheim
and Schauta) have been filmed. The opera-
tion for cyst on the ovaries has been illustrated
in a motion picture. At the third Gynaeco-
logical Clinic of the University, preparations
have been made to film all the most important
gynaecological operations, both abdomiral
and vaginal, in this way preparing a regular
film library for teaching purposes.

Obstetrics is one of the departments in
which the film imposes itself as a necessity.
Students who later on will have to practise
in the country districts require a good educa-
tion in this branch of medicine, and it is not
always possible for them to witness all the
various obstetrical operations which they
ought to see. In recent years, when grave
obstetrical cases have been gradually dimin-
ishing in number and pathological births
have become rarer owing to the improve-
ments effected by therapy outside clinics
and in the hospitals, medical teaching has
been greatly assisted in a most valuable and
admirable fashion by obstetrical motion pic-
tures produced and projected with the great-
est perfection. The excellent assistance
which the cinema can lend to obstetrics was
soon recognized. In 1920, a score of films were
made at the third University Gynaecolog-
ical Clinic on abnormal pregnancies, births
and operations.

Recently a fresh impulse has been giver1
to the compilation of an obstetrical film
library by the introduction of new types of
motion picture cameras and the use of pan-
chromatic film. In obstetrics, where it is
necessary to be always ready in the wards to
make a picture at any time of the day or
night without having to make extensive pre-

parations, the relatively complicated appar-
atus hitherto used has been found very
inconvenient.

Following data supplied by Preisecker, the
Zeiss- Ikon Company has introduced such
modifications into ordinary motion picture
cameras that, without any support, and by
merely holding the apparatus in one's hand,
it is possible to make pictures, thanks to an
arrangement of springs. It is important to
be able to observe during the whole of the
shooting of the picture the field of view
through the focussing screen or mirror and
to be able to focus exactly. The lengthening
of the focus of the lenses allows us to remain,
for reasons of asepsis, some distance from
the field of operation. In the matter of illum-
ination, 1500 to 200 Watts have proved
sufficient. This energy can easily be fur-
nished by three or four Nitraphot lamps or
other lamps of the same type when we use
a good panchromatic film. We have been
able to make a series of remarkable films with
an installation of this kind. Modern cinema-
tographic material has succeeded in eliminat-
ing the drawback which spoilt all the early
films of operations or sanguinary births
caused by the insensitiveness of the film
to red. The detail which was formerly
obscured by patches that showed black can
now be made to appear, as, for instance, in
photographs of the placenta, where it is
necessary to recognize shades of red which
can now be clearly distinguished by the new
methods. The clinical archive comprises
about 40 films which illustrate nearly all the
various operations and pathological births.

To sum up then, we may say that both the
theoretical and clinical branches of medicine,
and especially the teaching of obstetrics, have
found an almost indispensable aid in cinema-
tography.

98

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

ITALY AND THE SCIENTIFIC CINEMA

By Mario Venditti.

The reports published in this section will doubt-
less illustrate the possibilities which the cinema of-
fers for scientific teaching, a form of teaching which
ought not to be considered only as a form of popu-
larizing the principles dictated by science, which
should rather be examined apart as a means o fedu-
cating the people and as an offer to the people.

The subject should be considered chiefly from
the point of view of higher education, making use of
scientific postulates and forming rules and regula-
tions for the researches and experiments of the future.
Here is a fact which has been several times stated
and should not on that account be forgotten : science
has created and developed the technical life of the
film, but the film in turn has given science the most
precious kind of assistance it is possible to imagine.

Technique has evolved micro-cinematography,
macro-cinematography, X-ray cinematography, the
slow motion and the accelerated projections. The
technique of the future will give us television, colour
photography and tridimensional cinematography.

It has been with the use of these scientific means
applied to the motion picture that we have been
enabled to study movement micro-organisms, cell
life, scientific analysis of the functioning of the remo-
test parts of our body, from the circulation of the
blood to a knowledge of the working of our internal
organs. In this way, and with these means, man
has been able to learn the secret of the bottom of the
sea and of lakes, the theory of winds, the life and
death of things, thought to be inanimate but really
endowed with life. These and countless other
phenomena, before the advent of the motion picture,
could only be studied by the few in the solitude
of their laboratories and with the aid of their
microscopes.

This intimate collaboration between cinema and
science has made the motion picture an applied
science in the widest and fullest sense of the term.

Technical and scientific reviews all the world over
generally contain ample reports of cinema studies
and researches of various kinds. On the eve of the
Cinema Congress which will assemble in Rome in
April, I think it would be helpful to trace briefly the
contribution which Italy has given to this superior
form of scientific research.

We can begin with a list of important names :
Bastianelli, Alessandri, Cirincione, Ponzo, Bilancioni,
Levi, Petri, Parravano, Bordoni, Bottazzi, De

Blasi, as well as those who have signed articles in
this Review on medicine, surgery, biology, phito-
pathology, cinema methodology, without taking
into consideration the countless other sections and
divisions of cinema applications from agriculture to
hygiene, in all of which Italy has made a big show,
both from the point of view of number of experi-
ments and research work and their importance.

Motion pictures made by the masters and experts
referred to above have passed the frontiers, and
have won approval in almost every country in the
world. We may mention among many others the
following :

Operation of Appendicitis in a case of acute ap-
pendicitis by the Clinica Chirurgica of Rome.

Operation on the right lobe of the Thyroid by the
Clinica Chirurgica of Rome.

Blepharoplastica for removing Cancer by the
Clinica Oculistica of Rome.

Operation for Cataract by the Clinica Oculistica
of Rome.

Operation for Cancer of the Breast by the Clinica
Chirurgica of Rome.

Trepanning of the Cranium by the Clinica Chi-
rurgica of Rome.

Tattooing the cornea by the Clinica Chirurgica
of Rome.

Cure of Cancer with X rays by the Photo-radio-
therapeutic Institute of Naples. The list could be
made much longer.

It was from Italy that the valuable idea was
launched of a medico-surgical cine-encyclopaedia
which should consist of a regular cinegraphic treatise
for the use, not only of scientists but for students
in clinics. Such work is to deal, in a comparative
fashion, with all the schools in every department of
medicine and surgery, and is meant to be the first
cinema text book for that subject which is the most
difficult and arduous, namely science. (La Scuola
Superiore, Rome, 1st Year, Nos. 5 e 6).

Let us look at the plan of work as it was drawn up
by the Rome Institute. It was proposed :

" — to trace in a complete and organic form,
according to the fundamental and universal laws of
medicine and surgery, a definite plan of work to form
a regular lofty treatise containing in a long series of
films all the general and specific aspects of teaching,
in those parts and sections where the use of the
motion picture might prove useful for technical,

THE CINEMA IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

99

documentary, micro-cinematographic purposes, and
also for the use of the slow motion camera and
accelerated running off of pictures and for the use
of special apparatus ;

" — to consider, also, in illustrating individual
operations or medical lessons capable of being filmed
in schools, the tendencies and various systems in
different departments of medicine and surgery, so
that the students of all countries may see what is
being done elsewhere than in their own countries
and make comparisons and appreciate the progress
made by mankind ;

— to accompany this great visual treatise
with written explanations (sub-titles) or spoken com-
ment by important masters and teachers of the var-
ious schools and tendencies.

If a university today wanted to acquire a series
of motion pictures it would be obliged :

— to engage in considerable expense owing to
the fact that each individual film begins with all that
series of complex preparations of a general and
preliminary character which increase the length
of the picture and waste time and money ;

to see the same parts of an operation which do
not differ in any way from one another several times
over in order to see something of the few characteris-
tic scenes illustrating different methods, tenden-
cies and practice ".

The Rome Institute, it is known, has already
started an inquiry on these lines. The outstanding
personalities in the international scientific world
have notified their approval and interest in the most
gratifying manner. Today the cinema medico-
surgical encyclopaedia awaits its final organization
and compilation.

Nor is this all. Under the auspices and through
the direct efforts of Mussolini, the National Institute,
the L. U. C. E. was founded and with the assistance
of the best experts began the manufacture of scien-
tific films. The L. U. C. E. collection contains
motion pictures in the following fields ; astronomy,
bacteriology, botany, chemistry, zoology, biology,
surgery, pathology, zootechnicology, anti-tuberculo-

sis propaganda, malaria, sex hygiene, general hy-
giene, alcoholism, etc.

The mysteries of the ocean have been filmed in
pictures which stand up well with foreign films of
the kind. The list includes motion pictures of the
life of bees, ants, spiders, wasps, butterflies, mosqui-
tos, plant parasites, wheat, vines and the cine-
analytic study of micro-organisms. All this without
taking account of films on the study of movements,
on land reclamation and agrarian transformations,
on the battle for home-grown wheat , on for-
estry and hydraulic systems, on work, agriculture,
industry, geography and folklore.

Today, the cinema has entered with full rights of
citizenship into the lecture rooms of universities
and the classrooms of superior institutes of learn-
ing and schools. In addition to this, the scientific
film in its simplest and most easily comprehensible
form reaches the great mass of the public in popular
editions, especially in rural centres, through the
cooperation of travelling cinemas and agrarian
summer schools.

A recent plan supported by the National Research
Council is worthy of note. In view of the exception-
al importance of the cinema question, the Council
formed a special commission composed of three
members of the Italian Academy, the Director of
the I. I.E. C, two representatives of the L. U. C. E.
and representatives of the Ministry of National Edu-
cation and the University of Rome to carry out all
necessary inquiries and study the best methods of
applying and utilizing the motion picture in superior
culture and science.

What has been done already is, as we have said,
remarkable. Although the work has not yet been fully
coordinated and definitely organized, what private in-
dividuals and bodies have done in this department
shows us that a great deal still remains to be done.

It is therefore well on the eve of an international
Congress, which has been summoned to lay down
the policy for the future existence of the motion
picture, that the magnificent part Italy has already
played in this field should be known and appreciated.

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

VOCATIONAL TRAINING
AND TRADE EXTENSION FILMS

BY

Dr. Luigi Barzetti.

Task before Voca- HP he Vocational Selec-
tional Schools. 1 tjon scnool jn rtajy

is the first step in technical and trade teaching.
The decree which instituted it considers that
it can be an end to itself in the sense that it
may constitute a preparation for the common
labourers' work. As a matter of fact, though,
the chief characteristic of the school consists
in exercising a selection among the mass of
pupils coming from the elementary schools
before placing them in given courses of study
suitable to their aptitudes and propensities
and their material possibilities.

Vocational training schools fulfil the double
task of completing elementary education and
of directing the pupils scholastically towards
this or that technical trade or handicraft. In
both cases the pupil gains a broad, or rather,
a summary notion of life in the factory or
workshop, so that the lad who has received
the beginning of a theoretical training makes
his first contact with life.

Various Applications The cinema in this
of the Cinema. Dnase Qf teaching has
a role of fundamental importance. In other
grades of technical teaching, as we shall see
later on, the cinema has a valuable but sub-
sidiary role. In vocational training and
directional schools its importance is basic
since no teacher's ability nor any penetrative
capacity of pedagogic science, can, through
the magic of the word alone, so illumine the
lesson as to show the workshops and turns of

work as they really are and in such a way as
to arouse profitable interest.

To teach life and illustrate it even on the
broadest lines in its labour phases requires
that the thing being taught should be seen
as well as spoken of, whence the vocation
directional school can only be satisfactorily
run when an extensive use is made of the film.

We must say at once that the kind of film
required for vocation selectional schools is
a very complex affair and not at all easy
to make.

It would appear at first glance that the
question can be simplified by having a very
rich collection of films and plenty of time
taken from the ordinary school hours for
giving projections. This, however, would
really only be an apparent simplification since
it would mean using the cinema on a vast and
general scale instead of in a very precise and
well thought out manner proposing to reach
its objectives in the most economical and
practical fashion. A vocation-directional film
ought to unite in itself the good qualities of at
least four or five general films. Since it
is is not easy to project a film dealing with
glass and glass working, another on iron,
another on wood, another dealing with build-
ing materials, etc., to arouse the pupils'
interest, the interest must be aroused by
the projection of one film which puts together
the characteristic aspects and uses of glass,
iron, wood, building materials, etc. In
other words, the film must be a synthesis in

THE CINEMA IN VARIOUS PHASES OF WORK

101

the sense that it will be an intelligent compos-
ition of fundamental elements and aspects.

Special Character- The writer has already
istics of Teaching ha(j occasion to make
and Vocational some ten films treating
dealing with the prin-
cipal industries. It is credible that the produc-
tion of similar films in Italy will be the best
way to introduce the cinema for the purpose
of selecting young people for various trades
and industries. In the pictures I was
concerned in making, the panoramic idea
prevailed, through the impression that the
presentation of the surroundings and atmo-
sphere of work and workshops would arouse
the requisite interest and emotion among the
spectators. It must, however, be admitted
that, if we do not want to produce ineffica-
cious work, films produced on these lines
are not a success. The panorama or present-
ation of the site of a factory or workshop
with all the objects and incidentals compos-
ing it ought to be so technically perfect and
suggestive as to be impressive in itself.
If this is true and relatively easy to produce in
practice, the result cannot always be sure
because things, like persons, lend themselves
more or less well to being photographed
that is, they have a photogenic quality. It
can easily happen that a trade, which is
healthy and should attract vast masses of
workers all for the good of the general econ-
omy, does not show up well in its essential
characteristics when illustrated by the film.
It may be that these qualities and interests
do not stand on the screen as do the charac-
teristics of other trades and industries where
the work of choosing labourers is necessarily
more rigorous and delicate. There is the
case of the steel industry. The flow of
incandescent metal is just as suggestive and
attractive on the screen as when actually seen
in the works. Indeed, in this instance, the
cinema improves on reality, for there is an
absence of heat which in works of this class
is not a factor to be disregarded. It expresses
a fascinating power in the matter which is
much easier to see than to undergo.

Art can work the miracle of entering into
the spirit of all things and illuminating all
shades of meaning. It can show the physical
grinding down of the worker exposed to the
hardest kind of labour, and can render poetic
the calloused hands of the humble sons and
daughters of toil. Art applied to teaching
like art applied to an industrial process,
cannot produce masterpieces permanently.
As often as not, it is a simple and rational
instrument, an incentive. The cinema, to
become general and to provide the quantity
of subjects required by the schools, must find
the proper way to be economical and easily
understandable.

We have said that the vocation-finding
or guidance film is a film of synthesis. To
be more exact, one could define it as a film
of associated and alternative syntheses accord-
ing to the effects which each one of them is
capable of producing as compared to others.

By synthesis we must understand the
characteristic revelation of each institution
and each type of work. If we remember that
choice and selection mean looking at the
physical and psychical qualities of the
individual, it must be effected in such a way
that the synthesis operates simultaneously and
harmoniously on both aspects of the person.
It should give the idea of the degree or grade
of effort demanded by each type of work, the
results, the individual qualitative aspects of
each operation, so that the work be charac-
terized and rendered attractive. The capa-
bility to render the importance of the charac-
teristics and attractiveness of each kind of
work presupposes a high grade of knowledge
of the industries dealt with, as well as no
little didactic ability. If such a task is
carried out with wrong criteria and mistakes,
the whole object of the attempt will fail.

To sum up what has been said, the produc-
tion of vocational training films and films
helping young people to choose careers
requires the following things :

(1) an accurate individuation of the
objective and comparative content of dif-
ferent productive activities ;

(2) proportionate association of these

he ingl.

102

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

various contents in an organic and harmonious
whole ;

(3) inclusion of the technical element
in the human element so as to render possible
the realization of a social reaction.

In the vocation selectional film, the com-
prehensive association of a movement of
objects must be considered indispensable
for the arousing of sensations. The prodigy
of the transformation of matter is not suffic-
ient. Men, and especially the young
people, must move and animate it with the
light of their spirits, and, as far as is possible,
with evidences of their daily existence. When
a film is made in this fashion, the elements
that will make it valuable as a teaching
force are not lacking. The film can also be
of service for those whom the vocational
school has to use as an end to itself, allowing
the film to operate as a technical education
instrument of the first importance. The
opposite is not equally true, though, namely
that a general technical film for elementary
services can also be useful for the selective
and the helping of the pupils to make their
choice. This is because the general tech-
nical film has a limited field, and is therefore
incapable of reaching all the tendencies
and interests of the human spirit.

Uses of Technical The technical teach-
Teaching Films. jng nlm js jn certain
ways easier to utilize in the schools engaged
in technical training after the choice of a
trade has been made in the career-choosing
schools.

While the film that helps towards the
choice of a trade or career is a combination
of syntheses, so the technical training film
is one of analysis. In the case of the
former film, we must look for the surround-
ings and circumstances connected with the
worker's existence, and consider them with
the individual's pathological and psycholog-
ical characteristics in a way that should be
ideally human rather than coldly scientific.
In the latter kind of film the material domin-
ates exclusively, and the more specific the
task to be carried out, the more restricted and

circumscribed becomes the material. The
difficult of the cinema here lies is the limita-
tions surrounding its use. The film has not
to exercise its effect on indefinite and numer-
ous masses like those young folk who have
just left elementary schools, but on categories
of young people who have already shown their
tendencies and have already a certain tech-
nical specialization. The thirty or so pupils
of a school can form a public which has spec-
ial requirements, if there is in the district
some specialized industry or trade. The
more technical and difficult the instruction
becomes, the higher it ascends the scale of
scientific values, the smaller will the public
become until it ends by being composed of
quite exceptional elements. In other words,
the more important and full of meaning the
role of the film becomes, the more limited
grows the field of its utilization. Logically,
in the end, we arrive at the cinema which is
useful only for the research worker, that
is, for one person alone with a scientific
programme of his own, inapplicable to other
people.

The technical instruction film is analytic
by its nature, since it must render clear and
evident the reasons for each operation, each
movement of each coefficient of the cycle
of production. It is not possible to teach
unless we show the inner reason for every
action, the wherefore of very moLion that
gives a result. Let us take the case of teach-
ing the working of some machine. The ma-
chine must obviously be shown in its entirety
and its general use explained. The objects
of the machine will have to be explained in
relation to the trade or industry using it, and
this will be a fundamental necessity, since it
is useless to tackle the details without first
of all understanding the whole.

In the instruction proper, however, the
working of all the parts of the machine must
be demonstrated, all the single operations the
machine performs, the use of each part, why
one kind of material is used rather than an-
other, the evolution of the machine and its
manufacture. Analysis means an understand-
ing of the order of the components of a thing

THE CINEMA IN VARIOUS PHASES OF WORK

103

and of their successive employment. One of
the miracles of cinematography lies here,
that is, it can gather up and show us piece by
piece and once and for all the various parts of
any mechanism, stressing the more important
ones, and illustrating all of them in various
aspects and circumstances. This can be
done better by the film than if the students
had the machine itself to learn from.

The present writer has had occasion to
make experiments of this kind with proper
technical instruction films. Such films must
be considered as belonging to an experimental
activity which is wearisome and rather un-
certain, at any rate to begin with, and only
after some time becomes comparatively pre-
cise. Let us recapitulate here, as we did
for the vocational or guidance film the ab-
solutely essential conditions for using a tech-
nical instruction picture :

(1) explanation of the relationship exist-
ing between the part under examination and
the whole ;

(2) analysis of the parts, to be explana-
tory of the use and functions of each element
beginning with the principal ones and then
coming to the secondary ones ;

(3) indications of the reasons and effect
of each movement and operation in the ma-
chine ;

(4) recapitulation in a logical and well
ordered manner ; possibly a running over of
the content and reasons of single factor of
the material under consideration.

Animated Cartoons The most conclusive
and Technical experiments made in
Teaching. ^ fieW haye shown

the necessity of an association of the panor-
ama, even a detailed panorama, with the
animated cartoon. There are technical and
didactic reasons behind this.

We cannot teach anyone a piece of work
without detailing the cycle of operations.
The detailing or schematization is like a
skeleton of the cycle of operations with its
connecting links, its interdependences and
the elementary associations of its causes and
effects. When the secret of the locomotive

is revealed in the boiling of the kettle, the
technical panorama is unaffected, but the
fundamental principle is acquired in a stable
and rigorously exact manner. It becomes
interesting for the student to find the princi-
ple through research and observation and
individuation of the particular details.

Didactic reasons are essentially reasons of
method and effect. The animated cartoon
is born on the screen bit by bit. Starting
from a given point, it constructs the schemat-
ization in the way a machine would really be
created, and here again the cinema beats in
rapidity and clear exposition of phemomena
reality itself. The pupil following a traced
line or the slow movement of an indicating
arrow becomes, in a way, the artificer of the
machine or instrument himself. The inter-
polation of clear and severe pictures of the
whole of the machine or other object forms
an opportunity for mental repose and holding
the attention.

Didactic Film Re- Having outlined the
positories. principle requisites for

vocation chosing and technical instruction
films, there remains the question of the
creation of film repositories capable of sat-
isfying the demands of quantity and variety
of films necessary for a proper use of the
cinema in the formative process of finding
careers for generations of young workers and
then instructing them in such careers or
trades after they have decided upon them.
This is a big problem requiring belief capac-
ity and adequate means. It may be it will
never be possible to satisfy all the require-
ments of these two classes of films, so con-
stant are the changes and improvements
taking place. There are two fundamental
favourable circustances. The first is that
films of this nature are essentially internation-
al in character, the second is that the contin-
ued technical progress and advances that
will certainly be made will not render the
earlier films useless, but will leave them with
no little of their original didactic value.
This is for the reason that it is not possible to
go straight to the advanced stages of technique

104

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

without a knowledge of the earlier stages.
The solution of the whole question can
be arrived through the combined, united and
organized work of the technicians and teachers
of various countries who will find laws com-
mon to the technical and scientific activities
of all civilized peoples.

They will be able to find reasons and justi-
fication for a common curriculum, especially
if we take into consideration the damages
which would result from a multiplication of
analogous attempts in different countries and
an unnecessary prosecution of theoretical
dissertation and experimental diletantism.

CINEMA, TECHNICAL TRAINING
AND WOMEN'S WORK

By Laura Dreyfus-Barney.

Women's work at the present day is practically
identical in extent with that of men, and everything
that has been done by the cinema in connection
with vocational guidance, technical training, the
prevention of accidents, etc., is of practically equal
interest to women, because though some of the
pictures may be considered as dealing strictly and
exclusively with male occupations, it often happens
that useful lessons may be drawn from them or
some application may be made of processes shown
which would be helpful in connection with female
labour.

The following is a brief sketch of the work carried
out by the motion picture in connection with the
various problems and aspects of labour.

Vocational Guidance and Technical Train-
ing. — The cinema is frequently a very useful aid in
vocational guidance and technical instruction, and in
a good many countries the ministries of Education,
Agriculture, Public Works, etc., already possess
important film libraries or repositories dealing with
these subjects, which are made use of by numbers of
schools, works, and public and private institutions.

In view of the results obtained, a number of direc-
tors of technical training institutions propose to in-
crease the use of the motion picture for aiding
young people to choose an occupation. Thanks to the
cinema, young people can be attracted to occupa-
tions about which they had never thought before, a
fact which will help to avoid the overcrowding of
many trades and crafts, which attract beginners
owing to the fact that they are popular and well
known to everyone.

In this connection, much might be done with films
showing the technique of a number of the minor
handicrafts that are falling into desuetude in the
country, such as basket-making, the working of
manures, the repairing of farm machinery, etc.,

which should be better and more completely
known.

There is no doubt that other systems, such as
drawings, lantern slides, visits to factories, etc.
should not be neglected ; but a moving picture con-
stitutes a lesson which is much more easily under-
stood by young people, who frequently have only
a rudimentary intellectual preparation . Thus, the
International Congress of Technical Training which
was held in Paris in the beginning of 1932 passed a
vote for a greater use of technical training films and
those for vocational gidance, and voted also the crea-
tion of a centralizing organization in every country
as well as the utilization of the permanent centre of
the technical guidance cinema of the Institute of
Rome as a bond of union between the various
National Institutions.

In many works dealing with the choice of an occu-
pation, considerable emphasis is laid on the contrib-
ution of the cinema to vocational guidance, but if
this kind of film is to give all the hopedfor results,
it must respond to certain requirements : brevity,
clearness, the facility for accelerated or slowed-down
projection according to the case, and above all,
sincerity. It must show, that is to say, all the advan-
tages and all the inconveniences of the occupation
that is being illustrated. Dr. Hans Curlis's film on
the graphic arts, which was produced by the Institut
fiix Kulturforschung of Berlin, may be considered as
a perfect example of this type.

The progress of the technical training film is in
the front rank of educational cinema activities in
every part of the world, as the following instances
will show.

In England, the Wardour Co. has brought out
several films showing the origin and progress of the
most important British industries, and the New Era
has started another series on the same subject.

THE CINEMA IN VARIOUS PHASES OF WORK

105

The University College of Wales is preparing two
versions of a film on the best cultivation methods, one
of which is intended for the use of farm schools and
farmers ; the other being of a more general character.

In another field. Dr. J. R Gill has produced a
film on the manufacture of a porcelain crown for
the use of students of dentistry courses.

In the United States, some industrial and tech-
nical films of the type of " The Manufacture of Car-
bolic Soap " and " The World of Paper " have been
produced, as well as the film on mechanics by the
C. W. Briggs Company of Philadelphia, the indu-
strial-publicity 16 mm. film of the University of
Kansas and a film in California for teaching design
applied to mechanics, etc.

In France, there is a film by M. Cantagrel in the
film library of the Paris Schools of Commerce on
coal-handling on the Seine, and another by M.
Mayer on the glass-blowing art. M. Bloch, chief
engineer of the French State Railways, spoke at a
meeting held in Paris on August 21, 1932, of the
production of new films for the instruction of the
repairing staff.

From the agricultural point of view, a good film by
William de La Fontaine on The Farm Speaks to You
(La ferme vous parle) shows the work on farms, and
especially the raising of animals intended for food.

At Moscow and Leningrad, the longest sound
film in the world has been produced ; it is in 10 parts
and runs to 25.000 metres, and is intended for the
instruction of young people desiring to become
motor-car drivers. Russia has also a film on naphtha,
and one showing the efforts of the U. R. S. S. to
ensure its independence and to secure its supply of
cotton. There is another, " The Rose of Salor"
on the manufacture of carpets and the part taken by
women in this industry.

Nor must it be forgotten that use is made of the
film at times to complete certain inventions. It is
pleasant to think, too, of the interest aroused in a
workman who sees on the screen how his trade is
conducted in other countries and what systems are
used there. It often happens that the mere compar-
ison of different procedures will suggest improve-
ments.

We may mention an interesting detail showing the
value of a film in a case where it would never have
occurred to anyone that use might be made of
it. In a trial that was being held in England on
some manufacturing questions, a film showing the
manufacture of glass was projected before the judges
to aid them in settling the controversy.

Workmen's Accidents and Provident Schemes.
— Films on workmen's accidents and on the pre-

vention of accidents are very difficult to produce,
because they require both knowledge and compe-
tence on the part of the producer. When they are
well done, they can be of the greatest service, and as
a matter of fact, their use is continually spreading.

They may be divided into two categories: those of
a documentary and technical nature, which are
addressed only to specialized and technical workers;
and those of a romantic and entertaining type, which
are suitable for all and are addressed to the general
public. The latter illustrate the dangers that may
be encountered anywhere, traffic dangers, risk of
fire, first aid to the injured, etc.

The system followed in the case of the former
type of film is for an inspector to go from workshop
to workshop and project the film, making a comment
on it in the presence of the workmen and of the
chief technicians. This has been done several
times in Germany.

The cinema has made considerable progress in
this field, in several countries. For instance, the
American film " Why ? ", which was addressed to
metallurgical workers and miners, had the greatest
success. In France, the foundries of Foug had it
projected in their workshops for the prevention of
accidents. A purely documentary film was pro-
duced in France by the Railways Companies of the
North on the use of the hook-pole, with the object
of instructing the staff on the subject of this new
system of decreasing the risks of accident. From
the scientific point of view, we may mention also
Jean Painleve's and Dr. Claoue's films for teachers.

In Italy, the L. U. C. E. has produced a series of
films for the National Association for the Prevention
of Accidents on the precautions to be taken to avoid
the commoner accidents.

In Germany, certain bodies such as the iron and
steel associations for South Germany at Mainz and
that of the building industry at Munich, and the
association of the printing art at Leipzig, have had
specialized films prepared. In 1929, no fewer than
280 projections had already been given before mi-
ners on protection against accident.

We may also mention the English film ' Behind
the Scene in the Machine Age ", on the employment
of women workers.

Among films addressed to the general public, we
may mention the Austrian film " The Dangers
Around Us " on the methods of educating the public
to look after itself in this respect; and also an interest-
ing German departure : the Small Traders'Associa-
tion at Berlin, which numbers 60.000 members,
has had some typical films produced by a process
patented by the Excentric Film. The idea is to

106

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

introduce an animated cartoon, featuring a comical
personage who comes forward when there is an
accident and shows what preventive means should be
used, what aid should be given to the injured, etc.
These films have had a great success, on account of
their humorous side and freedom from educational
pedantry.

In Holland, a film has been produced by the
Traffic Society of Amsterdam, with the object of
avoiding traffic and circulation dangers.

Household Education and Domestic Train-
ing. — The cinema has already assumed an import-
ant function in this field, the films dealing with
these subjects being chiefly of interest to women.

In a general way, the end aimed at is to help
housewives to save an hour or two on the housework
and to devote this time to the care of their children
and the cultivation of their own minds. The great-
est interest has been aroused by this form of teaching
in several countries, and a number of experiments
have been made in it.

A great Belgian manufacturer, J. Melotte, gave the
first funds for the foundation of an institution for
the purpose of studying all the practical methods of
household education with the object of getting the
greatest results with the least effort. A National
Centre of Studies has also been formed in Belgium,
in the hope of reaching even greater progress in
domestic economy.

In France, Mlle.Bernege deals with these problems
in her publications on the Application des principes de
T organisation scientifique du travail menager. In
Rome, Dr. Diaz-Gasco presented some interesting
reports hereon to the Congress of Domestic
Training. At Freiburg, in Switzerland, all the
International Congresses of the International Office
of Domestic Training have dealt with this question.

In the United States, Mr. Gilbreth of New York
and Mr. Ch. Fredwick have specialized in studies
on the domestic art. Certain publications, such
as The New Housekeeping, are really remarkable
productions.

Thanks to the cinema, we may be able to bring
about more efficient methods of carrying out the
various domestic activities and the rationalization
of these labours, as well as a household training that
gives a better yield. Films showing the positions
that should be taken and those that should be avoided,
the use of domestic utensils, the way of working
quickly and well without wasting time, would be
of the greatest use, because the photographic lens
catches the tiniest detail. By following these
principles, Mr. Sullivant of Saint Louis in the

United States has produced a film of 200 metres
which shows the best way of mending clothes.
The National Institute of Industrial Psychology
of England is studying the production of films illus-
trating the way to overcome fatigue, and so on.

Technical Training by the Cinema. — We must
not forget technical training by the cinema, seeing
what an increasing part woman is taking in this
branch of activity.

A number of countries are considering the tech-
nical training of all those, men or women, who
intend to work in the cinema, and are opening
special courses for this purpose.

A large number of such courses have been insti-
tuted for years past in Los Angeles, and indeed all
over the United States. The technical courses of
the cinema in Japan are attended by more than 500
persons. The Regent Street Polytechnic in London
opened a technical course in September, 1932, which
is to last two years, At Leningrad, the Techkino has
been founded for cinematograph projections in
schools and technical plants. In Holland, the
Kulturfilmcentrale provides for the training of young
cinematograph cameramen. The courses are prac-
tically free of charge and are much sought after.
Leaving aside the actress, whose merits and courage
are often deserving of admiration, we may consider
the women acting as directors, who face unknown
dangers to gather documents of the highest interest,
of the type of that produced by our own colleague,
Germaine Dulac, President of the Cinematograph
Section of the National Council of Frenchwomen.

Conclusion. — The important part taken by
women in the cinematograph world seems to show
that they have a call for this field of social activity.
Each of us, to however modest an extent, can bring
her contribution.

The members of the Committee of Women's Work
will help us to reach the ends we are aiming at in
our sub-committee, namely, the communication to
national correspondents of everything that seems
interesting to us in cinematograph production, in
so far as it may be of assistance to women and
families, their progress, their work, in new departures
which seem promising and those which do not.

We shall thus be kept in touch, through our cor-
respondents, with the efforts that are being made
everywhere, and we shall be able, by combined
action, to work for the evolution of a motion pic-
ture that will aid in the solution of the problems of
women's labour.

THE CINEMA IN VARIOUS PHASES OF WORK

107

TEACHING POSSIBILITIES OF THE CINEMA,
ESPECIALLY IN REFERENCE TO THE RE-
QUIREMENTS OF TECHNICAL SCHOOLS

Societa Umanitaria (Loria Foundation) Milan.

Moving Pictures. — A variety of instruments
and a varied technique are made use of in teaching,
with the object of continually getting more and bet-
ter results ; and these aids to teaching have become
increasingly more finished and potent, from the
simple, elementary instruments used in the past
to the more numerous and infinitely more compli-
cated aids introduced during the last and especially
during the present century.

Without wasting time on the discussion of di-
dactic methods, which might take us back to the
dialogues of Socrates and the peripatetic teaching
of Aristotle, both of whom tried to increase the
interest of their disciples by the form or place in
which the teaching was imparted, let us take one
of the aids to teaching which have been used from
time immemorial, namely, drawings, which com-
plete the explanations of the teacher by giving a
visual impression of the thing explained that is
frequently indispensable. With the passage of
time and the discoveries of science, the more exact
representations of photographs and lantern slides
were added to the drawings in use.

There is no question as to the efficacy of these
aids, but they do not suffice to give a static impres-
sion of certain subjects or phenomena, and what
is really frequently of most interest in teaching is
to give an illustration of movement, both because
the study of movement, such as the technique of
certain operations, is interesting in itself, and be-
cause it is necessary to show the complexity of
acts resulting in the fact illustrated.

Silent and Sound Films. — This dynamic vi-
sion can be given in sound and silent films by the
cinematograph, the " register of movement ". There
are naturally much wider possibilities of application
in the sound than in the silent film, because in the
former we not only follow the movements of bodies,
etc., but can at the same time listen to their explan-
ation and illustration by a specialist. The sound
film thus combines the advantages of an oral lesson
illustrated by lantern slides or by the silent film ;
and by its means expert explanations by partic-
ularly competent teachers, who would naturally
use the greatest care in preparing lessons intended

for numerous pupils of different grades, can be given
in the smallest and most remote school.

The sound film could never, of course, entirely
replace the oral lesson as given at present. Being
a standard product, it can never be made to meet
the special requirements of each set of pupils, so
that the teacher will always be necessary, to modify
his explanations according to the degree of prepa-
ration and the character of his pupils and also ac-
cording to the ends aimed at in the school where he
teaches. He will stimulate the children's critical
sense and love of study by discussing special parts
of the lesson and going into them more deeply thus
helping them to overcome difficulties and reap
the full benefit of what they are studying.

Cost of Applying the Cinema in Teaching
Interests of the Teaching Body. — At this point,
the important question of cost comes up. It
is impossible to deal thoroughly with this problem,
however, for lack of sufficient data, and we will
therefore content ourselves with pointing out :

(a) that technical progress is extraordinarily
rapid in cinematography, radiophony, etc., and
every technical innovation means either an im-
provement in quality or a reduction in cost, or
both ;

(b) that the public to which educational films
are addressed is not ony a sure public, but one that
is continually increasing, since the increase of a
nation's wealth means an automatic increase of the
individual's economic possibilities of instruction ;

(c) that there is a very large potential public
for many of the branches indicated below. The
silent part of the film could be used internationally,
with the addition of a post-synchronization in the
respective language of each country ;

(d) that the teaching body will suffer no econ-
omic disadvantage from a wide application of the
cinematograph in teaching. This statement would
be superfluous but for the fact that certain very
shortsighted persons see in every technical inno-
vation a menace to the worker's possibilities of
finding occupation, whether his branch be intel-
lectual or manual. The teacher would not be in
any way eliminated in this case, and a whole new

108

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

field of occupation would be opened in connection
with the production of these films.

The Cinema in the School and Increased
International Solidarity Consequent on Im-
proved Understanding Between Nations. —
Looking forward, we can have no doubt as to the
utility and possibility of a widespread and rapid
development of the application of the cinema in
teaching, in the form of silent, sound or talking
films or in the finest form of television coupled
with radiophony. Considered, in this wider fa-
shion we have every right to conclude that cinema-
tography in schools will do much to encourage the
spirit of international solidarity. Rapid communi-
cations and the consequent improvement of inter-
national trade has a great influence on the devel-
opment of international economic solidarity. The
intensification of cultural relations brought about
by the introduction into schools of films illustra-
ting the art, economic activities, and, in a word, the
life of other peoples, will contribute to the main-
tenance of peace and therefore to improved re-
lations between the nations by making clear the
common ground on which the civilization of West-
ern peoples is based.

Where the Cinema can be Used with Benefit.
— The following is a sketch of the different branch-
es of education where the cinematograph could be
applied on the widest scale :

(a) Culture:

Astronomical geography, physics, anthropology
and economics.

History : the progress of the life and customs
of peoples throughout the centuries ; illustration
of the monuments of antiquity ; the march of tech-
nical progress and the application of inventions ;
history of art.

Botany, mineralogy, zoology, meteorology ;
environment of certain animal and vegetable spe-
cies (sea bottoms, tropical forests, etc.) the struc-
ture of certain geological formations, types of
landscape, etc.

Physics : the laws of motion, principles of
optics, electricity ; application to scientific instru-
ments, installations, etc.

(b) Physical and spiritual preparation of youth,
national propaganda :

Propaganda of national products : illustra-
tions of shows, exhibitions, equipment of national
industries, possibilities of substituting national
for foreign products in various fields.

Incitement of young people to enter the dif-

ferent military and other organizations for youth ;
most attractive aspects of collective life and hier-
archical organization ; incitement to love of the
fatherland by illustrating the deeds of the past and
the functions reserved for youth and organizations
of youth in the future ; demonstration of the need
of discipline (many of the films considered under
letter b are suitable for presentation in the form
of stories).

Sports : physical education, rhythmical move-
ment ; propaganda against tuberculosis, alcoholism,
birth control.

General hygiene, sexual hygiene, professional
hygiene.

Regime : corporative organization ; collabor-
ation of classes in opposition to class war.

(c) Technico-artistic and technico-professional
fields :

Singing, music.

The nude, anatomy.

Harmonic movement of individuals and groups;
classical dances.

Descriptive geometry, illustrated in animated
cartoons, to bring out in relief the projections, ro-
tations, inclinations of planes, development of sol-
ids, sections, penetrations and their developments.
Theory of shadows, perspective, theory of low
relief and its application in scenography.

Engineering. General problems : internal strain
of girders, with pieces of crystal standing upright
and at angles with polarized light under all the
strains of tension, compression, flexion, near flexion,
tension-flexion, torsion. Simple static and hyper-
static reticular structures made with models under
any kind of pressure so that the elastic displace-
ments beneath strains caused by weight or temper-
ature may be seen ; elastic shafts. Technique of
buildings in wood, iron and reinforced concrete.
Industrial engineering and chemistry ; the different
cycles of motors, their working shown by sectioned
models.

Working of blast furnaces, rolling mills, instal-
lations for making sulphuric acid, synthetic nitrates,
etc.

Series of transformations undergone by certain
raw materials (textile products, skins, etc.) in the
process from raw to finished products.

Systems of working : position of the operator
at work (ordinary and slow motion photographs).
Technology of certain trades. Scientific organisa-
tion of labour ; rationalization ; assistance in choos-
ing an occupation.

(d) Domestic training schools for girls :
Domestic economy.

THE CINEMA IN VARIOUS PHASES OF WORK

109

Child rearing.
Demographic propaganda.

Exemplification : Application of the Cinema
in the Teaching of Descriptive Geometry. —
Teaching by the aid of " animated cartoons " to
bring out in relief the projections, rotations, in-
clination of planes, development of solids, sections,
penetrations, etc.

Variation, rationalization of solids and their
orthogonal, isometrical and central projections, ob-
tained by the aid of suitably arranged lights. Out-
line drawings with progressive constructive stages.

Central projections on curved surfaces (arches,
walls). Central projections on mixed surfaces.
Outline drawings : realization.

Theory of shadows. Shadow cast, shadow thrown,
the point, the straight line, the plane, the straight
line on the plane, the straight line on solids (mixed
surface) ; the plane on the plane, the plane on solids
(mixed surfaces) ; solids.

Outline drawings with progressive constructional
stages. Limits.

Shadows in isometrical projections.

Perspective. The human eye. The camera
obscura. Perspective on glass. Systems of trans-
ferring perspective. Normal perspective. Ration-
al line from below upwards. Effects and defects
The visual cone. Visual possibilities of the human
eye. Extravisual perspective possibilities.

Outline drawings with progressive constructive
stages : (1) in normal perspective, (2) in accidental
perspective, (3) in rational perspective.

Theory of shadows in perspective. Sunlight, ar-
tificial light. Effects and Defects. Pictorial quali-
ties. Outline drawings with progressive construc-
tive methods.

Conventional perspective. Isometrics. Isome-
tric projection of axes. Rotation, varied rotation
(rationalization). Direct and indirect procedure.
Outline drawings. Dismemberment of construc-
tive parts and recomposition. Realization with
shadows.

Theory of bas-relief and its applications in sceno-
graphy. Effects and Defects. Limits. Construc-
tion and Development. Positive and negative low
relief. Shadow, luminous intensity and colouration.
Theoretical-graphic possibilities of realization.

THE SCIENTIFIC ORGANIZATION
OF WORK AND THE CINEMA

By Engineer Giacomo Raffaelli.

Can the cinema exercise a useful influence for
spreading information regarding the scientific orga-
nization of work ? The answer can only be in the
affirmative, first, because to teach people how to
work in a rational fashion is implicit in the function
of technical instruction exercised by means of the
motion picture. It would be an anachronism to
use an automobile to draw an old-fashioned
coach .

The second reason is that the scientific organiza-
tion of work consists in defining the beginning of
and the methodology of work, that is, it is technolog-
ical material like any other or like many others.

In wishing to gain a more detailed idea of the kind
of motion pictures necessary for teaching the scien-
tific organization of work, or rationalization of work
in other words, we should do well to remember that
the content of this formula is absolutely illimitable.

Wherever and however work, even personal work,
is carried on, the methods of doing it may vary
according to the temperament, subject, will, and the
material and mechanical means utilized. Thus in

industry, commerce, banking, agriculture, public
administrations and private businesses, and even in
family life, there can always be found a problem
needing solution by the rationalization of work.

Sometimes the variety of combinations and changes
will be limited ; in other cases, the possible altera-
tions in the schedule of labour will be greater, with
greater or lesser chances of passing from the empiri-
cal to the ascertained, from the subjective to the ob-
jective. The problem will, however, always exist.

Thus the use of the cinema may prove to be almost
limitless. What we should do is to find out which
are the most convenient forms, the shortest routes,
since there is certain relation between undertaking
and result, effort employed and possible benefit
obtainable.

The connection is one and individual : it is the
interest which the material presents from the cinema-
tographic point of view, first for the production of
films, and then for their use later on. The possib-
ilities for use in industry are more evident and
concrete than in other fields. The technical

110

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

elements are more favourable in the industrial
cycle than the administrative ones.

The cinematographic process to follow is evidently
that of films for normal technical instruction :
general aspects, schematization, careful demonstra-
tions of structures, cycles of work illustrated step
by step, secret process by secret process. Animated
cartoons can very well be used in these circustances,
and panoramic stills.

An essential for films making propaganda for
rationalization is a comparison illustrating the
advantagea and disadvantages of correct and incor-
rect methods of working. The student ought to
possess an idea of the antiquated systems and struc-
tures which modern methods have put out of date.
This is a necessary step in the rationalization process
of tommorow. If we did not do this, we should be
teaching pure technology.

Rationalization is as often as not a matter of details.

It would be a great mistake to suppose that our
marvellous industrial progress is exclusively the
result of strokes of genius.

Edison's words are worth citing in this connection.
He attributed the satisfactory solution of his inven-
tions as to 10 per cent to imagination and as to 90
per cent to patience and hard work. Our own
Marconi is a shining example of the value of patience
and steady work. His ideas have opened up limitless
fields and endless possibilities, but they have not
only been due to his magnificent genius, but also
to his powers of perseverance.

The discoveries in industry are not numerous.
Many of the inventions that are regularly patented in
all countries are inventions which seem matters of
small account to the non -expert. Sometimes it is
a lever which is placed in a different position or a
wheel made of some special material.

The scientific organization of work presupposes
the careful examination of all novelties and patents
which are being adopted or considered in the work
under examination, everything in fact which concerns
the distribution and utilization of motor force. The
importance of detail cannot be overestimated, and
its study may even seem to be reduced to an absurd
degree.

We can consider the cinema useful for the
rationalization of work in the following particular
cases :

(1) to encourage the study beforehand of the
disposition of objects, plant, and the tools and ins-
truments and labour and service. The cinema can
examine these questions for illustrative situations
and concrete results ;

(2) to give students the function of controlling
and organizing works, especially in the productive
cycle. The cinema can prove an excellent instru-
ment to be used against waste in factories, and an
excellent instrument for teaching the detail plan of
any operation of work ;

(3) It can teach people to understand a summary
of the relations of interdependence between all the
determining factors of an economic result, including
human and moral factors, as well as technical and
economic factors.

Perhaps a few fundamental films in which the
expressiveness and the practical utility of each of
the arguments considered can be assumed to be
sufficient to form a cinema archive or repository
of worth while proportions.

This is true because it is not necessary, in the field
of rationalization, to go so thoroughly into the
subject in its infinite forms as is the case with tech-
nical instruction. It is sufficient to spread a knowledge
of fundamental ideas and criteria to form the worker's
mental equipment before educating his normal
aptitudes and capacities. When the worker has ac-
customed himself to reflect and to analyse the differ-
ent results of his work according to the intelligence
and care he has put into it, he will himself look
after the solution of his own personal technical
problem. It is therefore to be hoped that first and
foremost cultural bodies and producers' organisa-
tions in various countries will come to an understand-
ing with regard to the formation of a film repository
of rationalization pictures since this would mean
linking the cinema up with the interests of the great
mass of producers irrespective of their particular
branch of activity. It would also mean encouraging
this mass towards fresh research and inquiry for
the near future.

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

THE CINEMA AS A MEANS OF PROPAGANDA FOR THE
PREVENTION OF WORKMEN'S ACCIDENTS

BY

Viktor Hendrych,

Director of the Austrian Central Bureau for the Prevention of Accidents.

Connection between HPhe prevention of
Accident Preven- 1 accidents consists
tion and the Cinema. jn that sum total of

measures and systems created for effectively
preventing accidents. Since three-quarters
of the accidents which happen are caused by
personal errors and deficiencies, the greater
number of the measures adopted and the
institutions working to prevent accidents
must make a direct appeal to man and guide
and train him to be prudent and act in a
rational manner. This pedagogic attitude
must not be too obvious, because it is dif-
ficult to exercise influence on people in that
manner.

On the whole, then, the task of preventing
accidents which by its very nature belongs
to the training and instruction of the people,
must be carried out, as far as possible, in
personal contact with those exposed to danger
or accident, for it is only in this way that the
individual can be made to understand the
danger, and to come out of his reserve and
interest himself in the efforts that are being
made by other people. Nothing is likelier
to arouse interest than a pictures which stim-
ulates thought, and of all the pictures, the
moving pictures are by their nature the best
for this purpose, since they show us real
things in their life process ; and when we add
the talking film to the picture, we have almost
a hundred per cent reproduction of reality.

It is obvious, from the above considera-
tions, that the film is a particularly valuable

aid for rendering instruction and training
efficacious. As this mode of influencing man
must correspond to his character (mentality,
education, vocational culture, etc), and must
therefore be varied, so the film must also pre-
sent various forms for the prevention of accid-
ents. We must therefore first ascertain
the advantages or disadvantages of this or
that cinematographic form under special
aspects, and also in connection with Austrian
conditions.

The educational film, which has come to
play an important part as a means of popular
education, since it gives excellent support
to a lecturer s words, cannot be used just by
itself as a film for the prevention of accidents.
An uninterrupted series of accidents would
end by becoming dull and tiring and boring.
The simple educational film dealing with the
prevention of accidents, is very rarely of any
special interest, and instruction given by this
means has therefore, very little probability of
succeeding except in the form of very short
films, in which these groups of accidents are
gathered together. This kind of educational
film brings us to the second group.

The Film on Production Processes. — The
production process, as such, presents a series
of interesting details ; the various stages
of it form a sort of pattern that makes bore-
dom impossible when observing it. The dis-
advantage of this cinema form consists in

112

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

its uniformity. The film which shows only
a certain production will undoubtedly be
followed with interest by the workmen of that
particular manufacturing branch, but not
by those of another. Films of this kind
are therefore condemned by their very nature
to have but re'atively few projections, which
seems to make their use a doubtful advantage,
since a large number of projections are needed
to pay for the expense of a film. A film
showing traffic danger is an exception to this
rule, and in addition, such films are always
interesting on account of the different aspects
of traffic, apart from the dangers, and some-
times even, at moments, amusing. They also
form a sort of stepping-stone to the next
category, the —

The Film with a Story. — This is character-
ized by a continuous cinematographic action,
and for that reason arouses interest even in
publics of different mentalities, so that it can be
made to illustrate accidents of different kinds,
under able management. The disadvantages
of this form lie in the fact that the action
distracts the mind from the main object,
namely, the accidents and how to prevent
them, and that the variety and wealth of
scenes presented may cause a certain con-
fusion in the spectator's mind if the action
is not planned very systematically, that is to
say, it must be so planned that the plot is
invisibly accompanied by an action illustrat-
ing the prevention of accident. It is impor-
tant, therefore, that films with plots dealing
with the prevention of accidents should not
be too long, or that they should at any
rate be divided into several parts, each of
which is independent.

Summing up, therefore, we may say : each
of the forms of silent film has its special
justification, and the choice of one or the
other cinematographic form depends on the
aims and use for which it is intended. For
primary and general instruction, the film
with a plot is the most suitable, while for the
special instruction which must be given later

on the educational film or the film on produc-
tion processes should be shown. This explan-
ation would not be complete without men-
tion of the fact that, at the present clay,
special use should be made of the sound film
for instructive purposes concerned with the
prevention of accidents. As we have little
experience in this field, especially in Austria,
the possibilities of the sound film can be
utilized only in the course of time.

The First Austrian The film can be made
Films on Accidents. use 0f ;n tj,e pre-

vention of accidents only when there is a
clear understanding of the measures to be
taken for the prevention of accidents, and
the possibilities of influencing the individual on
the other.

Up to 1919, everything connected with the
prevention of accidents, in Austria, was left
to the agents of State control, namely,
factory inspectors, and it rarely happened
that there was any attempt to complete this
State control based on the laws in force.
When there was, it was due to the private
initiative of some employer with advanced
ideas. It was, however, recognized even
at that time that legal prevention of accidents
was not sufficient of itself, and the first step
made was the forming the " Social Technique
Society ", the members of which were the
representatives of the authorities, employers,
employes and workmen ; the object of the
Society being to spread the knowledge and
rules of social technique among works.

This Society, under the control of the
Central Inspectorship of Industry, with Herr
Tauss C. E. at its head, produced two films in
1920 which received general approbation in
technical circles. The State Bureau for the
Cinema (Photographic and Cinematographic
Service of the Ministry of Instruction)
possesses the positive and negative of a film
which dates from this epoch. It deals mainly
with accidents during transport and their
prevention, and concerns the minor indus-
tries, especially the chemico-technical in-
dustries.

THE CINEMA IN VARIOUS PHASES OF WORK

113

A second film on the prevention of accid-
ents owes its existence to a particular event,
namely, the International Exhibition of
Hygiene organized at Vienna from May to
October ; it was an instructive film on the
prevention of accidents, with special reference
to accidents in the chemical industry.

The picture intended to be shown to
journalists consisted of a prologue and an
epilogue, and the scenario had accident
prevention background. This film repre-
sented an undoubtedly efficacious means of
suggestion for those times, because, apart
from its photographic perfection and its plot,
it was also eminently suited to the men-
tality of the worker. It shows the battle-
field of labour in the prologue, describes its
dangers, and urges the spectator to the utmost
prudence. The epilogue shows, perhaps
a little too much in detail, that the best v/ay
for the worker to spend his free time is to
look after his hygiene, walk in the parks,
work in the garden, in a word, spend his
leisure in the open air, keeping himself free
of the vice of alcoholism.

This film, which was dedicated to the
workers employed in the direction of the
Austrian Union of Chemical Industry Workers,
is about 1 ,450 metres long, and was produced
under the direction of Louis Moorw ; camera
operator Karl Kurzmayer. It was projected
100 times in different institutions of popular
culture, and especially on the occasion of
Syndical Conferences, when it could be
shown to about 40.000 spectators.

Two more films were produced, on the
occasion of an exhibition organized in 1926
by the Austrian Corporation of the Motor
Car Industry, namely the first Exhibition for
Safe Traffic Conditions. They were called
■ Avoid Accidents I ", produced by the
Tramway Company of the Commune of
Vienna, and « Viennese Traffic ", produced
by the Direction of the State Police. Both
of these films can to some extent be called

production process films, because they fix
the production process of traffic in special
pictures which are more particularly repre-
sentative of Viennese traffic. Both describe
the dangers of metropolitan traffic, show
how one should and should not behave in
the street, and how to use means of loco-
motion.

The film " Avoid Accidents ! " is 600
metres long. The Tramway Company of
Vienna supplied the subject and the shoot-
ing was done by the Company for the Produc-
tion and Renting of. " Allianz " Films. It
shows the dangers of traffic in big towns,
the right and wrong way to behave in the
street, and the use of the tram. The film
was shown at the Exhibition for Safe Traffic
Conditions, and also in Viennese cinemas in
the spring of 1928, in the Palace of the Fair
when the " Woman and Child " Exhibition
was held, and many times also at the Urania.

" Viennese Traffic " is in two acts, and
is 648 metres long altogether. It was made
by Karl Kbfinger C. E., in collaboration with
the Central Inspectorship of the Municipal
Police and the Traffic Office of Police Head-
quarters. The scenes show the errors made
by drivers and foot passengers.

Austrian Films for All the accident pre-
the Prevention of venting films of which
Accidents. we haye spoke SQ far

were prepared for some special event, and
then, as they happened to be in existence, were
used under other circumstances. But we
cannot speak of them as forming a systematic
cinematograph propaganda for the prevention
of accidents. This propaganda began to gain
ground later, however, and to develop syste-
matically and continuously. In November
1926, the chief organization for this purpose
was founded, namely, the Central Austrian
Bureau for the Prevention of Accidents,
which comprises members of all the sections
of society interested, the authorities and
employers organizations on the one side,
and the workers and also the accident insur-
ance companies on the other.

This central organization of all those inter-

114

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

ested in the prevention of accidents in
Austria undertook, in 1928, to produce a
film for the purpose of completing the edu-
cational work which had been carried out
up to that period, mainly by means of film
propaganda. About 2,500 factories and
workshops, with a total of 180,000 workers,
had been aroused to an interest in the pro-
blem of preventing accidents and persuaded
to help in the work. The problem to be
faced now was that of intensifying the already
existing interest in the subject, and also
carrying out a work of persuasion, in a new
form, in those circles which were still outside
the efforts being made to prevent accidents.

Propaganda and In- At this stage of the
struction Films. Austrian accident

prevention movement, it was felt that the
main thing was to carry out propaganda on
the necessity of self-protection. To this
end, it was necessary to employ methods
which do not in any way presuppose special
qualities in the individual methods, that is to
say, which enter into the sphere of already
existing interests.

It is a known fact that the film is partic-
ularly adapted for arousing general interest
and inciting the spectators to collaborate
when necessary. This is the case, however,
only when the film is suitable for project-
ing before a public of different mentalities,
that is to say, suitable not merely for men
employed in a workshop, or for town dwellers,
or for peasants ; it must contain elements
that would interest all these groups. By
this we mean that it must have a series of
scenes interesting each particular group,
and at the same time be of interest to all the
spectators.

In this connection, and as regards Aus-
tria, the following facts must be kept in
mind :

(1) In relation to popular education
and especially that of adults, the fact that
the Austrian is influenced only in a special
way, namely, by a mixture of sentiment
and spontaneous reflection, not by compul-
sion or rule ;

(2) that, generally, speaking, the Aus-
trian rejects anything which is not beauti-
ful, anything that is intentionally pedagogic
and doctrinal, whereas he is attracted by
beauty and things which are presented to
him agreeably. The latter is therefore the
only way to win him over to an idea, and to
persuade him to help in its realization.

The first thing to do before starting to
work was to decide whether to produce an
instructive film or a film with a plot. If the
Central Austrian Bureau for the Prevention
of Accidents, decided on the film with a plot,
although experiments in this line had al-
ready been made and other countries pre-
ferred the instructive film, it was for the fol-
lowing reasons : (1) it responds perfectly to
Austrian mentality to be instructed in a
pleasant and not pedantic way, (2) the film
should be suitable for projecting in a work-
ing environment (corporative or workshop
meetings) together with an illustrative lec-
ture, and also in public cinemas before a pub-
lic composed of different working and social
classes ; and it should not merely arouse gen-
eral interest, but should also induce the
public to co-operate.

These two almost diametrically opposed
requirements can be satisfied only by a film
with a story, because this type has a continuous
action which is certain to secure the attention
of all classes.
1 . — " The Danger that Lies in Ambush ".

Having decided this main question, a
suitable subject had to be chosen, and the
one chosen from a large number of subjects
examined gave a vital picture of the working
world, and therefore seemed likely to fulfil
all requirements. It would not only in-
terest all classes, but would allow of the in-
sertion, in a genuine cinematograph story,
of beautiful, interesting pictures of the work-
shop, the street and the home ; and it also al-
lowed of the insertion, in a perfectly natur-
al way and at the proper moment, of facts
connected with the prevention of accidents.

The first Austrian film on the prevention
of accidents which was produced on these
lines, " The Danger that Lies in Ambush ",

THE CINEMA IN VARIOUS PHASES OF WORK

115

may be described as a dramatic film from the
cinematographic action point of view, and as a
pleasantly instructive film from the prevention
of accidents point of view. It does not deal
with the special problems of protection against
accident, but is restricted to the general
aspect of the subject. It therefore offers
something of interest to every spectator, and
does not bore or tire anyone, and this consti-
tutes its special value. But it is efficacious
also in other ways. It is so constructed that
it can be shown as a whole or in parts, so
that parts of it many be given as appendices
to a programme, before or after the chief
item, like the sporting events, for instance,
in the scheme of an ordinary cinema show.

All these things together are probably the
reason why the film met with such great suc-
cess everywhere. Among others, the In-
ternational Labour Office of Geneva writes :
' . . . you have the best film in existence on
the cause of accidents " ; the Central Swiss
Office of Hygiene, Zurich : " This may be
defined as the best film we have yet in this
field. . . " ; the Social Museum of Munich :
' The idea of the psychological prevention
of accidents is understood with extraordin-
ary subtlety and worked out magnificently,
both from the photographic and the stage
management point of view " ; the Austrian
Museum of Public Health : " This fine film had
a great success everywhere and formed one
of the attractions of the Exhibition " ; the
Chamber of Labour and Employment of Inns-
bruck : ' It may be said without exaggeration
that the projection of this film is a great suc-
cess ".

2. — " From Midnight to Midnight ".

The interest displayed in the film " The
Danger in Ambush " induced the Central
Bureau for the Prevention of Accidents to
produce another film with a story on the
same subject, so as to continue the education-
al work begun by the first one. The second
film was to be in the main a continuation of
the first as regards the prevention of acci-
dents and also in its construction, the lines
of which were already laid down.

Whereas the first film having to prepare

the ground, dealt with the prevention of
accidents in a general way, the task of the
second was to sow the seeds of a future growth
on the ground thus prepared. The second
film had therefore to be of a more special char-
acter, and to deal more or less thoroughly
with various groups of questions ; but all
the same it had to be kept on sufficiently
general lines to be shown successfully before
a large public.

The first act of this film, " From Mid-
night to Midnight, ' with the sub-title
" Films on the dangers of daily life ", gives
an introduction to the prevention of accidents
and shows the necessity of these measures.
It deals therefore mainly with accidents at
home and in the street rather than in the
factory. In the second act, the ways and
means of avoiding accidents are illustrated,
showing diagrams and preventive measures,
and the steps taken by the Central Bureau
for the Prevention of Accidents. In the third
act, the activities of the Inspectorship of Labour
are described, and we are shown the duties
of employers and workmen in the matter
of preventing accidents. The fourth act
gives us an elaboration of the instruction
abundantly imparted in the first film. In the
fifth act, we are shown convincing demonstra-
tions of systems for curing accident cases.
In the sixth act we are shown the necessity
and practice of first aid and its organization.

The film, shows an ordinary working day,
just like any other, and speaks of the dangers
of life in the factory, the street and the home,
pointing out that most of the accidents that
happen are the result of inattention and ignor-
ance, and are caused by the hurry of these
times and the carelessness due to habit.

The lack of proper safety measures is not
the least cause of accidents. But the greater
number of these could be avoided if em-
ployers, workmen and employes, private
persons, housewives and children, in fact, all
members of the community were convinced
of their respective duties to society and
were to act with care and precaution and prud-
ence everywhere and in every circumstances,
and if at every moment they were conscious

116

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

of being called upon to carry out the duty
of collaborating sincerely in the great work
of public safety.

Both these films were produced by order
of the Central Bureau for the Prevention of
Accidents.

Both were stage-managed by Robert
Reich, while their general direction was en-
trusted to Viktor Hendrych. Among the

performers in both films were genuine
workmen and members of the public, as
well as actors and actresses, and the photo-
graphs were taken in factories and in the
street, as well as in film studios.

The following tables clearly show the
importance of the educational work done by
these two films.

General cinematographic propaganda.
Total number of projections.

1928 1929 1930 1931

1932 July 1933 Total

Where given in cinemas :

" The Danger in Ambush " .
" From Midnight to Midnight "

71

128

58

9
121

130

34
99

133

2
85

302
305

Total ....

71

128
169

58

87

607

Where shown in popular culture in-
stitution :

" The Danger in Ambush " .
" From Midnight to Midnight "

57

247
247

113
111

42
147

179
189

807
447

Total ....

57

169

224

189

368

1,254

In factories and trade meetings :
" The Danger in Ambush " . .
" From Midnight to Midnight "

50

97
97

24

24
329

12
23

35

389

19
30

49

230
85

432
138

Total ....

50

315

570

178

394

371

770

2,431

Number of Spectators and Lectures.
1928 1929 1930 1931

Spectators' film

1932

July 1933 Total

" The Danger in Ambush" . .
" From Midnight to Midnight "

48,274
48,274

75,180

76,228

19,178
51.794

13,053
41,539

54,592

44,368
52,615

96,983

276,281
145,948

Total ....

75,180

76,228

70,972

422,229

Lectures :

" The Danger in Ambush " . .
" From Midnight to Midnight '

39
39

106
106

113
113

75
101

176

60
160

220

320
253

573

713
514

Total . . .

1,227

THE CINEMA IN VARIOUS PHASES OF WORK

117

b) Propaganda with the Reduced Size

Film Only.

As soon as the small size film had been in-
troduced into Austria, it was made use of to
spread the projection of accident prevention
films to a large public, and these projec-

tions can now be given in public places and
meeting places when other gatherings are
being conducted as a rule, that is to say,
assemblies and meetings. As the following
table shows, an important work of education
has been carried on in this way.

Number of Projections and of Spectators.

1931 1932 July 1933

Total

Projections

"The

Danger in

Ambush " . .

20

50

394

464

" Fron

l Midnight

to Midnight "
Total ....

77
97

128
178

256
650

461

925

Spectators

"The

Danger in i

\mbush " . .

1,528

4,967

41,248

47,743

" From Midnight

to Midnight "

8,820

15,324

31,023

55,167

Total ....

10,348

20,291

72,271

102,910

It must also be noted that, by the aid of
the small size film, a considerable number
of projections were made in schools, etc., not
only in Vienna and the principal federal
towns, but also in smaller centres. These
projections were given twice, in each case
to school children and their parents, the one
show coming soon after the other, so that it
is more than probable that children and
parents talked them over together at home.

We must not forget, either, that these
films were lent also on the occasion of Exhibi-
tions, in the halls of the Exhibitions them-
selves, so that hundreds of thousands of per-
sons were interested in them.

In conclusion, we may say that by means
of the two Austrian films for the prevention
of accidents, " The Danger in Ambush " and
" From Midnight to Midnight ", a really
widespread propaganda has been carried out
on the subject of self-protection, and also
that, these films being so prepared that they
serve not only for propaganda but also for
educational purposes. Indeed, it frequently
happened that this was the only way by
which the ground could be prepared for an
eventual instructive campaign for the pre-

vention of accidents ; a fact that should be
kept in mind.

Educational Films and Little by little as the
Instructive Films. different measures for
preventing accidents assumed concreter form
and especially when the necessity of propa-
ganda by means of the film was recognised,
it seemed advisable to produce educational
films dealing with special questions and in-
tended for special branches ; that is to say,
real educational and pedagogic films. Some
films of this kind have already been produced
and others are being prepared.

The film " Autogenous Welding ", which
was produced by the Austrian Acetylene
Association, deals with the entire subject
of welding, showing in a very impressive
way the dangers connected with this process,
and also how to avoid their occurrence in
well chosen photographs and cinematogra-
phic pictures. Each phase of the work is
presented with great care and ability, and
the worker's movements are shown in a way
that is often tremendously impressive.

The film is divided into two main parts
of equal length, the first of which shows the

Ice ingl.

18

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

general foundations of autogenous welding
while the second shows more particularly
the practical applications of the oxy-acetylene
process and especially the measures to be
taken to prevent accidents. In the composi-
tion of the cinematographic work, great
care was taken to keep the interest of the
spectator alive throughout the entire pro-
jection by means of lively, attractive and
sometimes stirring scenes, fade-outs, tricks
and also short and well distributed remarks.
This combination of qualities makes the
film particularly suitable for instruction and
propaganda work. It is 900 metres long
altogether. Herr Wasshuber C. E. was re-
sponsible for the scenario, and stage manage-
ment, and Herr Kofinger C. E. for the
photography. The film was projected for
the first time on- the occasion of the
Welding Conference of the V. D. I., and
afterwards in all Technical Schools and
Halls of Popular Culture in Austria, as well
as for manufacturing corporations, when it
was invariably accompanied by a lecture.
It serves mainly for training purposes today.
The amount of interest that was everywhere
displayed in the film may be judged from the
fact that copies of it have been sold not only
in the countries on the borders of Austria,
but also to those on the other side of the
ocean.

The Institute for Industrial Improvement.
of the Viennese Chamber of Commerce and
Industry proposes to bring out an instructive
film on " The Oxy-acetylene Working of
Metal ", the fifth part of which, " Technique
Welding of Materials of Cylindrical Construc-
tion ", was already finished in 1933. This
part deals with flat and angle welding, and is
about, 1 ,000 metres long ; the scenario and the
welding technique were supervised by Herr
Hans Malhardt C. E., while Herr Teufelerger
C. E. looked after the general direction and
execution.

The intention is to deal with the whole
field of the autogenous welding of metal in
the form of an instructive film. The projec-
tions will be made from lantern slides
(diagrams, views, etc.) and films with

short dissertations. The single phases of the
process of modern flat welding are shown,
one after another, in their effects on the line
of welding. The single data were supplied
by the results of numerous investigations
into the most suitable conditions for working
at flat welding, so that the results of the
latest researches in this field are shown.
This makes it possible to follow the processes
of the operation much better than can be done
at the welding bench, so that this film can
be used instead of a practical demon-
stration or a theoretical lecture.

The Association for the Prevention of
Farming Accidents, which is an association
of all the Austrian farm labourers' insurance
societies, also intends to bring out a film on
the prevention of accidents in this branch of
work, in the combined form of an educa-
tional and story film. The story is quite ready,
but funds are lacking for the production o
the film.

The Central Bureau for the Prevention of
Accidents proposes to produce two short
educational films on two special branches, in
which the most frequent and serious dangers
of each of these industrial branches are illu-
strated in such a way as to serve for special
instructive lectures. These lectures will be
included in the programme of syndical and
corporative conferences and will also be
given on the occasion of collective visits of
groups of workmen to the new section of the
Technical Museum.

Prospects. It is obvious from the

above that the film is largely adopted in
Austria as a means of propaganda for the
prevention of accidents during work and also
of general accidents, and that it represents
an important future factor in the work of
training and instruction.

To this end the object is not to keep solely
to the simple educational film, but to make
use also of the latest cinematograph advance
namely, the sound film.

The Austrian Central Bureau for the
Prevention of Accidents, which, as we have
already said, is always trying to attract the

THE CINEMA IN VARIOUS PHASES OF WORK

119

attention of new classes of the population
to its ideas of safety and to that end makes
use of all modern means of propaganda,
has already decided to bring out some
sound films on this subject, in the form of
sfiort films to be projected as appendices to
the programmes of public cinemas. These
films will have the same scope as the other
pictures refered to, namely, to call the atten-

tion of the still indifferent spectator or those
whose interest has grown somewhat cold,
to this subject.

The work of propaganda for the prevention
of accidents by means of the film is on the
way to profit by a new means that has already
given proof of great utility in securing in-
creased safety in the workshop, the street
and in the home.

THE USE OF MOTION PICTURES IN ADULT
TRADE EXTENSION CLASSES

Report by the Frank Wiggins Trade Evening School of Los Angeles.

Our FIRST FILM. — In the trade extension clas-
ses of the evening school we face the problem of in-
creasing the effectiveness of teaching trade tech-
niques to those who have had some experience in
the trade they are studying. This type of adult
learner is anxious to know worth while things about
his trade.but is extremely critical of the teacher and
of teaching methods. He has sufficient experience
to give him an insight into what constitutes correct
technique, even if he cannot reproduce that degree
of skill for himself.

The maturity of the pupils and the fact that they
want the usable parts of their training as rapidly
as possible have led us to minimize the amount of
theoretical instruction which is often a necessary
background for success in a trade. The motion
picture has been a partial solution to this problem,
for by its use the principles may be demonstrated
rapidly, and their direct application to the trade
operations indicated.

The meaning of a well prepared moving picture
is grasped by all, while a verbal discussion produces
reactions varying with the intelligence, training
and experience of the various members of the class.
This is by no means to suggest that the motion
picture can ever supplant the personal contact with
a competent teacher. We are convinced though
that the motion picture can be successfully used
to shorten the time and increase the efficiency of
technical instruction in the trades.

For example : a class of automobile mechanics
studying wheel alignment required from three to
four weeks to cover the geometrical and mechanical
principles, underlying the proper adjustment of
the front axle and wheels of an automobile, in order
to produce the camber, caster, toe-in, etc. for min-
imum tire wear and easy steering.

It appeared that a motion picture might present
the ideas in a more understandable way. So the
instructor with the assistance of the vice-principal
prepared a script presenting step by step each type
of adjustment, with a diagram or model to illustrate
the theory. In each case theory was followed by
views showing practical ways of measuring, making
and checking the adjustment.

Then with the cooperation of members of a class
that was just finishing the course, we shot the
scenes indicated. The rushes were viewed by the
class, and received their humorous but critical and
enlightening comment. Some additional scenes
were added, and after editing and titling, the film
was again shown to the group and suggestions made
for further improvement.

It was obvious that all concerned enjoyed the
making of the picture, and from their collective ef-
forts details of the processes were observed that
had not been previously noted. The instructor
was inspired by new view- points on the technical
problems and in using the film with later classes
was able to reduce the time for related technical
instruction by half. At the same time he has noted
evidence that the processes are better understood
than before.

This process of making a teaching film has been
outlined somewhat in detail because it has become
our method of attacking the problem of obtaining
films which really fit the needs of teacher and class.
Further statements regarding it will be found in the
following outline.

I. Size OF film. — We have selected the 16-mm
width because it projects a clear picture large enough
for any of our classrooms. This, of course, is es-
sential and we were not satisfied with sizes smaller

120

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

than 16-mm. The small, light-weight reels and
projector for the 16-mm film make them so easy
to handle that teachers, who have objected to the
use of 35-mm film because of the difficulty, have
gladly used the smaller film. The 16-mm films is
much more economical because of lower first cost,
rentals and transportation charges.

2. Silent FILM has been used because our ex-
perience indicates that for technical instruction
sound effects usually distract attention from the
main subject. Also in the present state of develop-
ment of sound equipment the sound effects are
difficult to satisfactorily prepare and project. Printed
titles are likely to be better understood than the
spoken word.

3. Black and WHITE films have been used ex-
clusively so far, because in the present state of per-
fection we do not regard the reproduction of colors
as sufficiently accurate to justify the additional ex-
pense. We have some art subjects. Costume De-
sign, Cosmetology, etc. where colors would add
greatly to the effectiveness of the films when they
can be reproduced satisfactorily.

4. Exhibiting. — Our instructions for the use
of films suggest that the instructor discuss the sub-
ject fully before showing the film so that pupils
understand the main points to be considered. Then
show the film, stopping at any points where addition-
al discussion will help. After seeing the film, re-
view the subject with additional explanation. Re-
quire each pupil to write an outline or digest of the
material covered.

5. Sources. — Most of the films we use come from
general distribution sources such as : Y. M. C. A.,
U. S. Bureau of Mines, National Film Library, Uni-
versity of California, General Electric Company,
and others.

From a teaching view- point the quality of these
films varies widely. Many are excellent and well
adapted to class exhibition, presenting manufactur-
ing and industrial processes more clearly than a
visit to the plant would do. Others are composed
so completely from an advertising or entertainment
angle that the teaching value is slight.

Since we have been unable to obtain enough sa-
tisfactory films we have been making films to suit
our special needs. This is a slow process but as
time goes on we are building up a library of films
which fit the instruction program and are available
when needed.

In general the films which we make are intended
to present the related technical aspects of the sub-
ject. While industrial processes become obsolete
and are replaced by more effective methods, the
scientific principles remain much the same. The
same is true of films, representing fundamental
principles which need only slight revision as the
years pass.

6. Comparison with still pictures. — We
have found moving pictures superior to slides in all
but a few instances, such as Costume Design where
the class sketched period costumes shown on the
screen ; or Linotype Mechanism. These uses of
still pictures appear to supplement rather than re-
place the motion picture.

7. Subjects where films can be used. — We
have found motion pictures helpful in the follow-
ing classes :

Aeronautics, ground courses, meteorology, na-
vigation, theory.

Airplane mechanics, types of construction,
methods of manufacture.

Apartment house management, arrangements,
methods, service.

Automobile mechanics and electrics, science,
developments, methods.

Cak.e decoration, types, details, variations,
effects.

Cosmetology , physiology of skin, types of hair
dressing, techniques.

Costume design, period costumes, details, fac-
tory methods.

Drafting-architectural, period architecture, de-
tails, materials.

Drafting-mechanical, machine design, applica-
tions, mechanics.

Electricity, installation methods and types,
theory.

Fashion illustration, advertising psychology,
arrangement.

Plumbing, methods of manufacture, type instal-
lations, hygiene.

Printing, manufacture of paper and ink, ar-
tistic arrangement.

Radio service, science, types of installation.

Steam plant operation, science, techniques
types of equipment.

Telephone switchboard operation, technique,
types of service.

Welding-gas and arc, science of metals, tech-
niques, methods.

THE CINEMA IN VARIOUS PHASES OF WORK

121

8. Collaboration of teachers. — The making
of a film for teaching purposes is a highly technical
procedure and requires the cooperation of a number
of people experienced in different lines.

(1) The sequences and subject matter must
represent good trade practice.

(2) Psychologically the arrangement must be
plausible and carry the desired message. One of
the beauties of the motion picture is that it carries
a number of incidental connotations which are
absorbed unconsciously by those who see it.

(3) All details of background should represent
industrial conditions. In this, as in all things, the
" infinite capacity for taking pains " is essential for
successful films.

(4) The photography must be adequate to the
task of putting on the screen a clear picture that
will make the important items stand out boldly.
In this type of picture sharp, contrasted effects
are generally desired. Titles should be brief, simple,
and direct. Where technical words must be used
they should be explained.

Since these films are made to fit into a definite
teaching program, they should be planned with the
teacher of the class. Where more than one teacher
is concerned or is familiar with the operations in-
volved, a conference is desirable to outline the sub-
ject matter.

Our procedure in this case is for the vice principal
as director to call the conference mentioned, after
which he prepares an outline and gives a copy
to each teacher, asking for further additions and
revision. Another conference is held about a
week later and important details agreed upon. Then
a working script is prepared with as much detail as
possible, copies of which go to the teachers for
further adjustment. When satisfactory to all, the
necessary properties are prepared and shooting be-
gun. At the same time our drafting classes prepare
the drawings or diagrams required.

This procedure takes time and usually all con-
cerned spend many hours outside of school time to
make the film complete. Much of the shooting is
done in school time when classes are in session to
furnish the " actors " in the scenes. Little re-
hearsing is needed since operators are selected who
are skilled in the kind of work to be shown. We
have found some teachers hesitant at first to venture
on a novel project like this, but by the time the
script is ready they are enthusiastically doing their
part.

Most of our teachers are skilled craftsmen with
years of experience in the trade they teach. Being
primarily craftsmen they do not fall so readily into
the ruts sometimes ascribed to academic teachers
of long standing. We have found, however, that
the production and exhibition of motion pictures
inspires the teacher to a better organization of
subject matter, and in general, a fresher view-
point in his ideas of the relation of the school to
industry.

9. Comparison with other teaching aids. —
Our classes often visit plants where phases of the
class study are available for observation. It has
been found that these visits can be made more inst-
ructive by accompanying them with motion pictures
which describe similar processes. Thus a broader
view of the subject is obtained than is possible from
a short visit.

The comment has been made that when a class
is learning a process involving activities which
the members can practice for themselves it seems
foolish to show pictures of the processes. However,
judging from the comments of members of our clas-
ses, there is much to be learned by watching a good
close-up of an expert doing the same kind of work.
This is specially true, of course, in watching rapid
action which can be analyzed in slow motion.

CINEMATOGRAPHY IN TEACHING TRADES

Report of the ' Autonomous Fascist Federation of Italian Artisans .

What are the possibilities and evolutions of trade (a) Silent Film. — 1) As a subsidiary and sup-

teaching in regard to :

(a) the silent film ;

(b) the sound and talking film ;

(c) the film as compared with other didactic aids;

(d) verbal and written teaching ;

(e) complementary cinegraphic text books.

piemen tary means in the teaching of trades, the
silent films is sure to make great strides since
its easier excution and lower cost (taking, printing
and projection of photographs) make it a much
easier matter to popularize these films.
(2) The silent film for the teaching of a trade

122

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

should be divided into the following three different
categories :

(a) history of the trade ;

(b) materials, systems of application and dem-
onstration of the execution of a piece of work from
beginning to end ;

(c) the various phases of the work, with abun-
dant details in regard to the first steps, especially
in those trades dealing with works of small size.
Each detail should be preceded by a preliminary
lecture giving a theoretical illustration of the action,
and should be followed by a concluding lecture on
the action carried out.

(b) Sound and Talking Film. — The sound and
talking film may be greatly superior to the silent
film, apart from its cost, for the following reasons :

(a) in the " history of the trade " film, words
are of great importance, because by their means a
detailed description can proceed step by step with
the projection ; which procedure is impossible with
silent films, where the explanations can only be
interpolated ;

(b) many trades have special features, as regards
the sounds produced by the instruments used and
the materials employed. These sounds have their
importance, since they can give an exact impression
of the proper execution of the work, or otherwise.
When a file bites badly, we shall have a disagreable
sound, for instance ; and the same thing occurs when
a drill is not sufficiently oiled, or when the blade of
a plane is not sharp enough, or when two or more
men are beating on iron and do not keep time, and
so on ;

(c) words accompanying the action have great
superiority over the written words following a
silent film, because, among other things, they give
the proper pronunciation of the technical terms.

(c) The Film in Relation to Other Didactic
Aids. — With regard to the subsidiary part of the

teaching of a trade, namely, synoptic pictures
collections of models, plastic images, lantern slides,
es, etc., cinematography could exercise a wider and
more positive function, since :

(a) by its means we can show the details or
section of a motor, a piece of furniture, a canoe
or other object in all its parts, even the most minute,
which would be impossible even with a long theo-
retical series of synoptic pictures ;

(b) the cinematograph can serve as auxiliary
to models, but cannot take their place. In the
field of living models, however, it has great advan-
tages, because it can collect a continuous series of
every phase of their muscular movements, which
can be shown with great efficacy, especially if they
are taken with the slow motion process ;

(c) plastic images and lantern slides may be
replaced with advantage by the cinematograph,
for the panoramic and gradual projection of a
stationary thing gives a much better idea of it than a
plastic image or a lantern slide. There is also the
fact that we have uninflammable films now, so that
a projection may be stopped and made fixed at
any moment.

(d) The Film in Relation to Verbal and Writ-
ten Teaching. — Verbal and written teaching in
trades is theoretical or historical, and the film can
therefore be of great aid to teachers for single de-
monstrations and for illustrating the description
designs or lectures on the history of the trade.

(e) Complementary Cinegraphic Text Books. —
If cinematographic text books are compiled on

proper technical criteria and properly set up, they
can be of great use in the teaching of a trade. For
instance, successions of photographs illustrating
works or facts explained in the text could be inserted
between the pages. All the tools connected with a
trade can be illustrated by photographs and thus
form a kind of illustrated tool dictionary.

CINEMA AND ACCIDENTS

By Engineer VlTALIANO Colombo.

Among the technical, economic and social pro-
blems in the solution of which the cinema can prove
useful we must not forget the campaign against
accidents.

The matter is far from being unimportant. Safety
during work is without doubt directly and closely
connected with securing the physical integrity of

the race. The phenomenon of accidents is so vast and
important that, looked at merely from the physical
point of view, the calculation of the damage wrought
totals up to thousands of deaths, tens of thousands
of accidents bringing permanent disability, and
hundreds of thousands of cases of temporary disabil-
ity. Looked at from the economic angle, the loss

THE CINEMA IN VARIOUS PHASES OF WORK

123

amounts in one way and another to millions, if not
one or more milliards. All this is repeated by year
and therefore, withgut having recourse to any special
statistics, it is evident that the campaign against the
waste of accidents is a holy war waged for the de-
fence of the family and the national interests, a
battle in which full use of all helpful means should
be made.

Many people commit the mistake of considering
an accident in the course of work as the natural epi-
logue to a conflict between man and machine, be-
tween the worker and his tools and implements of
labour. Still more people consider this conflict
unavoidable and inevitable, as if the implements of
labour were autonomous beings possessed of a blind
brutality or a sense of hostility.

The workman's accident is, on the contrary, we
may say, in 90 per cent of cases a psychological fact,
that is the conclusion of a state of mind which
shows an insufficiency of presence of mind and at-
tention in respect to the surroundings and mani-
festations of the work being done.

The point would be well worth developing to
greater length than is possible in the present note.
At the same time, we should remember that modern
technique would not have a place worthy of its fame
in production if the mechanical forms in which it is
manifested were insufBcietly provided with protect-
ive means for workmen. That there is still a degree
of danger cannot be denied, and it differs from case
to case. Some parts of machines in rapid automatic
movement are more delicate than others, but the
danger is liable to increase in measure with an
inaccurate gauging of the danger by the worker. It
is the moment's inattention and carelessness which
allows a man to slip on a wet floor, which gets a man's
arm caught in a running pulley or belt, which lets a
man drop a lighted match near the petrol can, and
causes workmen to fall from insecure scaffolding.

Must we lay the fault on the workman then ?

Must we presume that he commits a grave im-
prudence when in the course of welding he leaves
off his protecting glasses or gloves for a minute be-
cause prolonged work makes him find them if not
superfluous, at least in the way ?

It is not of reproofs for workers that we want to
speak. Indeed attenuating circumstances can easily
be found for workers under these conditions. Bas-
ing our statement on numerous studies by psycholo-
gists and specialized bodies, we must point out that
all the mechanical devices for safety and means of
protection are worth nothing if those for whom
they are intended do not use them in the proper way.

More and more automatic protection devices are

being used, among which we may instance the mar-
vel of the photo-electric cell which arrests the
worker s arm if it is moved outside the safety zone.
Automatic defence cannot do everything nor be
general, consequently the workman must help him-
self with a tireless use of his attention. In other
words, we must create a state of mind among work-
men which makes them realize the gravity of acci-
dents an individual and social danger, and we must
educate the workers' capacity for collaborating in the
campaign against accidents.

" Safety First " is a motto which follows one like
an obsession when one visits American factories.
The warning is repeated on every stairway, at every
door, in each department, and beside all the various
kinds of machines. It is repeated with an impla-
cable uniformity. In all modern and rationalized
establishments, all over the world the spirit of
emulation in preventing accidents is kept alive by
various means.

The cinema comes in as a particularly useful
agent in this very matter of educating people to a
state of mind which is against accidents during
work. At the forthcoming Congress, all the various
different forms and uses of the motion picture
for technical and social defence purposes will be
examined. Few fields, however offer a better
opportunity for the use of the cinema than the sec-
tion of accident prevention. Here the motion pic-
ture is educative in the full sense of the term. The
question of education includes an improvement of
technical capacity ? We want to impress things
on men's minds and on their moral qualities. The
cinema is an active and dynamic vision of progress.

All this is true of the campaign against accidents
to workmen, and can find it best interpreter in the
motion picture.

The technical scientific film and the spectacular
picture go well together in this field, the ironic and
the dramatic, the dry and the emotional. When one
or ten series of different films is produced with this
object in view, they can claim the attention of
every public in the world. Throughout the
whole world lack of attention and an insufficient re-
gard for danger is a source of disaster for human life,
and throughout all the world the head of the family
who is lost or injured leaves a serious legacy of misery
and privations.

In this way motion pictures of this kind can use-
fully be exchanged between country and country,
and with a careful and conscientious director, films
of this type ought to have excellent probabilities of
paying their way. Films dealing with workmen s
accidents and the best means for avoiding them have

124

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

already been projected in leading cinema halls, and
have proved successes from the educational point of
view in the campaign against unnecessary accidents.

The subject is one which can treated in section,
and in detail. One thing can be taught today, an-
other tomorrow, thereby leading to a gradual pene-
tration of the central notion into the minds of those
for whom it is intended. Interesting stills or lantern
slides can be used along these lines also, since they
fit in very well with the more advanced technique
of the motion picture for propaganda purposes.

Indeed the use of stills would seem to be a good
way to organize a progressive spread of knowledge
of accidents and their causes.

It would seem advisable that the Congress should
express its opinion on this matter since all possible
means should be weighed and considered when we
are facing a phenomenon which affects the health
and the financial conditions of people. It is a pheno-
menon which cannot be measured statistically by
the damage it causes because in accidents, as is well
known ; in addition to the amount of the indemnity
to be paid, there is the more or less un ascertainable
figure deriving from the damage which the accident
causes to the working of the factory or workshop
where it happens ,and the effects, not the subject of
compensation, of the accident considered in terms of
the injured worker and his family.

THE CINEMA AND THE [SCIENTIFIC
STUDY OF WORK

(Editor's Note). The cinema has not been con-
sidered solely as a means of artistic, cultural or educ-
ational production. In its wider sections and uses
it has been utilized for scientific researches almost of
a mathematical character, even in their psychological
import, to arrive at establishing the necessary ele-
ments which appear in the plan of work and to
demonstrate if and in what measure and in what
manner the worker's labour can be integrated, and
rentered easier and more healthy.

The objects of these researches, which, it may
be repeated, are strictly scientific are various and
include :

— a study of the best means to render work
organic and rational and calculated to give a larger
output ;

— a study of the rationalization of work not so
much from the point of view of the quantitive or
qualitative output, as to place the workman in a
position to tire himself less (to work in a manner
more suited and convenient for the particular type
of labour he is accomplishing) and to obtain the
same effect or even a superior effect to the normal one
as a result of paying attention to the fundamental
laws of the least effort and the maximum effect;

— a study of the worker's labour from the
eurhythmic and psychological points of view with
the purpose of establishing that the movement or
movements to be made in a given piece of work are
the strictly necessary ones and those specifically
indicated for that given piece of work, and not other
superfluous, useless and dangerous movements
constituting a loss of time and a waste of energy.
The purpose is also to see that the workman presents

himself at his task technically fitted to carry it out,
didactically equipped and accustomed to the special
job ;

— a study — by means of an examination of
various types of work — of the most suitable and
convenient means for determining that human
labour shall be free of every anxiety of damage or
injury (accident prevention assurance, etc.).

These are the essential objects to which many
other secondary ones could be added, objects which
require a schematic examination not in the order
indicated but according to the development of the
work from its origins (apprenticeship) right down
to its practical development and evaluation.

I. The Teaching Film. — The teaching film,
in the department of work must be considered from
a triple point of view according as it is intended to
create factory hands, to choose specialists and to
improve the worker's work.

The film which is intended to create factory hands
must maintain its technical-didactic character,
with all the necessary formulae and consequences
which pictures of the kind are capable of offering.
It should have as a basis, an exhibition of the various
types of labour, both agricultural and industrial
illustrated in an elementary fashion, and should be
accesible to the various mentalities of the children
and young people who will have an opportunity
of seeing it. It must therefore maintain its explan-
atory and exhibitional character, excluding all
complicated technical matter. The very first
course of such teaching is not intended to instruct
nor to specialize, but is intended only to set forth,

THE CINEMA IN VARIOUS PHASES OF WORK

125

to demonstrate which are the various types of work,
so that the students can become acquainted with
them and unconsciously begin their own researches
into what will prove to be their future activity.
This does not mean creating factory staffs. It is
but the first step in that direction which begins by
outlining the form, the surroundings in which the
work is to be done. The spectator is invited there-
fore to a first rudimentary work of selection, which
will have in the future further developments.

This type of motion picture can well be used in
all scholastic grades from the elementary classes to
evening and rural schools and the early vocational
guidance courses.

Going a step further forward, the student passes
from the technical schools properly so called to the
cultural and specialized training schools. The staffs
or hands are already formed in embryo. A pre-
liminary selection has been made automatically
according as the child or young person has mani-
fested his or her preferences and has chosen one
course in preference to others. This fact does not
preclude the possibility of the future workman
returning to take up other different courses if the
opportunity occurs, or when the spectator students
understand as a result of experience that it is better
to follow new and different paths of labour than
to insist in pursuing roads unadapted to their
psychology, tendencies and special aptitudes.

In any case, we are discussing future factory
staffs which must still be chosen and definitely
trained along special lines.

This second stage which might be called superior
technical training creates the proper factory staffs,
the specialized hands. The field and factory
worker has already begun his task. The motion
picture bound up with the necessities of oral and
written teaching abandons its general character of
an encyclopedia of work and takes on a more spec-
ific character with the purpose of showing those
machines and objects which the student spectator
has chosen deliberately and desires to see in opera-
tion. We are, however, still dealing with the for-
mation of staffs which is proceeded with through
specialized schools, and consequently by means of
the particular specific kind of teaching whether
filmed or written.

From purely scholastic teaching we arrive at type
teaching as we have mentioned, which helps to
differentiate the ordinary manual worker, the ordin-
ary daily labourer from the skilled worker destined
to carry out special operations. This becomes a
first form of specialization. The worker and pea-
sant have now a definite line and direction to follow.

They know what the life of labour can offer and
what they can give in return. The workers come
to take their places in the factories or in the
fields.

In the factories, workshops and fields, that is
in the various determined sectors of work, the work-
man and the peasant have a multitude of tasks to
perform if they wish truly to be up to their own
standard and fit for their work.

Whence comes the necessity for technical im-
provement. In addition to technical schools and
tradechosing schools, we can have schools in the
work shops, in the fields and everywhere the
worker's activity takes him. Such schools need not
be considered as being created solely to assist the
agricultural labourer and the industrial workman,
but with the principal object of rendering the
workman and agricultural labourer a hundred per
cent useful citizen capable of rendering the best
possible service to himself and his country so that
he becomes a real constructive element in life.

The character of the first groups of schools can be
gathered by noting the scholastic specializations :
general teaching, specific teaching, first grade spe-
cialization all tending to create technical factory
staffs. The character of the last group of schools is
also clearly specified by the programme deci-
ded on by the schools. It is roughly meant to
stress the importance of the work of the operative
and the agricultural labourer.

We thus arrive by means of a continuous selection
at what ought to be actually the adult s work, that
is, the typical formation of a category of workers
capable of filling the shifts in a factory.

What can the film do in this connection ? We
must use teaching films for which the ordinary
principles of methodology are applicable. In no
way is the human element, exemplified in the person
of the teacher, to be excluded. He must continue to
carry on his work of integration, of comment, of
explanation and suggestion. Perhaps in this part-
icular field more than any other, the educationist's
work can be usefully employed in supplementing
what the student learns on his own account from
the film. Not only should the film be used for the
teaching of apprentices, for vocational guidance,
career-choosing, but other visual aids should be
adopted in connection with the motion picture.
Lantern slides, models, laboratories are necessary
to allow the pupil to study in a practical fashion
the filmed lesson and the teacher's verbal expansion
of the same. It is in this second utilization of
visual aids that the educator's intervention reveals
itself as being very important and necessary.

126

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

II. PROPAGAND FlLMS. — The propaganda film,
in the field of scientific work, logically presupposes
that the workman or peasant have already received
some kind of specialized training of an elementary
nature, which cannot yet be considered as giving
proper qualifications.

The propaganda film can be addressed either to
the public in general or the worker in particular.
To the public because it becomes necessary to make
it see and know what only very few know ; work in
its customary progress as it is carried on day by day
in factories and fields. This type of propaganda is
essential for the putting into due relief of work in
general and the national work of each nation. All
the nations, through the iron laws which govern
their activity, must have their internal work properly
and extensively valued and esteemed. In this
essentially economic expression of will, the elem-
ents of the propaganda are to be found.

This propaganda can be carried on, as happens
today, and of which America has given us the first
typical examples, by ordinary advertising methods.
It goes without saying that films of this kind must
be exhibited in the simplest form in such a way as
to be easily comprehensible to all classes of spec-
tators. The effect to be aimed at is not so much to
offer a too obvious and irritating kind of advertis-
ing as to offer in an indirect disguised way a picture
which is capable of attracting the spectator on its
own merits. The public is often rebellious to
forms of advertising which seem imposed on them
by force as it were.

But mere propaganda among the general public
is not enough. It must also contemplate informing
the worker of what is being done in other fields of
work, so that the impression can be made that the
work done by an individual or a given group of
individuals cannot be an end to itself, but must be
considered in relation with the labour which other
individuals and other categories of workers are doing
in the interests of the collectivity and for the advan-
tage of the whole nation.

When a worker in the building trade sees on the
screen the intense labour and the enthusiasm which
the miner brings to his work, or the operative
earning his living in blast furnaces forging bars of
steel, or the movements of labour-saving machinery,
he will understand that work is in itself and for
itself a regular chain of interests and coordinations
which cannot be broken or dealt with one at a time,
because they are all connected with one definite aim.

From visions like this understanding is born,
and what is even more necessary an appreciation
of the nobility of work.

These are all forms of propaganda which are
solidly and intimately connected with the inspiring
principles of corporative life in all countries, in
which the worker in the factories and the fields, just
as the employer and the technician who directs
the complex mass of operations, are all necessary,
essential elements integrating the whole work
without any possible antitheses between them.

III. Accident Prevention and Workmen's
Relief Films. — These too are propaganda films.
The purpose of the films is to let the workman
know what are the dangers inherent in his trade
or are caused by an inproper and faulty estimate of
the nature of the work he is doing. Such dangers
are often due to an erroneous coordinization of effort
or an imcomplete respect for the regulations go-
verning the daily work. All these factors canl
ead not only to a diminished output, but can cause
those typical forms of injury which reduce or annul
the working capacity of the operative and thus
harm in his person, either wholly or in part, a
working unit of the national economy.

The worker's relief and worker's accident pre-
vention film is intended for three categories of
persons, all in different degree interested in appre-
ciating its content and suggestions. These cate-
gories are worker, technician and employer. It is
also a picture, which on account of its general and
specific functions, can usefully be shown to a non-
specialized public for cultural purposes.

The workman utilizes it for the definite ends of
his own work, derives suggestions from it for carry-
ing out his tasks with a scrupulous, technical exacti-
tude which will steer him clear of all danger. He
will learn from it how each movement of his hand-
work or machine manipulation should be accom-
plished, what he should do when a breakdown in
the machinery occurs, so as to avoid danger and
to prevent an injury to the machinery turning
into a injury to persons. He will learn the utility
of first aid and the necessity of monetary com-
pensation for injured workmen, as well as how to
deal with various cases that can crop up in the field
of assurance, relief and help to the injured.

The technician finds in the films of this kind the
precise illustration of the tasks and details of work
which his subordinates must carry out. He can
therefore exercise his functions of control and crit-
icism along lines strictly in accordance with the
exigencies of work.

The employer will perceive that one of the prin-
cipal advantages of the insurance system is to
exonorate him from economic responsibilities while

THE CINEMA IN VARIOUS PHASES OF WORK

127

one of the advantages of the accident-prevention
system is that of not reducing the working energies
which he has made himself responsible of in his
factory workshops or fields. At the same time, the
insurance companies have all the employer's interest
and more in developing forms of propaganda which
can avoid or limit the necessity of heavy expenses
for indemnities and compensation. This system,
which is widely spread in American factories, leads
at the same time to a reduction of accidents which
is all to the advantage of the country socially and
economically. It has also improved the output of
the workers and benefited the insurance companies
themselves.

Nor is this all. One can be an excellent worker
in a given specific department and remain such ;
one can be a perfect workman and yet not be aware
of the technical and economic trasformations which
work develops ; one can be diligent and yet not have
a notion of the principal elements which govern the
rationalization of work (quantity and quality) for
the sake of the work itself and diminished fatigue
for the worker. One can be certain of one s own
nerves and courage and yet not be convinced that
from the psychological point of view, the work can
be done according to strict requirements and that
the nerves and courage can fail at a criticial moment
with all the consequences for injury and damage
likely to result.

The cinema meets the situation here better than
any theoretical studies can do, better than verbal
advice or the instructions of an educationist or an
expert, better than graphs, wall drawings or similar
objects.

The film becomes therefore :

(a) A means of research which is preliminary to
this scientific utilization. In this department,
the screen remains in the strictly documentary
field. As Jean Cocteau has well said, ' Even when
nothing is moving, the cinema registers the time
that passes „. We may add that when the eye
does not see, the cinema registers and observes.
Details can escape the attention of the most atten-
tive of experts. The cinema writes this detail on
the screen, and offers it to the technician for his
researches and future experiments. Dispensing
him from regarding it with his intuitive faculties
which are not possessed by everybody in equal
measure, and can in some cases be quite imperfect.
Jean Cocteau observes that by examining the pic-
tures in a film one by one, we may decompose the
movements of a workman, a machine, or a whole
gang of workmen in cases where the naked eye
could detect nothing definite.

M. Hymans finding it impossible to keep certain
machines, the workings of which he wished to study,
for more than 24 hours, had them filmed in action
and was enabled to study their movements with
the aid of collaborators, at his ease, and better than
he could have done with a prolonged direct study.

It was also the cinema which enabled the Michelin
Company to record the mysterious phenomena
manifested by the " shimmy " of the front wheels of
automobiles, and the study of the film allowed the
cause of this disturbance to be detected and removed.
(b) For the formation of a qualified staff. — It is
not a case of perfecting only the working staff with
the object of obtaining a higher output both quanti-
tively and qualitatively. It is also necessary to
produce men who, while remaining workers, become
master workers, without at the same time inva-
ding the expert's domain. One can arrive at this by
a process of selection. Thus in the building trade
one finds artisan workers, workmen who can intro-
duce grace and harmony into their work, workmen
who are superior to the common bricklayer.

We have used the word harmony. And harmony
means rhythm. It is precisely this — if one wants
to find the aesthetic element in work — that dif-
ferentiates workmen's qualifications. Rhythm is
harmony, and as harmony it can come from colour,
music, poetry. A musical composition without
rhythm is only an artificial assemblage of sounds,
just as poetry without rhythm is only versified prose.
Colour or movement without rhythm is only a stain
without life, or a succession of disordered gestures
in a fractioning of various rhythms which do not
unite to form a rhythm proper. The individual
who rises up from the ranks of day labourer to be a
qualified operative lifts himself out of the rhythmless
sector of disorganized work to forms of abour
possessing harmony and belonging to a superior
conception.

The artisan class is the typical expression of the
qualified workman, and this applies to all kinds of
artisans from wood-carvers to glass workers and
workers in precious stone.

To create qualifications for workmen is to elevate
and enoble toil, and means contributing towards
the creation of works of art.

The qualified workman can come into being not
only through a process of selection but also through
individual improvement. We must make our distinc-
tion clear here : there is improvement and inprove-
ment. There is the kind we have already spoken of
which renders the workman perfect in his own par-
ticular limited field of action. This kind of improves
ment tends especially to use the worker's effort-

128

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

while gradually improving them. A steel worker or
smith who hammers out his iron on the anvil can
carry on his work either roughly or rhythmically
with essential and harmonious gestures which give
a caracter to the metal that issues from his hands.
This is only an improvement of the first degree,
and not second degree perfecting. We must give
the workman an opportunity of realizing his best
possibilities, those capacities of his which come al-
most within the domain of art, since they comprise
a manifestation of the aesthetic sense and the sense
of precision. And this is harmony in movement
and gesture.

We now come to the question of specialization
which is connected with forms of typical technique
and which, while remaining in the domain of teach-
ing, goes beyond the simple elementary paths of
apprenticeship.

(c) As instrument for the scientific study of wor\.
— It may seem strange, but it is nevertheless true
that a rational system of work, necessarily if uncon-
sciously, obeys the operation of rhythmic laws, since
we must study movements by dividing them into
fractions and breaking them up macro-movements,
micro-movements and normal movements in order
to eliminate unnecessary gestures and to enrich
them with essential elements.

A study like this is the consequence of a series
of scientific researches as well as a gradual improve-
ment of the worker, whether the improvement
remains within elementary limits or tends to produce
qualifications.

Without wishing to repeat what has been said
elsewhere, what are the bases for a rationalization
of work ? They include : the study of the work to
be done, the study of the tools and machinery, the
study of the movements to be made by the worker.
These classes of studies combine with one anothet.

The two kinds are of a strictly technical order in
the sense that they must be examined scientifically,
and the workman is generally not in a position to
undertake a scientific study. He can, on the other
hand, bring his contribution of practical knowledge
of his task.

Theory must remain the province of the tech-
nician, who is the only one to establish later on
how theory and practice may be reconciled.

" The chain, for example, as calhbration of time
says Jean coutrot is a visible materialization of volun-
tary and abstract coordination of the principle of
mechanization of the process of simplification of
planning which governs every piece of work ".

In a study on the Cinema and the Scientific
Organization of work (Brochure of the I. I.E. C.

No. 19-1930) Jean Coutrot examines the problem
under a particularly interesting aspect since he does
not concern hiself with the economic factor so much
as the psychological factor which can induce the
employer to rationalize his labour and plant.

The industrialist of today, in his daily work, is
concerned less with earning large annual dividends
for himself or his shareholders (Taylor has shown
the comparative futility of profits which cannot be
realized within a week) than with creation, the
fashioning of his enterprise according to the idea
of it which he has in his mind. The real joys of
creation are no longer reserved to the artists, who,
deliberately denying their work all moral, senti-
mental or historical significance, confine their
endeavours to mere problems of form, colour or
space, but to the industrialists, who, with the valua-
ble but wayward aid of human ambitions and of
material, financial and intellectual resources, are
engaged in constructing organisms as impressive
as they are delicate. Paul Claudel, with marvellous
intuition, has realised the obscure but profound
satisfaction of men who are absorbed into these
organisms from the remotest countryside to work
along with their equals under acknowledged leaders.

In modern industry everything is subordinated to
a definite end, everything functions with miraculous
order within the framework of a single task. Work-
men, engineers, accountants, draughtsmen, trav-
ellers, interpreters, the publicity staff all have their
essential duties to perform, and their work reacts
immediately upon the whole organization, of which
they never cease to be a vital part.

Who will deny that a community of this kind,
irrespective of the sufferings and diminished im-
portance which it may involve for each member, is
in itself admirable ? Has there ever been seen so
harmonious a distribution of such vast stores of
knowledge and of so many human forces and activ-
ities ? Here men are united no longer by mere
physical proximity, but by a mutual need, an organ-
ic necessity of undreamt of scope and complexity.
And every worker is dimly aware of this. He is no
longer alone ; he feels himself necessary to the whole.
He is making good among all his equals under com-
petent leaders, and acts no longer in response to a
arbitrary word of command, but under a direction
and guidance which are indispensable. And that
is why he will always choose to serve (I prefer to
say " work ") a machine rather than to dig the soil.

Towards this urge of the manager to create, and
of his subordinates to assist in the creation, scien-
tific management contributes the framework and
the rules, just as prosody serves the poet's need of

THE CINEMA IN VARIOUS PHASES OF WORK

129

expression. It is therefore important to bring home
to all what is not generally realized, namely the
inmost structure of industrial organisations, whereby
the energy set loose by customers in the form of
orders is gathered into a stream by the planning
department, directed through channels to the dif-
ferent workshops and finally materializes in the form
of manufactured goods.

When we seek to make this structure perceptible,
we find that it consists of a pile of orders or service
notes, detailed plans, customs or traditions of the
staff, all elements a knowledge of which calls for
considerable analytical effort and which are only
known in their entirety to the head of the business,
the sole onlooker. It would appear that the cinema,
with its inexhaustible power of expounding, can
alone communicate to others this general view from
which the employer derives his supreme delight and
his strongest inspiration.

A film prepared by the Grodziec Collieries Asso-
ciation (Dombrowa basin) in collaboration with the
Polish National Committee on Scientific Manage-
ment is a typical example of scientific management.

This is an ectremely interesting film and proves
that the methods of scientific management can be
successfully applied not only to a workshop, but
to work subject to such variable and all compelling
external conditions as is work in coal mines. Sever-
al separate operations (transport of wood from its
arrival at the mine to the shaft where it is to be
used, hewing of coal by a gang, revetting of a shaft)
are shown and analysed from three different points
of view :

(a) an ordinary picture shows the actual ope-
rations ;

(b) a plan shows the internal structure of these
operations, their approximate topographical condi-
tions and their relation to the rest of the work of the
mine ;

(c) Harmonograms, thanks to Professor Ada-
mieki s method, allow of an even greater degree of
abstraction and a table can be thrown upon the
screen to show the exact times spent in productive
and non-productive work and their relations with
the distances covered. Graphic symbols, particu-
larly well-selected, also illustrate the substitution of
a functional organization for the old geographical
organisation : each official, engineer or foreman,
instead of being entrusted with a number of func-
tions within a restricted area, is made responsible
for one single function throughout the whole colliery.
Three engineers, for instance, are kept employed,
one on hewing, one on maintenance work, one on
supplies, and each foreman is under a different

engineer according to the work he performs. Simi-
larly, the supervisory staff is divided up into separate
functions. A table shows the distribution of order
for the day.

With regard to studies of work it is therefore
necessary to know (and this knowledge is of a
strictly scientific order) :

(a) The results of the different methods of
manufacture used by similar and connected indu-
stries. This knowledge can only be obtained by
an exchange of results between interested firms.
Such information can be given without revealing
any trade secrets.

(b) The determination of the general and particu-
lar characteristics of different trades and industries
which can be obtained by a study of cycles of
factory work, variants in such cycles common to
various industries and the characterization of dif-
ferent manufactures according to the proportion of
fundamental movements included in the total time
required for carrying out the work.

To these studies must be added those on the
machinery and the general and specific characteris-
tics of individual pieces of work.

We have spoken of scientific organization, but
as we have said the rationalization of work which
is one of the formative elements of this system of
applied science, by means of the technical study has
its own absolute necessities.

We have already referred to the functions and
movement of the workman in the specific task entrus-
ted to him and the advisability of his rationalizing
it, that is, rendering it harmonic which means
perfect and stripped of all complications and useless
superfluous and dangerous motions.

The study of the movements which is correlative
to the times of execution requires as a matter of
fact:

(a) The determination of fundamental move-
ments and the consequent formulation of the rules
and regulations on the time employed and the con-
sumption of energy. All these values must oscillate
between determined limits, which are independent
of the process of work itself, and depend to some
extent on the variety and differences existing be-
tween country and country, with their different
conditions.

(b) The predetermination of the carrying out
of the work in the process, consisting in a calcula-
tion made beforehand of the time required for differ-
ent operations to be in logical relation with the system
of fundamental movements. The sum total of
partial times will give the complete time of execution
and the number of fundamental movements will tell

130

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

us what type of workman is best suited to the work
in question and what alterations can be introduced
to ameliorate the system.

(c) The determination of essential movements
which are to be distinguished from fundamental
movements owing to the fact thay they include all
the series of secondary but necessary movements.

(d) The pointing out of the elements of physio-
logical and psychological research in their relation
to individual output.

We now enter fully in the field of psychological
researches in its connection with technical teaching
and with everything that effects or touches the
specialized training of staffs of workers. These
inquiries and studies are just as necessary as the
others, if indeed not more so, because if the first
mentioned have a general and universal value for the
worker considered as a productive unit, the latter
consider him as a man, as a psychological unit whose
personal reactions it is worth while investigating
when he comes into contact with a definite piece of
work.

A series of experiments of the Hawthorne Work
System made by the Western Electric Company has
led to some results of the first scientific value. These
experiments have been reported by L. Putnam,
Elton Mayo, John Devey and others. It will suffice
to indicate the points round which these researches
turned. They proposed to study the behaviour
of gangs of worker of different ages and sex under-
taking the same work.

(1) reactions of individuals of both sexes,
without distinction of age after work and at the
end of the day ;

(2) comparison of reactions of adults with adol-
escents according to sex ;

(3) utility of periods of rest and shortening the
days or work ;

(4) effects of different systems of controlling
work on the worker's morale and output ;

(5) factors determining the worker's state of
mind ;

(6) factors capable of exercising an influence on
the morale and the output of the worker such as,
ways of paying wages, rest times, meal times and
type of food, hours of sleep and recreation, family
conditions of workers and other circunstances out-
side the actual work life in the factory, isolated or
group work, relations with other workers inspectors,
etc. ;

(7) individual psychic and physical factors
(pulse, arterial pressure, skin reactions, blood analy-
sis, hygiene) ;

(8) physical and cerebral fatigue.

These studies are carried out, taking account of
age and sex and also of the varying conditions of
labour in different countries.

In all these departments of work, the cinema plays
a role of the first importance. It allows move-
ments to be analysed, decomposed and examined
in connection with time factors and according to
rationalization methods.

Cinematograph Tecnique. — In the case of
cinematography applied to scientific studies of
work, there are various problems which crop up.
Some refer to the type of film while other concern
the picture-making itself :

(a) What are the respective advantages of
silent sound and talking films in this department?
What about animated cartoons, sub-titles, the slow
motion and accelerated projector ? We can learn
from pedagogical experience that all these types of
films and projections can be useful according to the
programme being developed.

There is no doubt about the utility of sound. The
able worker can recognize by the sound a defect
in the machine he is engaged on.

One may remark that the talking film is superior to
the silent picture inasmuch as the comment can
come off the sound track instead of through a spec-
cial person. The commentary of a talking film
must naturally be made by a competent person
who must also take into consideration the intellec-
tual level of the persons he is going to address.
The utility of animated cartoons is obvious in schem-
atic demonstrations which the photograph cannot
give. Slow motion and acceleration are useful for
analysis and splitting up a picture into is component
parts.

(b) Actual picture-making. M. RlCHARD Thun. —
Studies on work with the aid of the Cinema Bro-
chure of the I. I. E. C. N° 19-1930). The author of
this monograph calculates that for the use of the
motion picture in the scientific study of work any
camera may be used.

Scientific management films can be taken by
almost any camera having a sufficiently large box.
The diaphragm should be adjustable. The max-
imum aperture should be 180. This makes it
possible to take photographs under bad conditions of
light and, secondly, the longest possible exposure
is often desiderable in the interests of detailed study.
On the other hand, short exposure is sometimes
necessary, and it should therefore be possible to re-
duce the aperture to a small slit of 5 mm. Any
further reduction is useless, since in most cameras

THE CINEMA IN VARIOUS PHASES OF WORK

131

the distance between the diaphragm and the film is
about 10 mm.

If the camera has a motor drive, the latter must
be specially constructed for our purpose, since in
this matter, it is much more important to observe a
regular and constant succession of photographs.
For the same reason, the tachometers constructed
with most cameras are useless, as they are not suf-
ficiently accurate if the number of exposures is also
to be taken as the measure of time. In this case, the
ordinary commercial precision tachometer is to
be recommended. The lag of the speedometer
should not be so great as to prevent the pointer from
measuring small variations of exposure. Clockwork
is not suited in most cases.

For the examination of most working processes
the camera should take 1000 pictures a minute, or
162/3 per second. A higher rate is only necessary
if very rapid human movements are to be observed,
such as in typing. On the other hand, a rate of
only 500 or even 200 pictures a minute is very often
wanted. These low speeds are required for the
analysis of very protracted processes, when it is
also important to economise film. Single photo-
graphs will be taken when the camera is only requi-
red to serve, as it were, as a stop-watch. Thus
a single picture will always be taken in cases when a
simple time study would be measured by a stop-
watch. This method is considerably more accu-
rate than a mere reading by the stop-watch, and
the cost in film material is very small. The camera
must be able to focus the view directly in the view-
finder. There is no occasion to observe the pic-
ture in the viewfinder while the film is being shot,
if the finder is efficient. For purposes of scientific
management films, the stand required is the ordin-
ary cinematograph stand with universal joint.
In order to photograph a workman who is frequent-
ly changing his position a movable stand is an
advantage. The apparatus necessary for taking
dramatic films — adjustable diaphragm single-pic-
ture registering device reverse, apparatus, etc. —
is not essential. It may be useful to be able to
turn the film backwards, if in the interests of
economy it is desired to take several pictures on
one section of film. On the other hand, each
picture is found to be so small when it comes to
be examined that this drawback generally out-
weighs the saving in film.

Whenever possible, scientific management films
should be shot by ordinary daylight. If the light
is not strong enough, a minimum of artificial light
should be employed so that the conditions of work
at the time when the photographs are taken are as

far as possible normal conditions. For this reason
the camera should have a lens working at the largest
possible aperture.

If artificial light is unavoidable, care must be
taken that it is of the kind normally employed. If,
for example, under normal conditions of work the
light is indirect, that is, diffused, the same kind of
lighting must be selected when taking the film.
The pictures will not be so attractive as they would
be under strong light thrown from one side, but,
what is much more important, the movements
shown will more closely approximate to the move-
ments as actually made. The artificial light should
be turned on some time before the operator starts
turning in order that the worker may have time to
get used to it. Incandescent lamps are to be recom-
mended as being less liable to injure the eyes.
Films in scientific management are primarily
useful for measuring times ; this at least is one
of their essential purposes. Time-measurements
themseles may be made by two different methods.

(a) Inclusion of a clock in the photograph .

The older of the two methods consists in photo-
graphing a clock. In this case the number of
photographs need be only approximately constant,
since the time corresponding to each picture will
be registered by the clock itself. In order to facil-
itate reading, the clock must not be too small, but
it must also not occupy too much space in the pic-
ture, or it will mask something else. The dial of
the clock should consist of white lines on a black
background, and the white lines should be rather
less thick than the spaces between. The hands
should be white. In this way we obtain a better
picture than by the use of the usual dial with black
divisions on a white background.

The number of revolutions of a clock used for
this purpose is determined by the following consid-
eration : the normal number of photographs taken
16 /3 per second — 1000 per minute. This rate is
enough to measure with sufficient accuracy processes
of which each phase corresponds to about 5 pictures,
that is to say, the duration of each phase must not
exceed 0.005 minutes. If the beginning and end
of the phase are to be ascertained with 95% accu-
racy, the clock must be able to register
0.95 X 0.005 — 0.00025 minutes. A substantially,
more accurate reading will not be obtainable evev
with an aperture of 120 and more, since a more
quickly moving clockhand could not be photo-
graphed sufficiently clearly.

The clock best suited for the purpose is a Morse
clock, but one in which the usual speed-regulator

132

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

is replaced by what is known as a gramophone-
regulator. A regulator of this kind gives a maxi-
mum variation 0.5 % which is enough for most pur-
poses. The clock has three hands, of which the
quickest revolves 50 times a minute, the next 5 and
the third 05. The reading accuracy varies accord-
ing to the size of the clock in the photograph, from
1/400 to 1/100 of the circumference of the dial
(1/8-1/2 of a division), so that a reading of 0.00005
to 0.0002 can be taken by the quickest hand. I
have recently used a clock whose hands only re-
volve at 1/5 of that speed. This clock saves the
rather troublesome multiplication of readings by 2,
while the readings are sufficiently for most pur-
poses.

In practice the time of each separate picture is
often not taken, but only the time at which the move-
ment begins and ends. In such cases it must be
possible to read longer times directly by the clock, so
as not to have to observe and register each passage
of the hand through zero. Slow-motion pictures
naturally necessitate more slowly moving hands.
The clock described above with the measurements
mentioned is the product of experiments in cinema-
tographic time and movement study. It has assu-
med its present form as the result of numerous
experiments with a wide variety of devices and
velocities. If at any time one or another hand is
not required, it is easily and best taken off before the
film is shot, since unnecessary hands only make the
clock difficult to read. The size of the dial must
depend upon the size of the photograph. The
clock is therefore best fitted with a number of alter-
native dials, each with its own set of hands.

For examinations extending over a considerable
time, it may be useful to include in the photograph
another clock recording the time of day. As a rule
however, it is advisable not to overload the photo-
graph, but to record such particulars as this in a
special note.

It is sometimes difficult to place a clock for purpos-
es of photography ; this difficulty can be got over
by affixing a clock to the camera. It can then be
included in the film either by means a special lens
which reproduces the clock through a small prison
or mirror or by means of the principal lens. As the
clock is in this case usually on a different focal plane,
a lens is placed in front of it, which projects it into
the focal plane. An advantage of the formr procedure
is that the clock's focus does not change with the
adjustment of the lens proper ; on the other hand
its presence involves considerable alteration to the
camera. The use of an auxiliary lens only neces-
sitates a few changes, but in this case the auxiliary

lens will have to be moved to correspond with every
movement of the main lens.

Clocks in which the hands are replaced by auto-
matically moving figures have not been used for
these purposes. The figures would have to change
in a period of time very short compared with the
time of exposure, that, is in about 1/100 of a second.
Clocks of this kind have not yet been made.

(b) Counting of the photographs.

Time-measurement is very much simplified if the
interval of time between each successive picture is
completely constant. The means required for this
purpose were discussed in the chapter on cameras.
It is then only necessary to count the number of
photographs. If the pictures are then projected
for examination the projecting apparatus need only
be provided with a counting device, which counts
the separate pictures and at the same time indicates
the time. Another method is to pass through the
apparatus a second film alongside the original, this
second film being numbered serially. These
numbers will then be visible on the film projected
A disadvantage of both methods is that the serial
numbers are not attachet to the film, and, though
this is of no account when the projection is for the
purpose of examining a single process of work, it
makes it difficult to find any given picture again.
To avoid this drawback, the serial numbers can be
printed on to the film ; this necessitates special
arrangements when developing and printing, but
facilitates the examination of the films to such an
extent as to outweigh this inconvenience.

Before each picture is shot, the prevaling condi-
tions must be noted down, consisting of the follow-
ing :

(a) Name, sex, age, height and weight, health
(any recent illnesses, etc.) of the workmen to be
photographed.

(b) Time of shooting the pictures.

(c) Local conditions (size of room, temperature,
humidity, weather).

(d) Remarks.

These will include any factors which might
influence efficiency, such as recent payment of
wages, holidays, strikes, etc.

(e) Description of the work to be performed
and of the tools used. These notes must be
given serial numbers and before t'-.e film is actually
shot, a photograph will be taken of a board contain-
ing the corresponding number.

Otherwise the technique does not greatly vary
from the normal. As regards lighting, a few rules
were mentioned above. The camera must be so

THE CINEMA IN VARIOUS PHASES OF WORK

133

placed and the views so chosen as to reproduce the
movements without any interruption. In the case
of frequently repeated movements, the process will
be looked at in the viewfinder after focussing, and
any corrections will be made befors shooting.
The picture in the view-finder is best looked at
by the person who will be analysing the film later.

The rate of turning depends upon the nature of
the study. In most cases 1000 pictures a minute
will be found the best rate. A higher figure is rarely
necessary and a lower is only advisable for very
long processes and when film must be economized.

The light should err, if anything, on the strong
side so as to show details in the shaded parts. This
point should be especially observed when the ca-
mera is in the hands of an operator who is accusto-
med to dramatic film work, in which light is mainly
thrown on to the light parts, whereas for our work
the dark parts are more important.

The camera should not be moved more than is
necessary to follow extended movements during
the process of shooting, since movements of the
camera often make it more difficult to analyse the
movements under observation. When a stationary
clock has to be included in the picture, the necessity
of keeping the clock in view sets a limit to the
movements of the camera.

If the film is only intended to give the exact times
of certain processes, one or more single pictures will
be taken after each process. In this case the proce-
dure is the same as for ordinary time-studies with the
stopwatch. Before shooting, the work to be exami-
ned must be carefully noted and sub-divided into
a number of parts. The only difference from a
time-study carried out with the stop-watch is that
instead of a reading of the watch and writing down
of the time, a single picture is taken. In this case
the camera is best operated by a time-study expert.
If three separate pictures are taken, one just before,
the first part of the work starts, one as nearly as
possible at the end of the process, and one just
after, the accuracy is greatly enhanced.

It is generally sufficient if the picture is taken from
one side only, although certain movements will
sometimes inevitably be masked. For the most
part the course of the hidden movement can be

deduced from secondary signs, and this generally
suffices for measurement of times. This may cause
certain errors in regard to individual movements,
but they are of small account in relation to the total
result. If however, the proportion of masked
movements is large, or if a very detailed examination
of movements is being carried out, the technique
should be somewhat modified.

To take the simplest case, photographs of one
process will be taken from different positions so
chosen that movements which are invisible from one
position can be seen from the other. An objection
to this method is that, if the same job is repeated
several times, certain differences will appear. Still,
the method serves its purpose in most cases. Since
each process anyhow has to be taken several times,
this procedure does not involve any additional con-
sumption of film. It is as a rule desirable to change
the position of the camera when taking several pic-
tures of the same process.

A second method is to take the photograph
sumultaneously with two cameras in different pos-
itions. It is convenient to synchronize the two,
either mechanically or electrically. This procedure
necessarily involves a double expenditure of film.
Thirdly a single camera can take a picture from
two sides by an arrangement of mirrors. The pic-
tures can be taken with an ordinary camera and
without expenditure of additional film, but the
field of view is diminished. Which of these three
methods is to be preferred must depend upon the
circumstances of each particular case.

John Devey has said that the worker mus be
conscious of his own worth, for the success of the
general output.

Psychologists in all countries — we may mention
among others we have cited here Sante it Sanctis
and Alfredo Niceforo for Italy — are quite in
agreement in this principle which ought to be at the
base of all rationalization or scientific studies of
work systems.

The cinema is an instrument for education and
teaching. It is at the same time the most formida-
ble scientific instrument which the human spirit
has been able to conceive for directing labour towards
higher forms in the individual and social interest.

5 — let Ingl.

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

CINEMA AND COUNTRY LIFE

BY

Prof. Arturo Marescalchi

Under-Secretary of State to the Ministry of Acriculture and Forest.

THE impression made by the cinema
on the simple mind of the coun-
tryman, together with the powerful influence
exercised by the didactic film on the minds
and memories of children, are a proof that
technical-agricultural cinematography is of
great utility in the mental and technical evo-
lution of the peasant. In addition to this, the
cinema constitutes a powerful attraction to
the masses, who can be gathered together in
larger numbers by its means and more easily
brought into contact with the organizations
which have special functions of instruction
and technical propaganda in the country.

Italy was one of the first nations to adopt
the cinema for agricultural propaganda. The
first film especially produced for this purpose
goes back to 1906, but from 1916 great
strides were made in this direction and from
that date, owing to the transformation of
the " Cine-Agricultural Society " into the
" Ceres Institute for Agricultural Cinema-
rography and Projection " we entered into
the really active stage. The Ceres Institute
was joined to the National Institute " LUCE"
to form its agricultural section and, with the
aid of the Government, this institution
undertook to encourage the development of
the educational cinema and with in the agric-
ultural cinema. In fact, although in the
beginning the LUCE concerned itself only
with the production of agricultural films,
leaving the Travelling Lectureships and
other agricultural organizations and the
" Opera Nazionale per i combattenti

to arrange for the projection of these films,
there has been a great change since 1931,
when the 0. N. C. ceded its travelling agric-
ultural cinemas to the LUCE. :; Since
that date agricultural projections in Italy
have reached a very large number yearly.

Travelling cinemas generally begin working
in the first days of April and finish at the
end of October, and in the space of three
years they cover all the Italian provinces.
The Travelling Agricultural lecturers take
charge of the surveillance of projections
and, in accord with the Ministry of Agricul-
ture, fix the route to be followed in each
province. These projections are always
illustrated by lectures given by the experts
of the T. A. L.

The projections are given in the open air,
in the evening, in public squares, unless the
weather is very bad, when they are held
indoors, if possible in schoolrooms. Bills
are posted up round the town or village by
the T. A. L. and the local authorities, invit-
ing the public to the slow. As arule,
there is a large attendance ; in many towns
of Southern Italy there is often an attendance
of from eight to ten thousand, and sometimes
even more. The general average may be
calculated at about 700 spectators for each
projection. In many cases, the bands of the
" Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro " lend their
services.

As we have already said, the Travelling
lectuers of Agriculture render themselves
responsible for the projections, sometimes

THE CINEMA AND AGRICULTURAL LIFE

135

actually giving them with their own portable
apparata, generally in correspondance with
the Farming Courses for peasants which are
held by this body in increasing numbers.

Projections are given also by Farm Schools
and the agricultural sections of the Syndical
Organizations, and it may be calculated that
the total number of agricultural projections
given in Italy is about three thousand yearly,
with a tendency to increase,

The Ministry of Agriculture and Forests,
in additions to supplying each Travelling
Lecture Groop with a cinematographic
projection apparatus, has for years been
giving every encouragement to agricultural
cinematography by financial contributions,
which this year will be much larger than
in previous years.

The impulse given by the Ministry of
Agriculture to the spread of the agricultural
cinema is mainly due the undoubted efficacy
of the cinema as a means of instruction and
education for rural populations. It is impos-
sible to obtain the same results by simple
lectures, and cinematograph projections may
often serve as practical demonstrations,
especially for general courses. This efficacy
of cinematograph projections, which is
affirmed by the experts of the T. A. L., is
confirmed by the large number of peasants
who attend them, and any further comment
on this part of the matter would be super-
fluous.

In any case, so much has been written on
this subject, both in Italy and abroad, that
there is no need to repeat arguments which
are already well known to the general public.

Since the talking film has come to stay,
agricultural propagandists are considering
whether this type of cinematography can
also be used for agricultural technical and
educational films. The discussion of this
point is still very animated, but apart from
the fact that all the cinematographic equip-
ment of the organizations possessing projec-
tion apparatus for silent films would have to
be renewed, there is a decided tendency now,
after a period of being inclined to accept the
talking film, of keeping to the silent film

for this purpose. The reasons guiding this
tendency are the same as those put forward
by pedagogues and teachers in regard to the
silent didactic film, which does not elimi-
nate the personality of the teacher, but leaves
him free to follow his own particular didactic
methods. However, the last word on this
subject is not said yet.

Another question that is being discussed
is whether we shall keep to the 35 mm. size,
or adopt a reduced size. Here too the
tendency is to keep to the regular size,
which, as we are assured by a large percentage
of the agents of the United States Ministry
of Agriculture, who have been able to make
a practical study of this question, admits of
the possibility of serious educational work.
In any case, the problem is not by any means
universally solved yet, and both in Italy and
abroad the question of the standard size
to be fixed upon is still being vigorously
discussed ; and therefore Italian agricultural
propagandists, who are all supplied with
projectors for the 35 mm. size and do not
find small-size agricultural films on sale, are
not in any hurry to see this matter settled.

It would, on the other hand, be very useful
if we could have agricultural films in natural
colours, because, in addition to being more
lively and attractive, they would be very im-
portant from the didactic point of wiev,
especially in connection with vegetable patho-
logy, agricultural entomology, etc. Unfortu-
nately, in spite of the many experiments that
have been made and are still being made,
we have not yet found the solution of this
problem, nor does it seem likely that it lies
along the road so far taken. A gleam of light
is to be seen in the Daponte system, which is
excellent as a scientific conception, but has
not yet given sufficient grounds for judging
its real value.

In concluding this short note on " The
Cinema and Country Life " in Italy, we must
not omit to point out that the agricultural
film is shown to be more or less efficacious in
according as the subject treated in it and the
way it is treated is suited to the mind and
soul of the peasant. The chief effort, there-

136

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

fore, of those who prepare and produce
agricultural films, must be to keep as closely as
possible to the peasant's ways of thinking and
feeling, both in the photographic illustrations
and the written explanations. The peasant
has a simple soul and an even simpler mind,
although he is quick enough in catching the
right and useful side of things.

If perfection is to be reached in this field,
cinematograph experts must continually study

the effect of their films on country spectators,
trying to understand why certain films
stir them while others perplex them. The
peasant s appreciation is usually of great
practical value, and only those who really
understand the true nature of the pea-
sant and how to plan their work to suit it can
hope to produce films which will really be
an efficacious contribution to agricultural
propaganda and instruction.

THE RURAL EDUCATIONAL CINEMA

Bv
Professor Antonio Marozzi.

AS an Italian and a Fascist, and proud to
call myself so, I wish first of all to state
that I consider the rural population the
soundest, solidest and most fundamental
element of the life and progress of peoples
and civilization, and think, therefore, that
everyone, in every class of social life, should
use all the means at his disposal to attain
the following ends :

First, to make the rural population more
and more attached to the land, helping it to
realize the immense material and moral
benefits that its existence on the land, in
close contact with the evolution of natural
phenomena, brings to it and to the rest of
humanity.

Second, to aid the improvement of the rural
population, both from the ethical-moral and
the technical-working point of view.

The cinematograph is and should be an
excellent means for reaching these ends
because it can perform contemporaneously
the function of providing a country public
with honest entertainment and an education
that raises its moral standard and improves
its working methods.

Unless I am mistaken, all those who concern
themselves over the useful function of the

cinema admit the distinction between the
educational cinema as an ethico-moral meth-
od and the educational cinema as a method
of scientific instruction in the various occu-
pations. In the agricultural field, this dis-
tinction is of the highest importance, and is,
indeed, absolutely necessary.

I intend to deal separately with these two
sections of the cinema, but wish to say at once
that the directive organization must be a
single one, founded on the collaboration of
all concerned, as I will show further on.

The Educational Cin- Everyone who really
ema with an Eth- knows ano\ appreciates
ical-Moral Aim. rura, environment will
agree with me, I think, that it is not desir-
able to show ultra-modern " star " films in
the country, in which the luxurious, vicious
and immoral life of great towns is presented
and even exaggerated, or which at any rate
give an artificial view of life that is far removed
from the reality. The effect of such films is
bound to be pernicious.

Town life is one of the most characteristic
social evils of the present age ; and if we are
to combat it, we must avoid everything that
may delude country people, especially the
young folk, and attract them to the town.

THE CINEMA AND AGRICULTURAL LIFE

137

The first item in tour programme, therefore,
must be the careful choice of films, every-
thing that might constitute a moral danger
being excluded.

Let us be clear, however. To make films
that are morally sound, that uplift the dignity
and pride of the countryman, does not mean
making films that are boringly pedagogic.

It is quite possible to entertain the public
while giving it a moral education ; but it
must be done with ability and without mak-
ing the lofty aim too obvious, or, in other
words, without giving it a scholastic air.

This is not an easy task. I know. But I
think the difficulty may be overcome by the
collaboration of persons who know country
life and country people well and intimately,
and persons who have the necessary artistic
and technical ability to put together a film
which will interest and attract this public.

Perhaps I can explain better what I mean
by a personal example.

I can say with truth that I know the coun-
try people in Italy thoroughly, even the hum-
blest classes among them ; and I have spoken
to them in public, in very serious and difficult
moments, and have always succeded in reach-
ing their minds and hearts. But if I were
to attempt to prepare a film for them, and to
take upon myself the parts of author and
director, I should certainly make a mess of it.

The Cinema in
Training the
Worker.

These films must be
suited to the charac-
teristics of the rural
public to which they are to be shown, and
also to the conditions under which they are
projected.

A real farming public, that is to say, farmers
who own or rent their farms, metayers, lab-
ourers who have an interest in the
farms where they are employed and so on,
who are asked to attend an instructive cinema-
tograph projection, should be shown films
that are entertaining as well as instructive.
Explanations should be restricted to those
that can be given in the talking film or by
short statements projected on the screen.

In these cases, the instructive subjects
must be clear and simple, so that the country
folk, who have but little general culture, may
easily understand them.

It is quite another matter when the instruc-
tive film is presented, not during a cinemato-
graph spectacle but as an auxiliary during
lectures by technical teachers, that is to say,
travelling profressors of Agriculture, or dur-
ing special courses of instruction in elemen-
tary schools, farm schools or special teaching
courses.

Iinstructive films for adult farmers must
be quite different from those for the young
members of farming families, the mentality
being quite different in each case, so that the
teaching must also be different.

For instance, a projection showing, in the
clever way that experts are able to manage,
the growth of a herbaceous plant, so that the
spectator can follow, in the space of a few
minutes, a process that has taken days to
complete, might be a very useful aid in a prac-
tical course of applied botany for school
children ; but it would not be advisable
for a public of adult peasants, who would not
understand the true relation between the slow
natural phenomenon and the rapid one shown
on the screen. They might get the impres-
sion that they were being presented an artifice
that has nothing to do with reality, so that the
result would be negative.

The educational cinema might be a very
valuable means of propaganda if it were to
show clearly the progress of good practical
methods, and the transformation of products,
the results of cooperation, etc., etc., espe-
cially if the pictures were well chosen and
accompanied by a few convincing figures.
But even in this case we ought to have an
exact, practical knoweldge of the subject to
be treated ; we must keep in mind the natural
conditions of the place where the films are to
be shown, such as climate, soil, altitude, etc.,
and of the agricultural characteristics, if we
are to get any practical results.

138

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

I can make my meaning clearer by giving
two more examples.

If we were to show the cultivation methods
of a flat northern zone to the farming inhabi-
tants of a southern hill zone, it is obvious
that the latter would not see any possibilities
of imitation.

We should show films illustrating the pro-
gress of enology and the benefits accruing
from Associations of Vine Growers in vine
growing districts, and not films dealing
with cheese making and Associated Dairies.

One last observation, before I conclude.

The cinematograph has not made much
progress in the country, because it is not
easy and very seldom profitable, from the
point of view of the cinematograph firms, to
give these projections in little country towns
and villages, where it is difficult to find suit-
able local agents for the necessary propaganda.

Projection apparatus mounted on lorries
can do much to make this problem easier, but
it cannot entirely solve it.

As the educational cinema has, on the whole
a high aim of public interest, it can and
should be financially aided by State and State
subsidized organs and by associations that
have similar aims ; but I should not be in-
clined to suggest that we trust solely to these
aids. The present moment is a difficult one
for everybody. On the other hand, it is
only right and it is also eminently practical,
when one needs financial aid, to try to reduce
this need to the lowest possible minimum
and to profit by any aid that can be got, even
indirect or apparently secondary aid. The
chief thing of all is to aid oneself by per-
fect organization.

From the above brief summary of the ques-
tion, we may conclude that the rural educa-
tional cinema should and will make conside-
rable, perhaps even great progress, on the
absolute condition that it is carefully organi-

zed by the collaboration of all those who can
make a useful contribution to it, whether as
organizations or as individuals.

The first necessity is the collaboration of
clever authors and directors with persons who
have a perfect knowledge of the natural,
technical and economic environment of agri-
culture in each distinct zone, and also of the
inner mentality and grade of culture of the
relative rural populations.

Agricultural experts could sometimes sug-
gest themes ; they could always judge a priori
whether a theme is more or less suited to
its purpose, and could give useful advice to
authors and directors.

The national groups of agricultural experts
should be able to obtain, without trouble, the
opinion and assistance of the experts special
to each zone, who, in Italy, would be the
Travelling Professors of Agriculture and
Directors of Farm Schools, in the choice of
films suited to each locality, whether as part
of the cinematograph spectacle, or for the
spread of information, etc., or especially as
an aid to lecturers and in teaching courses.

The collaboration of all those who can aid
in making the projection of films in small
country districts economically possible is
also necessary.

Above all we must find the local agents
who will be able to make the necessary
propaganda to persuade country people to
attend the cinema, on payment of a small,
the very smallest possible price of admission.

It would be advisable to form a special com-
mittee in each rural centre, composed of some
authoritative representatives of the farming
class, and if possible the representatives of
their Associations, which in Italy would be
the Agricultural Federations and Syndicates.
Other persons with some authority over the
farming class might also be added, such as the
Parish priest, schoolmaster, parish doctor,
responsible members of the Communal
Administration, etc.

The local committees should keep in con-
stant touch with the Provincial Committees,
which should be formed in a similar way,
with the addition of the Directors of Travell-

THE CINEMA AND AGRICULTURAL LIFE

139

ing Professorships, Farm Schools, etc., and
these m their turn should keep in constant
touch with the National Committees, and
through these, with the International Insti-
tute, for a possible exchange of films, ideas,
successful experiments and all those accords
that experience may dictate for facilitating the
important function to be performed.

The educational cinema in rural districts
is full of useful possibilities, but there are
many difficulties in the way, both in regard
to the choice and preparation of the films, and
the practical and economic possibilities of giv-

ing the projections. These difficulties may be
overcome, however, more easily than is gene-
rally supposed, by the perfect collaboration
of all those organizations and individuals
which can give useful aid, directly or in-
directly.

This collaboration cannot fail to be forth-
coming when it is understood, in a clear and
precise fashion, how useful the educational
cinema may be in improving the moral and
technical equipment of the modest and labor-
ious farming class. By raising this class we
shall ensure greater material benefits to man-
kind, and by giving it a sound conception of
life, we shall help humanity on the road to
the goal marked out by the Divine will.

THE FILM AND TECHNICAL TRAINING

IN AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY, COMMERCE

AND THE MERCANTILE MARINE

BY

Engineer Karl Koefinger.

THE teaching of ideas whereby the stu-
dent must later earn his living ought to be
imparted accurately, especially in the begin-
ning. Technical concepts can only be based
on a solid knowledge. In productive trades
and crafts especially, as also in agriculture,
it is not enough for the beginner to learn how
he must behave in a specific case. He must
also know why he follows this or the other
system of labour. It is indeed the knowledge
and the understanding of the reason for
things which allows the worker to abandon,
within limits, mechanical work and intro-
duce changes and inprovements in method
founded on his own perceptions. An individ-
ual judgment in all technical branches is not
only helpful for the man who makes it, but
often results in a superior productivity for a
whole industrial organism. Indeed, it may

be argued that solid technical preparation is
the reason for the industrial superiority of
any country. The teaching of well ground-
ed technical ideas cannot, however, be
undertaken without appropriate teaching
means. The best teacher and the best peda-
gogue cannot succeed when these are lack-
ing. It used to be the custom to render as
clear as possible to the student the processes
of movements by means of improvised models,
but complete success was rare. The mo-
tion picture not only allows the possibility
of showing to a larger number of students
at the same time cycles of movements,
but can slow down or accelerate the course
of the cycle or process, so as to facilitate a
better and clearer understanding. The film
stands for a unique and indispensable peda-
gogic means for illustrating processes of

140

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

movement to pupils. From the technical
teaching point of view also, the motion
picture offers the possibility, which has
been unfortunately been so far neglected, of
obliging the teacher to make the explanation
of a process comprehensible by showing
limited particulars, and preventing the spec-
tator from being distracted by eliminating
accessory details. No other method of
presentation can prove effective in this re-
spect, before a large number of students
since it is not often that all can enjoy an
equally good view.

Besides the use of the slow motion, geared-
up projections and tricks photos we can render
characteristic sounds audible by means of
the sound film. A good lecture accompany-
ing a film can be effectively repeated. Not
all teaching institutes, however, possess sound
and talking apparatus, while the spoken word
is much inferior to the read word in the
matter of mnemonic assimilation.

Agriculture is a craft often exercised
without proper technical education, and as a
consequence in the majority of instances is
practised in an unprofitable and irrational
manner. The film can provide the basic
lessons for vocational guidance independent-
ly of the season. The peasants generally
have more free time in winter, and thus with
the aid of the film we can give them technical
instruction in sowing, growth, harvesting,
storing, grafting and combatting harmful
insects of various kinds. How to increase
the productivity of different types of land,
rational manuring, the use of new agricul-
tural implements are all things which can
advantageously be taught and explained by
the motion picture. In agriculture, where
the technical training is often imparted only
by the father and mother, and generally
on antiquated lines such as to generate irra-
tional results, a solid technical training with
partial use of the film is all in the interest
of the national economy. In vine-growing,
for example, the manner of carrying out a
successful struggle against harmful insects
can be taught by the film, increasing in this
way the yield of the vineyards.

Industry and crafts provide an almost
inexhsustible field for the educational film
in our technical epoch. In the majority
of instances, it is not possible for the student
to learn, by remaining at his place of work,
the most recent rationalized methods of work.
Yet it is only the employer and the workman
who follow the latest and most rational
methods, systems, implements and machi-
nes that can stand up to competition. To
mention some cases amongst others, we may
refer to electric welding operations, and
compressed air machinery which can be made
comprehensible in scholastic halls by means
of the film.

This does not mean that after attending a
lecture or two on modern welding methods a
man is capable of taking up a job. The
acquirement of manual ability has nothing
to do with the motion picture. The film
can, however, show the wide field of applic-
ations which a beginner can only learn after
considerable loss of time. The good edu-
cational film must succeed in concentrating
the attention on the essentials of the process
it is desired to illustrate.

In commerce, the shop attendant must be
able to give the customer suitable advice in
making purchases, especially now that the
motto " the customer is always right " has
taken such a hold. If the assistant is in a
position to advise the customers in a good
and useful fashion, the prospective buyer will
become a customer. The film is the most
useful means for teaching these things to
shop assistants. In America, in the schools
for assistants attached to the big stores, the
film is much used for this purpose. The
motion picture is given another application
in modern office work, where it can demon-
strate clearly and convincingly the organiza-
tion and equipmet of rationalized offices.

The mercantile marine and navy make use
of the motion picture almost exclusively
for theoretical teaching. A special depart-
ment deals with the building and structure
of ships, the resistances according to the
various speeds, screws and sailing. Vor-
tices and ship structure according to the

THE CINEMA AND AGRICULTURAL LIFE

141.

strain set up by different speeds are best
shown through motion pictures.

As we have pointed out before, the motion
picture can well be utilized for improving
the work of men already engaged in a
trade or craft. In this case, the students
have, as a rule, only a few hours available
in the evening for technical improvement.
Therefore, excursions and visits are often
unable to be carried out, with the result that
what remains as a possibility is the educa-
tional film of which generally insufficient
account is taken, both as regards its utility and
also from mistrust of the expense. Men who
exercise a trade or craft in the provinces,
but have no chance of learning new methods
and seeing new machinery can learn and
appreciate new possibilities quicker if taught
and instructed by means of motion pictures.
For example, an automobile factory which
had established a repair and retail depot in
the country was accustomed every year to
send a chief engineer to explain to the depot
staff the novelties and fresh ideas in repar-
ations, etc. The trip with charges for stay
and the interruption of work was a source of
great expense. It was found that the cost
of similar instruction was less when given to
the local workmen by film, and had the
advantge of more men being able to witness
it at one time.

A special example of the utility of the
motion picture in progress and improve-
ments is supplied by the fact that it can
spread scientific notions which are capable
of being developed and put into practice and
often form the base of new technical processes.
It is often sufficient for a man practising a
certain craft to receive a suggestion of im-
provements introduced into methods of work
for him to adopt and put into effect the idea
in his own special craft or trade. Many
examples could be given. There is, for
instance, the use of spraying varnish and the
possibilities in the application of the photo-
electric cell in industrial occupations when
there is need of some apparatus sensitive to
light, in welding processes, and in the making
of durable alloys of metals and in riveting.

Only the film can teach young craftsmen the
art of welding and allied work without putting
the pupils to the necessity of costly trips to
industrial establishments. These examples
will suffice.

As we have already remarked, agriculture
does not lend itself easily to rationalization
processes, and its progress is rendered diffi-
cult by the conservative mentality of farmers
and the shortage of leisure of the rural popu-
lations. The knowledge of improved methods
of culture, and machinery, equipment, etc.,
can best be introduced to this class by the
motion picture, since it can be moved about
and is independent of the seasons. The film
is especially advantageous when it carries a
sound track, while the " talkie " can be util-
ized to comment on the latest results in the
industrial agricultural and sporting fields.
Rapid trains, aeroplanes, automobiles, ap-
pliances for making the railways safe are
usually subjects which lend themselves well
to film treatment.

Cultural pictures give an idea of the possi-
bilities of trade in far off countries. Many an
able merchant or shop-keeper has profited
from things seen on the film. The spectator
can also learn many things about the tourist
possibilities of a country from films on
explorations.

The motion picture is very useful in
bringing an article of commerce to the
notice of the public, owing to the fact that it
can employ both acoustic and visual means
of propaganda. The propaganda effect of
an advertising film shown in a public cinema
is the more marked, the later during its
running the public perceives it is an ad-
vertisement. Especially valuable for pro-
paganda are films which, besides boosting
an article, succeed in demonstrating, in a
convincing manner, the worth and merits of
the article in question. The majority of
the spectators at a cinema programme are
constrained to witness the advertising picture
because it forms a part of the programme.

Public cinemas are spread all over the
world, and there is scarcely a village of any
size that does not boast one. Could we not

142

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

elaborate a plan for organizing cinema shows
for the purpose of demonstrating domestic
industries and crafts easy to learn for the
benefit of the people which would help them
to make money for themselves and their
districts ? Such a scheme would be espe-
cially useful in times of economic crisis like
the present. The preparation of the cinema
material ought to be entrusted to specialists
attached to the state service. In the schools,
the attention of the pupils ought to be drawn
to various trades and crafts by means of
film projections. In order to assist young
people in the choise of a trade or craft, the
scholars and students who have finished
obligatory schooling ought to be taken to
cinema lectures illustrating the various trades

for the young generation. The film could
prevent boys and girls striving to find occu-
pation in trades for which a psycho-technical
examination would show that they had no
inclination. The interest of the various
governments in the motion picture, which
has now assumed legal forms, unfortunately
only refers to theatrical films projected in
public halls. The educational film, which is
of enormous importance for the general indu-
strial and economic instruction of the people
is neglected. It would be in the economic
interest of all peoples to find the means for
a solid technical and general instruction by
means of educational films. Intelligence and
the powerful undertakings are not the only
factors of a people's wealth.

THE EDUCATIONAL CINEMA IN BELGIAN
FARM AND TRADE SCHOOLS

By Dr. LlNDEMAN, Principal of the Superior Normal Institute of Agricultural Domestic Economy
of Laeken.

The use of the film as an aid to understanding is
not much in vogue yet in Belgium. Under the
auspices of the Ministry of Agriculture, two films
of a definitely scholastic nature have been put at the
disposal of schools of agricultural domestic economy,
which have been shown with great success in farm-
ing districts, namely, " Breaimahing in the Farm-
house " and " The Making of Pont TEveque Cheese
in the Farmhouse '. Other films produced under
the auspices of the same Ministry are of a docu-
mentary character and intended mainly for the
general public, namely " Belgian Agriculture " Bel-
gian Farm Life ", " The Embellishment of Rural
Life ", etc.

Agriculture and rural domestic economy are
applied sciences which differ considerably from
one country to another, and often from one region
to another. Teaching and also, as a natural conse-
quence, educational films must therefore be adapt-
ed to these regional characteristics. Foreign films,
instead of being an aid in teaching, frequently run
the risk of confusing our farmers and giving them
false notions of things that to them seem elemen-
tary. An American agricultural film, for instance,
would be of but very relative use in a Belgian
school.

It has not been possible, so far, to make experi-
ments in the teaching of farming by means of the
film in Belgium. Film production is very costly,
and there is certainly no one here who could lay out
money on this kind of film at a dead loss. No
school possesses the means to form a film library
suited for teaching. Government intervention is
therefore indispensable. On the other hand, very
few schools have any projection apparatus.

There is not the slightest doubt that practical
agricultural teaching on a farm, where the various
labours connected with cultivation are carried on
and farm animals are reared, under the intelligent
direction of a teacher who knows how to make his
pupils observe life in its reality and how to organize
systems of practical utility for them, is much
superior to the best cinematographic projection.

And another point is that the talking film should
be absolutely excluded. It is not enough for the
pupils' to hear the teacher's voice ; his actual pre-
sence and convincing manner is essential. The
pupil becomes too passive when he simply sees and
listens. The teacher must make his pupils reflect,
must put questions to them, make them collabor-
ate actively in this teaching. All these advantages
are excluded from the talking film.

THE CINEMA AND AGRICULTURAL LIFE

143

It goes without saying that, as a complementary
means for aiding them to understand the lesson,
the cinema is always an improvement on purely
verbal teaching or that founded on books. This
latter, ancient method may be said to be non-
existent nowadays in the farm and domestic schools
of Belgium, where it is replaced by active methods

that entail the direct observation of actual life and
the normal practice of working methods.

For popular lectures, the film is undoubtedly the
most valuable auxiliary, because teaching of this
kind is generally given indoors and far from real-
ities. In this direction the educational film has
perhaps greater probabilities of coming into use.

THE CINEMATOGRAPH IN AGRICULTURAL
TEACHING IN GERMANY

Report of the " Central German Committee for Rural Cinematography

Notwithstanding the many difficulties that had
to be overcome, a great deal has been accomplished
for rural cinematography in Germany during the
14 years that the Central Committee for Rural
Cinematography has been in existence. The first
difficulty encountered in the beginning was the
great outlay needed for the purchase of projection
apparatus, and the high rents charged for films.
It was also difficult, at first, to obtain really good
films suited to a farming population. The Cen-
tral Committee brought its influence to bear on the
cinematograph industry with the object of persuad-
ing it to produce propaganda films which were
really didactic, and this had the effect of drawing
the attention of those interested in farm education
to the agricultural film.

The countryman does not see the many things
that are a commonplace to the town dweller, and
his life follows a simpler rhythm ; the objects and
proceedings that form his occupations taking a less
feverish course than that characteristic of big towns.
The film must therefore be projected more slowly
in the country, to suit the slower process of the
rural mind ; but on the other hand, the countryman
retains a much stronger and better memory of
what he sees, and the fact that he sees reality projec-
ted on the screen is therefore of great use to him.
The film not only presents real things to him ;
it bridges distance. The man of Oldenburg can see
how an East Prussian treats his horse, without
leaving his own village.

The film makes a greater impression on the
countryman than a printed book, the spoken word,
a drawing or lantern slide.

(a) Principals of farm schools are in agreement in
pointing out that the use of the cinematograph in
teachinga nd in lectures has been increasing contin-
uously during recent years. There is no doubt
that these projections are not only of great value,

but they also considerably increase the interest of
the public, whether it be a public of students or of
farmers.

Before there can be any real solution of the pro-
blems connected with economic progress, especially
the problems concerning the country and rural
populations, we must first bring about the education
and culture of the great mass of the farming popu-
lation. Those who belong to the Information
Service know that it is possible to educate these
masses only by means of films, and that it is by
this means also that we can encourage the spirit of
union in the different farming classes.

We are no longer able give pupils a conception of
fact by word of mouth alone, not even for the sim-
plest and most objective things. Up to a certain
point, the film contains within it both word and
fact. Every good image leads to the formation
of a concept in a much better and more perfect way
than any description could do. We must not think
of effects in school, but of the growth of know-
ledge. What we have to think of there is animals,
tools, machinery in motion, forms of activity,
man's different experiments ; we have to make
pupils see slowed down and accelerated phenomena
schematically. Here the film must be made use
of, but in must not be too long, or the pupil would
have to make too great a mental effort. All didactic
means must submit to the laws of teaching, even
externally, otherwise they will not find a permanent
place in the school.

(b) The film should be used only for those sub-
jects that by their nature need to be filmed, because
the other didactic means do not serve the purpose
or are insufficient. Such subjects as the raising
of cattle, sowing the seed, the use of machinery, the
milking of cows, preparation of fodder, man-
ures, etc., are the most suitable to be dealt with in
this way, and good results can be obtained by them.

144

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

The film has therefore become indispensable in
teaching, as all teachers and scholars are agreed.

(c) We have obtained excellent results with the
ordinary silent film, but everything seems to point
to the use of the reduced size film, for which a much
smaller and therefore more easdy managed apparatus
is required. But the main thing is that is is much
cheaper, and is not subject to police control against
fire.

Experience in this field is lacking, however, since
we have not yet a supply here in Germany of projec-
tion apparatus for small-size sound film.

When teaching, the master has various methods
at his disposal for explaining the subject to his pupils.
As aids to take the place of real things, there is a
great demand in farm schools for models in pot-
tery, metal, cardboard, slate, plaster, paper ; and
designs of every kind and projections of every kind,

that is to say, lantern slides on glass or film, and
films proper. The teacher must decide case by
case which auxiliary visual methods are most suited
to the subject he is dealing with. Expense is also
an important factor, when it is a question of didactic
methods that have to take the place of actual things.

The film has a greater explanatory effect and
remains more impressed on the pupil's memory
than the spoken word, because up to a certain point
it combines the advantages of truth (movement)
and the word, which latter, of itself, has no elements
of life, and disappears. As we said before, the
word no longer serves for giving a living notion of
even the simplest things.

There are no cinegraphic books in Germany, nor
have we had any experience of them. Certain
schools have made some amateur experiments in
this field, but they have not been made public

THE USE OF THE FILM AND LANTERN SLIDES IN
POST-SCHOLASTIC AGRICULTURAL TEACHING
AND THE POPULARIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL
SCIENCE

(Report by the Belgian Boerenbond) .

The use of moving pictures and fixed projections,
on films or glass plates, in post-scholastic teaching
and in the popularization of agricultural science has
made great strides in Belgium during the last few
years, as the following report of what has been
accomplished in this field at Louvain by the Bel-
gian Boerenbond will show.

The Boerenbond organized a projection service
in 1 929 which deals with :

1) the sale of projection apparata for moving
pictures and lantern slides and the respective films
and slides ; to local syndicates which are members
of the Boerenbomd and to post-scholastic agricul-
tural courses ;

2) production of cinematographic films and
lantern slides and renting of them to the above
organizations ;

3) supply of apparata and lectures illustrated
by moving pictures and lantern slides to the various
lectures of the Boerenbond.

For this purpose the Service has a large stock of
portable apparata for the use of its lecturers, and
a film library containing about twenty films, a
lantern-slide library containing 400 series of film
slides, most of which are accompanied by written

comments ; it has, further, a supply of lectures with
glass slide illustrations.

The Belgian Ministry of Agriculture has contrib-
uted half the price, in recent years, for the purchase
of apparatus for special post-scholastic courses and
agricultural schools ; and it may be said that at
least one out of two post-scholastic courses possesses
an apparatus, as well as nearly all the agricultural
schools.

As the purchase and maintenance of films meant
too great an expense for a private organization like the
Boerenbond, the latter made an agreement with the
Belgian Cinegraphic University for the eventual ren-
ting of the films necessary for its local organizations.

In 1932 more than 1,500 series of lantern slides
were let to the local organizations, post-scholastic
courses and schools by this organization, and about
600 series were sold.

In 1930, the Boerenbond had a film of 3.000 metres
produced by its own organization. This film, and
the others owned by it have been projected about
twenty times in different localities.

The use of hintern slides and, when possible, also
of moving pictures gives excellent results from the
point of view of assisting the understanding of the

THE CINEMA AND AGRICULTURAL LIFE

145

subject, especially as lectures and post-scholastic
courses are generally given in the evening and in
winter.

In summer, farming competitions, experimental
farms and collective work on farms complete the
winter teaching.

CINEMATOGRAPHY AND AGRICULTURAL LIFE

{Editorial Note). The questions raised by the
utilization of the cinema in rural and agricultural
life may be looked at from the points of view of:

— teaching ;

— local propaganda in the direct interest of
the rural population ;

— national and international propaganda hav-
ing for its object the spreading of knowledge of
agricultural matters and methods ;

— rest and well being of the peasant ;

— the best technical means for developing the
use of the cinema for the foregoing aspects.

(A) Teaching. In the domain of the rural teach-
ing cinema, we must distinguish between teaching
which has as its object elementary notions and the
teaching which tends towards specialization and is
therefore of a higher degree.

Teaching is in direct connection with the intel-
lectual quality of the pupils' mentality. It must
therefore be methodically graduated. Teachers
must not only know how to teach, but must adapt
themselves to the milieu where the teaching is given.

Consequently, agricultural teaching films must
be elementary in the highest degree when they are
not for popularizing general principles, and they must
also be special, that is to say of a superior grade
when it is proposed to go more deeply into certain
special aspects of agricultural life.

The principles and questions of a pedagogic
nature which reveal themselves in all sections of
teaching are equally evident in agricultural film
instruction.

How useful are silent films, sound and talking
films respectively ? Are sub-titles necessary in
silent pictures ? Should they be few or many ?
Who ought to edit them ? What effect can a repro-
duction of the sounds of nature have in sound
films ?

All these questions, to which it would not be very
difficult to add others, require a clear answer. The
April Congress should furnish this answer.

In any case, without wishing to anticipate the
decisions and views of the Congress, it is possible
to indicate certain notions which arise from the
reasearches and various symposiums organized by
the I.I.E.C:

(1) Elementary Teaching. — We are dealing
here with the first form of teaching applied to agri-
culture and to the various manifestations of rural
life. The persons to whom this teaching is addressed
have a limited mental outlook, and their intel-
lectual development is generally modest. It would
therefore be useless to show them pictures of too
complicated or too artistic a level, demanding of
them a mental effort beyond their capacity. On
the contrary, films for this class should be as simple
as possible both in substance and form.

(2) Higher Teaching. — In superior teaching
we mean such instruction as can be conveyed not
only to students of agricultural Schools and agrarian
Institutes, but also to country people, whose elemen-
tary knowledge of farm life, intellectual culture
and aptitude point them out as aspirants for a
higher education in views of the fact that superior
instruction ought not to be solely considered in
connection with a programme or type of studies,
but also in connection with preliminary knowledge
possessed by the student in the subject.

One enters the domain of specializations here.
The film ought therefore to abandon the elemen-
tary character which it must have in first grade teach-
ing in order to show a particular aspect or a special
activity of agricultural life technically and scientifi-
cally in a thorough fashion.

A typical example is furnished for us by the
films which stress the advantages of artificial man-
ures or deal with grain production. In both
cases, it is possible to demostrate in an elementary
fashion or in a technical scientific fashion the pro-
cesses of fertilization and the advantages which
result therefrom. The elementary film maintains
the character of a general illustration and conse-
quently is propaganda for processes that are to
be recommended. The superior grade picture
offers a technical scientific explanation of processes
and gives a demonstration of their application.
Explanation and demonstration may be superfluous
for the not very well informed farmer, whom it
is sufficient to convince of the advantages of a
method for him to adopt it. Such explanation,
however, will, on the other hand, be necessary for
the better technician who wants to know the why
and the wherefore of things, or for the school

146

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

where the film must aid and convince on a superior
plan of scientific knowledge.

In practice, these two types of films have proved
themselves very useful. Numerous inquiries made
in different countries and the symposia organized
by the I.I.E.C. have allowed it to be seen that both
types have undoubted advantages for lecturers in
general, as well as for professors and pupils of agri-
cultural schools.

The agricultural film can also be considered
especially for the rationalization of work in the
fields and on the farm, and can be useful at the
same time for technical self-betterment classes in
this field of activity.

(fi) Local Propaganda. — Local propaganda
must not be confounded with the elementary
teaching film of which have already spoken.

Propaganda implies advising, persuading, stim-
ulating. All this can be attained and carried
out more easily by other methods than by ordinary
didactic methods.

This kind of propaganda, moreover, has a double
aim. One the one hand, we must show the agri-
cultural labourers what the cultivators of other
countries are doing and what is being done in
other districts of their own country, thus affording
them the chance of making comparisons capable
of inbuing them with a sense of the nobility of
their work, inciting them at the same time to im-
prove their methods and system of production.

Consequently, it is useless to instruct the farmer
on elaborate land reclamation systems, which owing
to their complexity must be carried out by the
state or powerful companies. What we must give
the farmer is a suggestive picture of what can
enlarge his knowledge and increase his love for
the earth.

Propaganda films of this kind could, for example,
offer a comparison of cultures of the same product
in the mountains and in the plain, show the impor-
tance of forests for the regularity of rainfall, and
the damage done by rash deforestation in the hills.
Such pictures can also show the possibilities of
rural and artisan industrialization of certain by-
products of agriculture.

Such pictures are not strictly teaching films,
but they are instructive and educational films which,
when brought to the peasant's attention, make
him understand better what he may obtain from
the soil.

These films can, as we have had occasion to point
out, be extremely useful for propaganda in cities.
The townsman, as a rule, knows only that little

of rural life which he has learnt from a few walks
in the country or from reading, and is quite willing
to let experts instruct him in the matter.

(C) National and International Propaganda.
— We approach a more important and difficult
subject here. Great problems of national and
international life come into play, even though
only in the agricultural field.

Conceived in this way, propaganda has several
aims. It has an eminently educational character,
inasmuch as it seeks to spread the primary principles
of social existence, to make known in the various
regions of a state and beyond its frontiers what
is being done for the benefit of the public. Under
these conditions, the film becomes an instrument
of understanding between different provinces or
regions of the same country, or, what is still more
important, between different countries. No kind
of film perhaps as well as one which shows objec-
tively and clearly the tenacious efforts of a people
at work can procure for other peoples the possib-
ility of understanding a nation and feeling near it,
even if widely divided by space or political ideas.

Let us imagine the case of a country which has
been defamed and libelled, which instead of being
objectively illustrated has been artificially and
intentionally slandered. A motion picture made
with honesty and truth will allow the people of
such a country to be known to the world as they
really are : industrious, intelligent, patient. They
will be shown in their accomplishments, with their
reclamation of unhealthy lands or stony hillsides.
Another film may illustrate the calm laborious
and joyous life of a rural or metrophtan population
which political propaganda has pictured as being
a prey to sufferings and discontent. What other
means of propaganda can bring the desired effect
about so happily of bringing the nations to under-
stand, to know and to esteem one another better
than the motion picture ? From reciprocal esteem
peace should be born.

In this department of propaganda, the film of
agricultural life can have violent repercussions
because, in the cinema, the rural life does not
lend itself to retouches and artificial tricks as does
city existance. In the countryside, one can see
man at his work, know him as he is, learn what
he wants, what he can do and what his surrond-
ings are like.

Considered under this aspect, propaganda has
especially a political and social character. It is
another form of national and international propa-
ganda limited exclusively to questions of agricultural

THE CINEMA AND AGRICULTURAL LIFE

147

production and rural life. It allows one to know
and compare the practical systems of different
countries, systems which often enough, are not
universally applicable, but which, nevertheless,
furnish useful points.

(D) Leisure and Well Being of the Agricultu-
ral Population. — In this case, the film is called
upon to play its role in connection with the wor-
kers' leisure time in general, and to give the rural
populations the impression of not being entirely
cut of from the life of the cities. It is called upon
to fill in the moments of spare time when the peasant
might be tempted to look for less harmless amuse-
ments and occupations of a less healthy and repose-
ful nature for mind and body.

We are dealing now with the recreational cinema,
that is to say, a cinema which is directly connected
with the problem of the rural exodus. The desire
to enjoy the pleasures offered by the city is the
chief cause of the rural exodus. The peasant
does not like to feel himself a total outcast from
the life of the city, and if he does not find in his
village something which gives him the impression
of participating in it, he will leave the land to
go and seek in the town those illusory delights
which he thinks are likely to satisfy his aspirations.
Naturally, we must be careful not to offer the agri-
cultural labourer motion pictures which increase
his illusions about the joys of city life, awakening
in him longings and desires he will never be able
to satisfy.

Great circumspection must be used in choosing
pictures intended to distract the villager in his
leisure hours. Such films should be adapted to
the surroundings in which they will be projected,
and scenes and subjects should be chosen suitable
for the minds of the rural spectators, eliminating
anything likely to prove harmful.

Which then, it may be asked, are the kinds of
films most suitable to divert the peasant in his
spare time?

First of all, there is the dramatic film, provided
that it is not done in too strong and lurid tints,
and is confined to arousing healthy sentiments
and touching real life. There is also the histor-
ical picture, the full canvass documentary film,
the comic film, the film with a thesis which deals
with some form of propaganda, such as the fight
against the rural exodus, provided it is presented in
an artistic rather than in a dogmatic fashion. There
are all the various sorts and kinds of amusing,
cultural and instructive pictures, animated cartoons,
musical sketches, news-reels, and short artistic

films which arouse the interest and intelligence
without seeming to do so.

All these films are suitable for agricultural wor-
kers in their leisure time, and can contribute to
their well-being. They can procure for the peasants
moments of healthy amusement, allowing their
minds to relax. Interesting pictures will draw
them to the pictures while ' preachy and pom-
pous films will only drive them away.

(£) Installations for Rural Cinemas. — We
have indicated among problems affecting the spread
of the cinema among rural populations the question
of the technical systems which lend themselves best
for this kind of motion picture work. Leaving
aside the matter of makes and formats of films, there
are two systems which can be followed : fixed
cinema halls or travelling aparatus.

It is somewhat rare to find fixed cinema halls in
rural districts that are capable of regular use for a
cine-educational campaign in the country. It
ought not, however, to prove difficult for municipali-
ties, associations and institutes of a local character
to come to some arrangement for fitting up halls
where it would be possible to project at proper in-
tervals well chosen films for the country population.

Up to the present it has been thanks chiefly to the
various travelling cinema outfits that the film has
made some progress in country places. In almost
all countries (it will suffice to refer to the splendid
examples of this kind of thing to be found in Italy,
France, the United States, Russia, etc.), there exist
official, semi-official and private organizations
which are properly equipped for this purpose, and
are able to carry on a work of a great social impor-
tance. They set out to popularize questions of
special interest for the rural world, and at the same
time they offer under the most advantageous condi-
tions — the majority of the projections are gratui-
tous — recreational representations along the lines
of pictures shown in the city cinema halls.

The travelling cinema, especially created for the
country districts and the rural population, deserves
to be better studied in its effects and possibilities.
It deserves to be the made the object of greater care
and to be more widely known.

Silent or Sound Film} — The silent film can
doubtless satisfy the spectator of superior intellect
who is accustomed to consider the moving pictures
from an aesthetic point of view, and to seek in these
pictures and in the manner in which they are shown
the expressive forms of thought or a state of mind
or a psychological situation. This is not the case
with the peasant and the ordinary rural inhabitant.

148

THE CINEMA IN TEACHING

If the film is of an elementary nature, it may be
silent, but there must be proper sub-titles. These
titles must meet certain definite requirements such
as, simplicity, clarity, facility to be understood and
to be read, etc. There is no need to insist on the
necessity of technical exactitude in matters of which
the rural spectator is likely to have first hand and
correct knowledge. The peasant is quick to
mistrust and irony in the face of errors of this
kind.

When the film is of a more elaborate character,
the sound and talk will offer great advantages,
especially when it is necessary to accompany the
pictures with sounds of nature. The ' talkie ,
however, raises other serious points. The reproduc-
tion must above all be clear and perfectly audible.
Again, there is the question of adapting the comment
registered on the sound track to the special men-
tality of the peasant. Without wishing to underes-
timate his intelligence and intuition, everything
which constrains the countryman to make an
unnecessry mental effort should be eliminated. The
same is true of the musical commentary.

In any case, the sound and talking pictures have
one undoubted advantage for the rural world which
is, that are heard and not read, which makes them
easier to understand.

In the use of scientific pictures, slow motion and
accelerated running and micro-cinematography
have shown themselves of great utility. In present-
ing pictures to rural spectators, it is necessary to
explain beforehand the nature of the film and the
reason for the technical processes which show things
under an unaccustomed light. Failing such expla-
nation, such pictures may be badly understood and
fail to produce the desired effect, since the scientific
film is very useful for clearing up things and pheno-

mena which escape direct observation, and which it
is necessary to exaggerate in one way or another to
render them intelligible.

The question of explanatory notices comes up for
consideration when we are dealing with didactic
films which are either elementary or of a superior
grade. In both cases, the utility of such notices is
obvious. They permit the spectator to call back to
mind and clarify after the projection what he has
seen, to talk it over and to become in his own way a
kind of propagandist for the motion picture.

Rural cinematography, whether it deals with
teaching, propaganda or recreation, is everywhere
an object of the greatest interest. But almost every-
where there is a lack of organization and coordina-
tion of the means at its disposal. This produces
a confusion which hinders its growth.

We must above all appreciate the rural cinema
at its true value.We must be able to use films which
are appropriate — case by case and taking acount
of special fact — to the various local conditions,
reducing cutting or increasing according to the
circumstances, the didactic, scientific or recreative
part.

The problems raised by the matter of the rural
cinema are certainly not easily solved. But the life
of the countryside cannot be neglected. It repre-
sents too important an element of the political
economic and spiritual life of the nations. A Con-
gress, like the one taking place in April, convoked
in order to seek out the best ways for the teaching
and pupolar educational cinema ought to place these
questions in the forefront of its programme, if not
to settle them once and for all, at least to indicate
the lines of an early definite solution.

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Editor and Responsible Manager

Rome — «L'Universale» Tipografia Poliglotta.

149

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INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

Monthly Publication
of the INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY (L. of N.)
Rome - I-a, Via Lazzaro Spallanzani - Rome

YEAR VI. MARCH 1934 N. 3.

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

THE CINEMA FOR TEACHING HYGIENE AND SOCIAL
SAFEGUARDS — THE CINEMA FOR EDUCATING THE
PEOPLE — PROVIDENCE PROPAGANDA AND THRIFT

L. Dreyfus Barney - B. Di Tullio - E. Bonom
- L. C. Simonson - F. Ravizza - P. Medolaghi.

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING BODY

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of State, Professor of Law at the University of
Rome, President.

LUMIERE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.

BROWN J. W., Director of the British Film Institute.

CARTON DE WIART Count Henry, Minister of State, Member of the Child Welfare

Committee of the League of Nations.
FOCILLON Henri, Professor at the University of Paris, Member of the Permanent Committee

of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.
GANGULEE Nagendra Nath, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor of Agriculture and Rural

Economy at the University of Calcutta.
KOZMA Nicolas de, Ministerial Councillor, President-Director of the Hungarian Telegraph

Agency.
LLOPIS Rodolfo, Deputy in the Cortes, ex-General Director of Primary Education at

Madrid.
MISTRAL Gabrielle, Authoress, Ex-Directress of the Lycee for young girls at Santiago.
OPRESCU Georges, Professor at the University of Bucharest, Member of the Permanent

Committeee of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.
ORDYNSKI Ryzzard, President of the Polish Film Producers' Association.
REYNOLD Gonzago de, Professor at the University of Fribourg, Member of the Commission

for Intellectual Cooperation.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,
The President of the International Agricultural Institute,
The Director of the International Labour Office,

The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the LCI. C, Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW.
Dr. Luciano de FEO, Editor.

P. Berne de Chavannes, Ernest Holzer,

Giuseppe de Feo, Edward Storer,

Jose Maria GlMENO,

Maria Elena Apollonio, Secretary.

BOARD OF EDUCATION
Whitehall - London, S. W.

21st March, 1934.

THE Cinema, in a few short years, has not only changed the face of the world of en-
tertainment, it has established its possibilities as a general cultural medium : and
now it stands on the threshold of the school seeking admittance as a universal instrument
for the instruction and education of youth.

Who can say, in view of increasing technical competence and still wider imaginative
conceptions, what part the Cinema will be playing in national life and institutions and
in international affairs, a decade hence ?

The Cinema is a lively restive instrument, and it behoves everyone concerned with
it, either as producer or consumer, to ensure that it becomes subservient to the direction
of those who can be trusted not to prostitute the gifts of science, but to use them for the
spread of culture and good feeling, and for the instruction and wholesome delight of
the young.

Viscount Halifax, K. C,
G.C.S.I., G.C. I.E.

Chairman of the Board of Education.

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

PUBLIC HYGIENE AND THE CINEMA

BY

Laura Dreyfus-Barney,

President of the Cinema and Radio Commission of the International Council of Women.

I shall endeavour in this report to show
the relationship existing between the
cinema and public hygiene, and what it is
necessary to do to permit the motion picture
to carry out in this field better and better
work.

Hygiene in Cinema If we consider that at
Halls, Safety, etc. tne en(j 0f 1930 there

were in Europe about 1 5 million seats for
the public in cinema halls and about eight
million in America, that in far off countries
like Japan and Australia there were at that
time between 1 500 and 1 800 picture houses,
we can see at once the importance of the ques-
tion of hygiene, inspection and upkeep of
such halls for the public health. It is also easy
to perceive how and why motion pictures can
cause injury or fatigue to children's delicate
sight.

Each of these points was debated during
our lecture in Rome and was followed by
an exchange of interesting information re-
garding what was being done thereon in
various countries.

There is no doubt that the big cinemato-
graph halls arouse less serious anxiety in the
matter of hygiene. Built specially for this
purpose, they follow all the lines of modern
progress in such matters as air ventilation,
while a number in Italy are fitted with sliding
roofs. The case is different when we come
to look at the small provincial cinemas. They
often consist of buildings hurriedly converted
into picture halls and require special precau-
tions to be taken to safeguard hygiene. At
Perth, in Australia, for example, the cinemas

are cleaned after every performance, while in
Japan the exhibitor is obliged to leave the
hall empty for ten minutes after every per-
formance, at the same time leaving all the
exits open.

Measures of this kind ought to be enforced
everywhere and made strictly obligatory.

In the matter of fire, safety measures and
proper precautions are insisted on by law
everywhere, but the great risk that comes
from the celluloid film which heats quickly
has not yet been eliminated. Govern-
ments try in vain to spread the use of non-
inflammable film, which has been adopted in
general for educational and popular instruc-
tion pictures.

Eye fatigue depends chiefly on the use of
worn out and damaged film, on too rapid
projection, or on illegible sub-titles or a
bad seat in the theatre.

Social Hygiene. In all the countries of

the world, progress in social hygiene has been
made, thanks to the influence of the cinema.
As a matter of fact, social hygiene, which
is the science of preventing diseases and
abbreviating their duration, ought to be
available for all, and the dictates of this
science ought to be spread among the masses
with the most potent and efficacious means
existing — namely the motion picture. The
percentage of visuals is about 80 per cent, and
it would be possible to project propaganda
films on the principles and elementary no-
tions of medicine, on the best means for
spreading a knowledge of them, and impress-
ing them on the minds of the spectators.

162

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

In order to acquaint the public with the
evils that menace health, the resources we
possess in our battle with disease, and the cau-
tion that we must employ, in a word, in order
that films of this type may have the desired
effect, the pictures themselves must be adapt-
ed for each country and must often be mod-
ified according to the habits and outlook
of the people for whom they are intended.
Without this precaution, the film which is
projected outside its country of origin will
bring with it the risk of representing errors.

A great activity in the matter of social
hygiene films is to be observed in all coun-
tries. There are now a number of travelling
cinemas working right through the year.
They motor round the country giving free pro-
jections which are often numerous. In
France, each group of travelling pictures
includes a lecturer and a chauffeur-operator.

Film repositories contain a quantity of
pictures on questions of science and hygiene
including such subjects as : tuberculosis,
child upbringing, venereal disease dangers,
cancer, campaign against slums, the care of
milk, pure water, etc. These pictures are
often shown in the schools.

The Italian picture « Danger Signal » which
sets forth the question of tuberculosis in its
various aspects and the efforts of the State to
combat this plague has circulated in both
silent and talking versions through the entire
country, and made a deep impression on the
public.

Poland, Egypt, Roumania, Uruguay, Brazil
and other countries often use the French
social hygiene films, indicating in this way
the possibility of international collaboration
in this field.

In Egypt, the creation of travelling cine-
projectors will bring a knowledge of the
principles and prophylaxis to the most distant
villages. In the Baltic states, a social hygiene
film propaganda service has been organized.

All this proves that even in the farthest
off countries, both governments and private
undertakings are concerning themselves with
this grave problem.

Incidentally, I should like to say a word on

horrific and terrifying films. They are
capable of having a deplorable effect on
weak nervous systems, and it is a danger to
show them to the masses ; he Maudit,
Frankenstein, etc., though having real artistic
worth, should have only a limited circu-
lation.

Another question arises. Have proper mea-
sures been taken to protect cinema actors
and all those who work in the studios and
run great risks of personal injury ? A com-
mittee has been formed in London for the
purpose of establishing an insurance fund
for illness and unemployment among cinema
operators who, it would appear, are particu-
larly exposed to the risk of tuberculosis.

Cinema, Medicine The cinema is widely

and Surgery. employed now in me-

dicine, surgery and scientific research.

It has certainly an important function in
the study of biological phenomena. Using
the slow motion projector, we can see the
activity of cell life, while enlargement has
rendered possible fresh observations which
hitherto had evaded microscopic study, for
the reason that the active phenomena are
too slow to be perceived by the naked eye.

The reproduction of cells, the phenomenon
of phagocitosis, the movements of the leou-
cites, etc., are acts of biological life which may
be studied daily through micro-cinemato-
graphic pictures and we have reason to hope
that one day a whole unknown world will be
revealed to us thanks to the cinema. The
scientific film is clearly of international value.

The United States, Germany and Russia
possess scientific and medical film archives
fitted out and organized in the most admira-
ble manner,

The Technical Museum of Vienna has
recently projected some films on The Dis-
association of Atoms, The Enemy of the Blood
by Tobis. In the second of the pictures
the public's attention is drawn to the dangers
of venereal diseases. Professor Spillmann
of the Medical Academy of Paris maintains
that film projections are the best means for

HYGIENE AND SOCIAL SAFEGUARDS

163

spreading the knowledge necessary to combat
venereal diseases.

Dr. W. Proetz of New York uses the film
to illustrate his lectures to the students,
and the studies on marsh land phenomena
(malaria) made by the Ross Institute have
all been filmed.

Thanks to the motion picture, Professors
Stanhope, Bague Jones and Ed. Adolphe
of Rochester University have registered their
studies and work on the development of the
bacilli and bacteria of yeast, and explained
through the picture the conclusions arrived
at by them. An interesting article appeared
in Movie Makers of March 1932 on the use
of the motion picture in eye surgery, especially
for the operation of cataract.

An insurance company in England now
intends to project a film on certain infectious
microbes and the best defences against their
attacks.

Dr. G. H. Gunn of Durban, South Africa
has composed a picture on the mosquito that
propagates yellow fever, while Dr. Bentley,
who works in India at the Bengal Office of
Hygiene, has stated that the spread of motion
pictures dealing with the use of preventive
measures against cholera and the precautions
to be taken in time of epidemic greatly facili-

tated the doctors' task during a recent epid-
emic in Calcutta.

The Voice that Science Made is a striking
picture made by Western Electric, and
illustrates the marvels of the artificial larynx.

Much ground has been covered in France
in the domain of medical and scientific pic-
tures, following the first of these issued
by the American Red Cross. Several of
these films are due to Dr Comandon, M. Jean
Painleve, Dr Claoue and Jean Benoit-Levy.

Professor Jean Louis Faure of the Academy
of Medicine gave a lecture in May 1932 on
the operation for uterine cancer, concluding
his remarks with the projection of a film on
the subject.

A remarkable series of talking motion pic-
tures have been shown in the presence of
French and American doctors at the Ameri-
can hospital in Paris. The films showed
operations made by famous surgeons, and it
was decided to give similar projections once
a month.

In bringing this rapid summary of the med-
ical surgical film to a conclusion, it would
not be right to omit mention of the delightful
French picture Le Voile Sacre by Dr Dev-
raigne, which deals with the magnificent work
women are doing for the public health.

164

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

THE EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE OF THE CINEMA
ON JUVENILE CRIMINALS AND DEGENERATES

By Professor Benigno Di Tullio, of the University of Rome.

The continual progress that is being made in the
practical application of the educational cinema is of
considerable interest in a special branch of educa-
tion which is of the highest importance to every civil-
ized country, namely, the re-education of juvenile
criminals and young people who have gone astray.

If the cinema is a great educational means for
children, generally speaking, as everybody now
agrees, it is obvious that it must necessarily be
successful also in this serious problem of re-educa-
ting children of evil tendencies.

It is unanimously acknowledged that the cinema
is of special importance for pedagogical purposes
because it helps children to gain instruction and edu-
cation much more easily and with less fatigue by the
sovereign method of observation and enjoyment.

By enormously facilitating perception and there-
fore increasing the faculties of assimilation and
fixation, the cinema helps the child to remember
better, to understand more exactly, and especially
to direct its mental activities to a practical, objective
knowledge and valuation of reality, and at the same
time restrains the continuous and at times dangerous
work of the imaginative faculties. If this quality of
the cinema is of great value to so-called normal child-
ren, it is of even greater value to those who come
under the heading of delinquents or degenerates.
These children are also frequently pseudo or genuine
abnormal subjects psychically, and a pedagogic
system which is mainly based on observation is even
more necessary in their case and is indeed, perhaps,
of capital importance.

In this connection, it must be remembered that the
modern problem of the adaptability of a child to
teaching from the psychological point of view must
be considered according to different criteria, namely:
the physico-morphological (somatic development
and physical age) ; the medical the psychological
(mental age : reactions to teaching as Q. I) ; the
scholastic (reactions as pupil possibility) ; and the
pedotechnic (as capacity of undergoing training). (1)
This being admitted, it is obvious that the educa-
tional cinema may exercise a great influence in the

education of juvenile criminals, young people who
have gone astray, whether from the psychological
point of view, as a means of developing the intelli-
gence for practical purposes, the scholastic point
of view, as a means of obtaining the culture necessary
for the requirements of social life, or the pedo-
technical point of view, as capacity for training ; or,
in other words, it may aid the utilisation of the
bio-psychic energies of the child .

The educational cinema has another field of action
which is undoubtedly the most important of all,
namely, that of the modifying and correcting in-
flence that it may have on the instinctive- affectional
sphere, and therefore on the sentimentality and
morality of criminal children or those who have
gone astray. And it is especially from this point
of view that the educational cinema may be most
efficacious, especially since everybody feels the
necessity of finding a new means of education that
will enrich the culture and develop the practical
intelligence of such children, and will also act
directly in those psychological situations which so
frequently cooperate with the very abnormalities
of the individual personality in the development of
the various criminal tendencies and habits.

Still in the same connection, we must remember
also that the education of these children, as we
recently had occasion to point out (1) must respond
to certain fundamental medico-pedagogical criteria
which deal with the necessity of first improving the
child physically, before proceeding to the no less dif-
ficult task of reclaiming it morally. And we also
pointed out that this work of physically improving
the criminal or perverted child must always be not
only opportune but also as wide spreading and deep
as possible, a work that is rendered easier by the
special cerebral malleability which is general in
children, and is the greater in inverse ratio to their
age. In fact, with regard to this primary necessity
of physical improvement, it is well known how

(1) S.De Sanctis. Psicologia Sperimentale. (Exper-
imental Psychology). Stock, Rome, 1930.

(1) B. Di TuLLIO. Per la rieducazione dei mino-
renni che delinqnono. Criteri fondamentali di medicina
pedacogica emendativu. (For the Education of De-
linquent Minors. Fundamental Criteria of Emend-
ative Pedagogical Medicine). " Rivista di Diritto
Penitenziario ", N. 3, 1933.

HYGIENE AND SOCIAL SAFEGUARDS

165

frequently we find ill-nourished, wasted, oligaemic,
under-developed, rickety neurotic, dyscrasic, endo-
cnnopathic and pre-tuberculous subjects among
children who are criminals or have got into bad
ways ; and it is equally well known often these
subjects have bad habits and dangerous tendencies
which encourage the growth of perversions and
moral deterioration, even to the point of criminality
which forms a vicious circle.

Very often these children are in a state of pseudo-
abnormality (De Sanctis) from insufficient nourish-
ment, auto-and hetero-intoxication, glandular in-
sufficiency, various forms of nervous disturb-
ance or anomalies of the lymphatic and sensorial
systems, so that any training work must always be
preceded by a through going attempt to improve
their individual personality.

It is equally well known that there are still other
young people who are marked by some particular
psycho-physical constitution or abnormality which
gives rise to a more or less pronounced tendency to
crime in general, a tendency that becomes concrete,
more or less precociously and intensely, according
to the general circumtances of the subject's environ-
ment or other biological conditions which may be
favourable to the development of criminality. (1)

Hence the necessity of remembering that, in the
causal determination of the serious, precocious and
persistent criminal phenomenon, we invariably find,
even in minors, predisposing causal factors which
are inherent to the particular structure of their
individual personality, and preparatory and deter-
mining causal factors which are particularly inher-
ent to toxic, traumatic, suggestive agents, etc.,
and to the special circumstances of the environ-
ment in general.

This being admitted, it seems evident that the
educational action of the cinema should begin by a
sound and well thought out propaganda of hygienic
rules, which will help to make these criminal and
outcast children understand the danger of bad
habits and the serious prejudice to their morality.
This end may be easily attained by means of films
which make a satisfactory propaganda of those
hygienic rules which are most necessary for the
attainment and maintenance of physical and psychic
health, and which illustrate the different kinds of
harm that result from the abuse of alcohol and toxins
in general, from idleness and vagabondage, from

the lack of a sound home education and of religious
feeling, etc.

In this way the educational cinema may help
to form a sound hygienic and social conscience
even in children of this type, by means of a docu-
mentation that should be as lively and convincing
as possible.

But in addition to this, the educational cinema
can and should aim at a not less important work of
education by means of visions and documentations
which, by their pedagogic-moral content, may act
directly on whatever may stand for the sensibility
and moral conscience of these degenerate and crimin-
al children.

To this end, we think that the cinema may be
largely used as an educational system based mainly on
the highly important play of the reaction. No one,
in fact, can have any doubt today on the importance
of the modern psycho-analytical tendency of peda-
gogy in general (1) and emendative pedagogy in
particular. It must be admitted that if many crimi-
nal tendencies, especially the more serious ones, are
always due to an initial urge which is founded on a
more or less serious predisposition to crime, joined
to that particular morpho-physical psychology
which we recorded above under the name of criminal
constitution, they are also more or less strongly
upheld and favoured by special psychological situa-
tions and particular ideo-affectional complexes
which act by facilitating their realization ; which
fact becomes of special importance in all those cases
where exists a psychological state consequent on
more or less remote reactions which strengthen or
even sustain the particular dynamism of the various
tendencies to crime consequent on a generic- or
specific predisposition to crime itself ; or where there
are particular ideo-affectional complexes which
favour the very persistence and gravity of the crimin-
al phenomenon.

In this connection, we need only recall the now
generally admitted importance which certain obses-
sions have in the genesis of different forms of speci-
fico-recidivate criminality, namely, pocket-picking,
theft, fraud, sexual degeneration, etc., (2) to be
convinced that a psycho-analytical pedagogic proce-
dure applied through the educational cinema may
be of considerable importance in the re-education
of criminal children and those with evil tendencies.

(1) B. Dl Tullio. La costituzione delinquenziale
nella etiologia e terapia del delitto. (The Criminal
Constitution in the Atiology and Therapy of crime).
Anonima Romana Editoriale, Rome, 1929.

(1) P. PFISTER. Pedagogia e Psico-analisi. (Peda-
gogy and Psychoanalysis). Ed. Stock, Rome.

(2) B. Dl Tullio. Manuale di Antropologia e
Psicologia criminale. (Manual of Criminal Anthro-
pology and Psychology) cited.

166

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

Psychoanalysis, in fact, may do much for the
mental education of such children by suppressing
dangerous inhibitions and liberating energies which
are imprisoned and are more or less anti-social, and
which must be given a possibility of outlet that is at
least adequate to the necessities and requirements
of codified morality, or which must be subjected to
the domination of the conscious and moral person-
ality. It may do much, whether these children
are simply pseudo-abnormal, in which case the
pshyco-analytical procedure will be easier, or whether
they are genuinely abnormal, in which case the
psycho-analytical procedure although still undoubt-
edly useful, must be subordinated to other medico-
pedagogical criteria of not less importance.

This psycho-analytical procedure must therefore
tend first of all to the evacuation of those ldeo-affec-
tional complexes which are dangerous because they
have an anti-social and criminal content, in order
afterwards to obtain the strengthening of the inhibi-
tory mechanism by developing adequate critical
and moral restraints. In this way, this procedure
may serve both to modify and improve, by a process
of graduation and refinement, all that collection of
instinctive manifestations and emotive dispositions,
primary or derived, which constitute the so-called
paleo-psyche, and to strengthen the inhibitory and
resistance capacity of the neo-psyche, thus encourag-
ing the development of the individual's capacity of
adaptation to social life.

In other words, although we are confirmed consti-
tutionalists in the matter of the aethiology of crime,
we cannot refuse to acknowledge that the method
which enables us to provoke the evacuation or sub-
limation of those complexes which have most to do
with the encouragement of the realization of criminal
tendencies, is undoubtedly a work of great and cer-
tain educational efficacy.

Since we are quite in agreement with those special-
ists (De Sanctis, etc.,) who hold that psycho-analysis
may also help to liberate a young person who is a
criminal or has gone astray from those instinc-
tive obsessions which are consequent on particular
reactions connected with more or less conscious
trauma, and which exercise a harmful influence on
the conduct and on the capacity of adaptation to
social life, we are of the opinion that the educational
cinema may serve this purpose very well.

To this end, however, it is necessary that the
educational cinema should be developed on the
foundation of an exact knowledge of criminal anthro-
pology in general and of that which constitutes the
particular dynamism of the most common criminal
manifestations. It is only in this way that the educa-
tional cinema, by acting with precision on the spe-
cial anthropo-psychologica! situations which are
most frequently encountered at the base of the
mechanism of development of the various criminal
manifestations, will find its task easier and success
more certain.

All this is still to be done ; and those concerned
must get seriously to work and experiment with the
use of this new means for the training of juvenile
degenerates and criminals, which may help to make
more and more efficacious the prophylaxis and
therapy of universal criminology, which, by the
merit of Fascism, is being carried on in Italy by
a really perfect organization.

(1) B. Dl Tullio. Manuale di Antropologia -
Psicologia criminale applicata alia Pedagogia emen-
dativa, alia Polizia ed al Diritto Penale e Peniten-
ziario. (Manual of Criminal Anthropology and
Psychology Applied to Emendative Pedagogy, to
the Police and to Penal and Penitentiary Law).
Anonima Romana Editoriale, Rome, 1931.

HYGIENE AND SOCIAL SAFEGUARDS

167

THE CINEMA AND THE NATIONAL MATERNITY
AND INFANCY INSTITUTE

(Report of the " National Institute for the Protection of Maternity and Infancy ').

The question of the influence of the cinema on the
mental and spiritual formation of young people is
a theme of extraordinary interest today, not only for
the science of education, but also for politics and
social relief. The cinema can educate and also, if it
is not properly understood, it can educate badly,
and this not only in the cultural sense, but also and
especially in the political and social sense. Educa-
tion, in fact begins to reveal itself more and more a
political concept inasmuch as it is a formative act of
consciences, states of mind, sentiments and ideal-
isms.

It is for this reason that the National Institute
for the Protection of Maternity and Infancy (known
in Italy as the ONMI) created by Fascism to assist
mothers and children both morally and materially,
considers with particular attention the question of
the cinema as a typically political and national so-
cial institution. This is because it is largely an
organ of the social politics of the regime meant
to educate the Italians to love family life, to teach
mothers the duties and happiness of maternity and
to bring infancy to a better understanding of its
future.

We admit that the propaganda which can be made
with the film is superior to any other form, whether
carried on in the press or through lectures. These are
forms of propaganda which do not hold the attention
of the public that is too absorbed with the tumultuous
life we lead today ". (0. N. M. I. Federation, of
Reggio Calabria).

The Institute owing to the operation of the law
is faced with certain special tasks relative to the
safeguarding and protection of infancy in so far
as the cinema is concerned. We may mention the
nomination of mothers in censorship committees
attached to the ministry of the Interior, the right to
demand a special examination of motion pictures
not considered suitable for young folk, the right
to inquire in order to establish if the regulations
regarding the employment of children in cinema
studios and the admission of children under 15 to
certain spectacles are being observed.

The Institute itself has had occasion to experi-

ment with cinema propaganda for educating the
masses in pre-natal and post-natal hygiene. A
recent inquiry made by the Institute in collabora-
tion with the I. I. E. C. to learn the effects of the
motion picture on young children has allowed us
to see, through the replies of about 2500 mothers to
an ample questionnaire, what Italian women think
on this delicate question.

Finally, the questions to form the agenda of the
coming world Teaching and Educational Film
Congress have been laid before the presidents of the
provincial federations of the organization with the
result that it has been possible to gather the views
and opinions of politicians, educationists, children's
doctors, obstetricians, psychiatrists and students of
social science.

" / believe in the usefulness of a systematic intro-
duction of the cinema for teaching, for the develop-
ment of educational and teaching programmes set forth
in the 1. 1. E. C's scheme for including scholastic
courses from primary to higher education. (0. N. M.
I. Federation, Grosseto).

The ideas set forth here represent the fruit not of
casual inquiry, but experiences directly and indirectly
lived through.

HOW THE QUESTION MUST BE STATED. — The pro-
blem can be considered from a double point of
view, positive and negative. Positive in so far as it
refers to a special active form of cinematography
in the demographic, social hygienic education of
the people in general, in the pre-natal and post-
natal education of mothers, hygiene for children,
treatment to improve the health and mentality of
certain categories of children, (weak-minded dege-
nerate children and deaf and dumb). The negative
point refers to the work that may be done, for the
moral protection of children in respect of certain
forms of immoral cinema or pictures unsuited for
very young children.

Positive aspect of the problem. — Premise.
There is no doubt that the motion picture can and
ought to have a most notable direct and indirect in-

168

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

fluence on the formation of states of mind, ideas
and voluntary acts. There is no question nowadays
that the animated projection, by appealing espec-
ially to the senses penetrates into the fancy and
the heart, implants concepts and impressions in the
mind, leaves strong memories and impresses images,
forms, precepts and warnings on the mind.

We must study therefore what it is best that the
cinema should show in order to arrive at certain
definite purposes, and also how and where. We must
study the projections in order to see in the effect
which we wish to attain are efficacious.

" A proposal having special reference to the physio-
logical and psychological effects of the motion picture
might be : in view of the generally receptive, malleable,
excitable, imitative and fantastic nature of children, We
could make experimental researches with elaborate
means and a scrupulous precision of method on the
particular effects which the cinema has on children's
minds up to a certain age . (0. N. M. I. Federation,
Modena).

There is no need to exaggerate. One cannot ex-
pect that educational films shall be projected every-
where. Everything must be done in the right place.
Nor can we insist that only certain types of picture
be made and projected. We must know how to
choose arguments and places that are specifically
adapted in order to arrive at certain results. We
must fix a limit, that of boredom . We must avoid
boring and wearying people by insisting on the
projection of films which are all right in one place,
but unsuitable in another.

The matter has therefore a double aspect, regard-
ing the content, and regarding the place and manner
of the projection.

Let us examine one by one the various forms of
film content which interest us in relation to the
various forms of education and the special categories
of persons for whom such education is intended.
There are also the questions referring to the manner
and place of the carrying out of the education.

Demographic Education. — This is a matter of
wide and general importance, and should be under-
stood by all categories of individuals and in view of
the demographic situation existing in most coun-
tries has a national and international side.

There is no need to repeat here what is universally
known, that is, that the population drop or demo-
graphic decadence manifesting itself in modern
nations should be fought with all possible means if
we want to safeguard the future of civilization. It is

now generally agreed that apart from combating the
direct causes of the evil (infantile mortality, lack of
hygienic education for the mothers, etc.) the indirec
causes should also be fought. These include city-
crowding, immorality and diminished respect of the
family.

The cinema can and must be an extraordinarily
efficient instrument for the demographic education
of the peoples. It can show with the plastic, fascin-
ating sensitive evidence of the image the deleterious
consequences of over-crowding in the cities, stress-
ing at the same time the adavantages both physical
and moral of country life. It can exalt the tradition
of the family, which is the basis of the national life,
and hold up to admiration the offspring as the joy of
existence, the fount of honour and of human immor-
tality on earth.

We should make it obligatory on all cinemas to
project pictures reproducing all the activities undertaken
for improving the physical and moral state of the race.
Taking into account that it is always easier to
instruct when we are also entertaining, we can see the
necessity of showing pictures which mingle interesting
plots and touching incidents in films containing in a
simple way the precepts and laws which should
regulate the life of an honest family, even if it be a
poor family. We should teach the beauty of health
and the affections, the healthiness of Work. We should
teach in a practical fashion all those small rules of
hygiene and cleanliness which make for health and
strength and improve the spirit ".(0. N. M. I. Fe-
deration of Agrigento).

It may be that we could follow for this purpose
some demonstrative criteria of considerable efficacy
already utilized by the press such as graphs indicat-
ing race decadence, pictures illustrating future of a
nation with a dwindling birth rate, plastic images of
the results of shrinking births, etc.. We should,
in a word, make a strong impression on the spec-
tators'mentality by means of a symbolic documen-
tation of the present and the future.

Educating the Mothers. — Women can receive
much useful maternity instruction by means of the
motion picture. They can be educated spiritually
by projections exalting maternity and the family,
educated technically in pre-natal and post-natal
hygiene. In the first instance, we want general
pictures for all types of spectators ; in the second
case, specific films for given categories of women
(women in various stages of pregnancy, nurses,
workwomen, peasant women ; etc.).

HYGIENE AND SOCIAL SAFEGUARDS

169

The specific motion pictures should be made and
projected under the control of competent experts.
The O. N. M. I has already made two such films.
One, produced at the beginning of the Institu-
tion's activity, proved too technical and discon-
nected. A second picture, produced in 1933, is large-
ly propaganda for the ONMI itself with a number
of technical details. Though a propaganda film
for the Institution, it can be usefully shown to
mothers in certain circustances, for it points out to
them what the ONMI has done and is doing, and
how they may take advantage of its work.

" The propaganda to be carried out among young
mothers through lectures and addresses would be
extremely useful if supplemented by motion pictures
made in child assistance institutions. Pictures ought to
show daily treatment to be used for children and nursing
mothers". {O.N. M.I. Federation of Trieste).

A third film of a more specificaly educational
character for mothers is in preparation. The film
in question will illustrate the various phases 3nd the
various forms of pre-natal and post-natal relief and
hygiene. Relief and aid to women employed in
industry, to peasant women, the obstetrical consult-
ing clinic, the women's refectory, the creches, all
provide opportunities for preferring advice on the
numerous measures taken by Fascism for the benefit
of mothers, and on the way to give advice on hygiene,
food, nursing and care of infants.

These motion pictures can undoubtedly prove
most efficacious and useful for mothers. What is
important in this matter is the manner and place
where projections are given. We may say at once
without waiting to treat the subject in turn that it is
not enough to project a film to reach the objects
aimed at. We must complete the picture with a
clear and simple explanation by experts. A experi-
ment along these lines may be found in a first
attempt made last year by the ONMI among the
female employees in factories in Lombardy. From
time to time, during special conversations of pro-
paganda for hygiene in pregnancy and after the birth
of the child, scenes and figures illustrating certain
aspects of the question were projected. A doctor
completed the work by verbal explanations which
proved quite efficacious. More than 10,000 women
workers profited very considerably from this form
of propaganda.

Education in maternity and all the matters relat-
ing to it is a serious and fundamental problem.

Infancy Education. — The question of infancy
education by means of the cinema is a more delicate

one. Several problems arise at once. It may be
asked, to begin with, if the showing of animated
projections to children of less than six years is
useful fron the hygiene and sanitation point of
view ? Is is not better to show them stills and
lantern slides which cause less fatigue ? In any
case, projections for infants must be short.

In the second place, in view of the receptive and
ductile nature of childen what type of pictures is best
suited for them ? The problem has a significance
which it is not possible fully to examine here. It will
suffice to hint at its aspects and to recall in particular
the conclusions arrived at in this connection by
Dr. Renshaw of the Faculty of Psychology of the
University of Ohio. Dr Renshaw has studied the
phenomenon carefully, and has been able to make
it clear that children, in the majority of cases, are not
able to distinguish between the fiction of the cinema
and the reality of life, and that almost always until
the age of ten and even after, children make no
distinction between fiction and life. The charac-
ters of the screen are real for them and true. This
may constitute doubtless a positive element in their
education by means of the motion picture in the
sense that the effect of the film on children is enor-
mous. It can, however, form a negative element in
the sense that the over excitement with which they
can become affected after witnessing too violent and
alarming film scenes may damage their mentalities
and disturb them excessively.

We must therefore take especial care that any
film we show for children, and particularly for chil-
dren under 10, is properly educational, without
exiting them overmuch. We may use fantastic
subjects or fables or unreal tales to remove the idea
that the stories and the characters belong to real life.

' //, for example, we show in large characters
on the screen after each part of a motion picture a
severe disapproval of the vulgar and improper habit
of spitting on the floor, and point out the serious dangers
which can arise therefrom for the community, or another
sentence counselling children to wash their hands before
eating, to clean their reeth at least once a day and so
on, stressing one or two good hygienic practices, everyone
can see how in the end these practices will assist the
education, health and good manners of the new genera-
tions with tangible results that it is superfluous to
enumerate ". (0. N. M. I. Federation, Taranto).

In the case which most directly interests us, that
is the social and hygienic education of children, it will
be perfectly possible to make use of the cinema to
illustrate the harmfulness of certain actions and

170

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

habits and the dangers which can derive from
certain forms of carelessness or neglect (spitting,
drinking from unclean recceptacles, food, physical
exercise, the use and abuse of alcohol and tobacco).
We can show the advantages of thrift and insurance,
but all must be done with tact and prudence.

A subject which can be treated for adoles-
cents and requires tactful handling refers to sex
questions which are directly bound up with the
health and vigour of the race. As the President of
the ONMI of Turin points out, it is by no means
an easy task to address young people on sex matters.
A better solution of the difficult may be found in
the use of the motion picture. Proper films can
be prepared by competent persons. Such pictures
must be severe and simple in form and substance.
They must be easily comprehensible to all mental-
ities, and at the same time they must not in any way
risk offending modesty or chastity. They should
inform young people of all those things which can
be a source of danger to their health and welfare.
The old custom of hiding sexual matters from
young people is hypocritical, while we all know the
harm caused to our young folk with the tradition
that it is more scandalous to talk of immorality than
to be immoral, and that it is not moral to discuss
and unmask immoral situations and facts.

Generally speaking, many useful items of infor-
mation and knowledge can be supplied to young
children and youths by means of the cinema, but
tact and intuition are necessary if we are to attain
the desired results.

Educating Certain Categories of Young
Children. — The motion picture can be a most
useful means of educating certain categories of
abnormal children such as weak-minded, depraved,
and deaf and dumb children.

" Motion picture shows have a powerful e0ect on the
imagination of abnormal and vitiated children, in
whom it is desirable to arouse sentiments of courage,
heroism, patriotism, emulation, desire to work., and
loyalty. Pictures containing scenes of violence and
love, intrigues, fraud and crime should be omitted ".
{Royal Reformatory, of S. Maria Capua Vetere).

In the case of psychically abnormal children,
experience has shown that the cinema has already
been used in some institutions for a number of
years. In the Trieste Institute, the inmates derive
advantages of a moral and educational nature from
witnessing comic pictures calculated to cheer up
depressed persons, and also sentimental films.
Pictures showing technical, geographical, industrial

and ethnological matter can also interest and benefit.
Films of a violent or passionate character or detec-
tive and gangster pictures, where the worst instincts
of mankind are placed in evidence, are to be con-
sidered absolutely taboo.

" There is no doubt of the beneficent result of such
spectacles, apart from the fact that permission to attend
constitutes a reward for the young offenders or a most
efficacious stimulus to do Well, while the deprivation
of such shows for badly behaved children provides a
moral form of punishment which is very effective .
(Royal Reformatory, of Bologna).

The cinema, moreover, it is hardly necessary
to say, has a very great importance for persons
deprived of the sense of hearing. They can in this
way acquire a great numbers of perceptions through
the sense of sight.

We attribute great importance to the cinema in the
educational and especially in the correctional field. It
is only to be hoped that the educational film becomes
more widely spread and easier of access so as to make a
choice of programmes easier for the inmates of reform-
atories ". (Royal Reformatory, of Parma).

For the deaf and dumb it constitutes a factor of the
greatest utility, which proves especially instructive
in the case of silent films where the plot and story
are developed with plenty of gesture and miming,
accompanied by sub-titles. Now that the sound
and talking film have replaced almost entirely the
silent pictures, the cinema has lost a great deal of
the special instructional value it had for the deaf and
dumb.

If all schools for the deaf and dumb were furnish-
ed with first class motion picture apparatus, the
education and instruction of the pupils would
benefit enormously. Projections should be made
specially for the deaf and dumb children who have
finished the first two or three years of school.

Thus pupils could also improve their knowledge
and perceptions by means of views and aspects of
the life of near and distant cities and their surround-
ings, and modes of dress. In various modern
institutes like those of Milan, Rome and Turin,
there are cinema halls where the deaf and dumb
children can not only be amused with the projec-
tions, but can also learn much. They can relate
their impressions afterwards to the teacher, writing
essays on it in their exercise books.

Hygienic Social Education in General. — Up
to now we have referred to what may be done by

HYGIENE AND SOCIAL SAFEGUARDS

171

means of the cinema for certain classes of individuals.
There is however a vast work of education on hygie-
nic and social lines to be carried out for the benefit
of all adults by means of properly prepared pictures.

Especially in what concerns the hygiene of the
family, woman, and the future of the race, such
projections could prove most useful. The gravest
problems of individual and social hygiene could in
this way be tackled from time to time. For example,
the advisability of young people about to marry
having themselves examined by a doctor before
marriage could be pointed out so as to be certain
that no contagious or hereditary disease might
endanger the health of the wife or husband or the
innocent children who may come, menacing, should
the peril mature, the well being of the entire family.

An attempt of the kind was made in 1925 by the
late regretted Professor Levi at the First National
Congress for the Anti-Tuberculosis Campaign of
Naples. Dr Levi clearly and ably illustrated on
this occasion the causes, effects and necessary
defences against typical scourges of humanity,
projecting a motion picture entitled " The Gift of
Life ", which had been given him by the American
Social Hygiene Association.

Educating the Specialized Personel of Relief
Organizations. — Good results could be obtained
through the use of the film in the case of the special-
ized staffs of institutions taking care of pregnant
wemen, mothers and infants. There will be little
difficulty here in attracting and holding the specta-
tors' attention and the pictures can be considered
as a mere pedagogic instrument. In this instance
we could utilize the films prepared for the education
and instruction of the mothers, but the ideal would
be to have specific technical pictures, illustrating the
various forms of assistance and medical aid to
mothers and infants.

" We hold that the use of the cinema has a notable
importance for the propaganda of infant hygiene.
More than once I have been able to observe the great
interest and profit of such projections.

We believe that it would be desirable to prepare a
series of films illustrating the principle sides of child
rearing in an easy, attractive and persuasive manner
for use in schools or at lectures . (0. N. M. I.
Federation, of Pisa).

Apart from medical assistance institutions, such
pictures could be utilized for the courses of child-
rearing run along the lines of those organized by
the ONMI in agreement with the National Bali 11a
Association.

Practical Considerations. — We have so far,
it need hardly be said, been dealing with the matter
in connection with the content, and as regards
hygienic social aims desirable in the interest of the
strengthening of the race.

As to the manner and place for the projecttion of
such films, it will suffice to point out that, in order
to obtain satisfactory results, we should make a
larger use of indirect than direct means. In general,
it may be claimed that better results are obtainable
by including pathetic or sentimental scenes in an
ordinary picture by than inflicting on a variously
composed mixed public films, the educational
objects of which are immediately patent. Care must
be taken when making projections before the public
in large cinema halls not to attempt too direct an
appeal but to approach the matter by intriguing and
stimulating the interest through sentimental and
spiritual appeals rather than violent films or purely
technical pictures.

The attraction of the cinema can be usefully taken
advantage of for the ends of hygienic education and
propaganda, especially if we avoid artificial rhetoric
such as might discredit the idea and offend the in-
stinctive good sense and practical spirit of our people ".
(0. N. M. I. Federation, of Mantua).

Certainly, this kind of picture can and must have
its value if projected before a specialized public
The experiment which the ONMI has started
in workshops is not without its importance in this
respect. Nor is there any reason why special tra-
velling cinemas should not make occasional projec-
tions in country districts or in workmen's sections
of towns where the spectator's state of mind differs
somewhat from that of the ordinary cinema hall
public. Films suited to the mentality of infants
and youths might also be projected in the schools.
In cases like these, prudence must be used, however,
and it should always be borne in mind that nothing
educates better than that which appeals to the mind,
the fancy and the heart.

Negative Aspect of the Question. — In order
to obtain good results in moral, hygienic and demo-
graphic education, it is not enough, as we have said,
to concern oneself with what it is advisable to project,
but it is also necessary to take into consideration what
is bad and unadvisable to project, especially before
certain classes of persons.

The problem of the limits of cinema censorship is
certainly not a new one, but this is not the place to
go into it in all its delicate aspects which include

172

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

some of an artistic economic and practical character.
At the same, we should like to make it plain that if
it is desired to obtain really satisfactory results in a
campaign against a dwindling birth-rate, the rural
exodus and various other social dangers which
menace the health of the race, it is necessary and
urgent : in the first place, to increase the pre-view
censorship on all films intended for public projec-
tion, in the second place, limit the admission of
children under sixteen to a few truly educational
spectacles, and, in the third place, to forbid the
cinema entirely — except in the case of special per-
formances for children — to children under the
age of 1 4, even if accompanied by adults.

It is not old fashioned dictates of a rigorous
morality which impose such a decision. Any one
among us, whether father or mother, or just a
person gifted with ordinary observation powers, can
see for him or herself the pernicious influence which
the greater part of motion picture spectacles exercise
on the minds of boys and girls, and indeed even
often on adults. A slow progressive degeneration
of morals and ideals results therefrom. The excite-
ment of the senses provoked by erotic scenes, the
stressing of immoral and improper facts and inci-
dents, and especially the sight of things which sug-
gest a false and absurd conception of life constitute
so many deleterious elements for moral social and
civilized education, if it is true that it is from the
interior ideal which each of us has of life that prac-
tical human activity takes its lines and forms.

" The cinema, as a means of moral and hygiene pro-
paganda, must be helped by the State, the communes
and public bodies in general which have a educative
purpose. The State could grant for the purpose consi-
derable and adequate funds, while an obligation might
be imposed on the communes and educational bodies to
provide cinema education at their own expense .
(0. N. M. I. Federation, of Messina).

We must therefore consider it to be urgent and
indispensable that a wider censorship be exercised
by the authorities on films, and that children under

1 6 be excluded — as is already prescribed by Italian
law — with greater rigour from certain kinds of
shows, and that children of 14 be absolutely for-
bidden the cinema.

The Opera Maternita ed Infanzia (ONMI) has
examined the question on other occasions. At the
recent international Infancy Congress held at
Stockholm, the representative of the ONMI put
forward the following resolution :

" In view of the fact that the cinema has a
great psychological influence on children (as a
symposium recently organized by the ONMI among
thousands of Italian mothers proves).

" In consideration that almost the entire
output of films is not suited to arouse healthy senti-
ments in young children, who ought to be able
to draw useful concepts of moral, family, hygienic
cultural education from the motion picture.

" It is recommended that special halls be
instituted in connection with ordinary cinemas for
the projection of special children's pictures, or at
least the institution of special shows for children.

" It is urged that the prohibition to enter
ordinary cinemas be extended to children under 1 4,
even when accompanied

There is no need to give a long explanation of the
content of the foregoing resolution. It will suffice
to point out that the 14 year old age limit was
suggested by the existing Italian penal law, which
fixes that age as being the age under which there is no
complete human capacity to understand and to will.
The Opera Nazionale Maternita ed Infanzia insists
with the participants at the forthcoming Interna-
tional Teaching and Education Film Congress on
the prime necessity of facing the problem of the
negative factor constituted by ordinary theatrical
films in modern life. The question ought to be
hurried on towards a solution, for it constitutes one
of the factors having considerable weight in the
present critical phase of our civilization which must
be preserved, and can be so preserved if the funda-
mental values of life, the race and society are protect-
ed and exalted in all the manifestations of the human
spirit.

HYGIENE AND SOCIAL SAFEGUARDS

173

HYGIENE, CONTAGIOUS DISEASES AND
GENERAL PROPHYLACTIC MEASURES

By Dt Ester Bonom, Directress of the Mothers' Dispensary of Genoa.

It is to be regretted that publications on the
educational cinema do not exist in Italy, or if they
do exist, remain unknown. This is a pity because
our country can boast of being to the front in this
matter, though only a few people are aware of it.

In fact, just as the Omegna was the first important
producer of educational films in the department of
natural science, and was followed by other admirable
and patient producers ,so we owe to the Ambrosio
institute of Turin now absorbed by the LUCE Insti-
tute the technical perfection of numerous educa-
tional films.

The Italian Pathe Baby Co is responsible for the
substitution of the very costly standard cinema ca-
mera used in theatrical pictures with the reduced size
apparatus for use in schools. The same company
has also put a type of non-inflammable film on the
market, which costs much less than ordinary film.
As the result of an arrangement made with the
Italian LUCE Institute, the same company has started
a film repository of a purely national charcter. The
technical department is in charge of Commendatore
Ristori, while Professor Guzzanti looks after the
scientific side. The cinema archive is exclusively
didactic.

It is useless to waste words in stressing the educa-
tional value of this complementary didactic aid.
Everyone knows or feels that the educational cinema,
without taking the place of the book, and still less
of the teacher, forms an admirable complementary
course for the former, while it assists the latter. 1}
facilitates and quickens the understanding of argu-
ments, completing the details which have necessarily
to be omitted from the scholastic text-book and
fixing in the minds of the pupils, through the effect
of the images seen, a pictured memory of the
subject treated.

It is therefore to be hoped that all schools and all
centres of culture in general will install cinema ap-
paratus and that precious and patient regisseurs
like those of the Omegna be encouraged and
assisted in producing more and better educational
films.

The motion picture will prove of extraordinary
importance in all relief and aid organizations from
the 0. N. M. Maternity Society to courses for nurses,

assistant sanitary inspectors, school visitors, etc.,
in all cases, in fact where the scientific knowledge of
the pupil is limited. Not less is its importance in
Fascist cultural institutes, where, together with
programmes of an artistic and musical nature, de-
monstration lectures are given on trade and social
diseases (saturnism, alcoholism, tuberculosis, vene-
eal disease, etc.) lectures which could and ought to
be repeeted in workshops and factories where there
are many operatives.

In factories employing female labour, films should
be projected showing the dangers of certain occupa-
tions and positions for women during the period of
gestation, the harm liable to result from lack of
hygienic measures and personal cleanliness, the
necessity of pure food clean kitchens, etc.

With regard to university institutes, we may point
out that many science studios, clinics, medical, surg-
ical laboratories and specialists have already sub-
stituted lantern slides and still projections by film
apparatus. The slow motion projector is also used
in these places, and the students see with this means
many masterpieces of scientific cinematography.

In Genoa, the Institute of General Pathology has
a film archive of about 80 pictures dealing with
infectious micro-organisms, infectious diseases ;
alcaloid poisoning through cocaine, morphia ;
hormones, etc.

The institutes of Pharmacology, Physiology,
Anatomy, and the Medical Clinic are all provided
with cinema apparatus, and often make use of this
valuable didactic aid. One of the firms which sell
well known and approved pharmaceutical products,
the Bayer company has had produced for it magnif-
icent motion pictures which it presents to university
institute. We may mention that splendid master-
pieces of motion picture technique, the film on the
hormones, the thyroid, the surrenal and other glands.

Unless the writer is in error, we have no films on
child upbringing. A picture on this subject would
be of the greatest importance not only for the univer-
sity teacher, but especially for Child Rearing Courses
given for dispensary doctors and private individuals
who frequent the private dispensaries of the OMN.

Films of this kind should also be shown for pro-
paganda purposes in ordinary picture halls.

2 — lc

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

THE WORKMEN'S LEISURE TIME INSTITUTION
(DOPOLAVORO) AND THE EDUCATIONAL CINEMA

THE Workmen's Leisure Time Institution,
known in Italy and beyond her
frontiers as the Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro
(literally : National After-Work Corporation)
is engaged in carrying out a vast and complex
work within the orbit of the activities of
the regime. This work includes relief of
various kinds, insurance, physical training,
improved methods or labour, popular
culture, excursions, touring, etc. The
corporation of institution makes great use
of the cinema in all its manifestations,
considering it to be an extremely efficacious
means of education and propaganda, and
the Dopolavoro is glad to take part in the
forthcoming International Congress which
it hopes will give us those explanations and
those instructions which will enable the
Dopolavoro to go on increasing and developing
its activities in the domain of cinemato-
graphy.

The Dopolavoro does not, of course,
take part in the Congress with the idea of
discussing the use of the motion picture
in individual and social education from
the theoretical point of view, and still less
with the idea of making a scientific examin-
ation of its utilization in the teaching
field.

The intention is to deal with the practical
use of the cinema by the Workmen's
Leisure Time Institution, and to give a short
and schematic report of what it has done and
what it dill intends to do.

The cinematograph is considered as an
essential element in its programme, because
it covers every field from politics to science,
from the news of the day to creative efforts,

and also because it exercises a great fascina-
tion over the masses and prepares them for
the greatest possible understanding of
modern life and the environment in which
they live.

It represents, therefore, not only the
most desirable and acceptable form of en-
tertainment, but also a powerful means of
raising the moral and spiritual outlook.

The Cinematograph The first statesman to
in the Work of recognise the great im-

the Dopolavoro. „_«+.....- „{ u,^ „•

r portance or the cine-

matograph was Benito Mussolini. He realized
its utility as a means of cultural and national
propaganda and as a social instrument, and
gave Italy the first Institute for the production
of cultural, documentary and scientific films,
and facilitated the constitution of the Inter-
national Institute of the Educational Cinema
by giving it a suitable seat.

The National L.U.C.E. Institute is the
organization which, in Italy, co-ordinates
and regulates the educational production of
the cinema. The 0. N. D. (Opera Nazio-
nale Dopolavoro) limits its activities in this
field to the spread and justification of the
cinema as a means of social and individual
education and as a politico-artistic-educat-
ional propaganda.

The Cinema and The rest-time of the work-
the Worker's er> wnether he be em-
Recreation. p,oy(i or workman> is a

relatively new problem in social campaigns,
and has come into being in consequence of
the reduction of the working day to eight
hours.

CINEMA AND THE EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE

175

The Fascist regime was the first to solve
this problem by creating the Opera Nazio-
nale Dopolavoro, whose task is to employ the
free time of the worker in wholesome, enter-
taining diversions and to utilize it for the
physical, intellectual and moral improvement
of all who labour.

Among the more important after-work
activities are those spectacles which act
more on the heart than on the mind and
are addressed more to the imagination than
to the reasoning powers.

The cinematograph is a form of spectacle
which has a really exceptional force in this
way and, as we have said, exercises a great
fascination over the masses, which is in-
creased by its very technical defects. The lack
of relief and the image which remains flat
and colourless makes the appeal to the
imagination even greater. In fact, the
personages of the screen, their sentiments,
and their acts impose themselves with a force
that is without precedent, and has never
been reached by any other form of spectacle.

It is a well known fact that the problem
of the education of the working class came
into being at the same time as the develop-
ment of machinery and the mechanizazion
or labour, which, nullifying and reducing
the worker's spirit of initiative, made an
automaton of him, turned him into a sort
of machine and reduced his intellectual
capacity.

It is obvious that, by bringing the worker
in his hours of repose into contact with
spectacles that arouse his interest and stir
his emotions, we at once obtain a compensa-
tion for the mechanism of labour.

The cinema is the very best means to
this end, because the joining of image to
image and the deduction generated by the
understanding of their succession implies
a mental effort of the highest importance,
which is unnecessary in other spectacles where
the action is continually justified and made
clear, even in its most insignificant points,
by the very elements that take part in it.

The cinema has an even wider-reaching
influence on the employee for it finds in

him a more fertile and better prepared
ground to work on, due to his greater cultur-
al knowledge and different degree of edu-
cation.

In the recreation of all workers without
distinction, the cinema stands as a potent
aid to the mental and spiritual force.

Its benefits are not restricted to the dura-
tion of the pictures, which remain in the
memory and influence the imagination,
carrying on a work of clarification and
justification and generating the desire to
make known the emotions experienced to
others. They act as a powerful leaven, a
fertile seed which ferments in the inner arid
waste and makes it fruitful.

The effort to recount what has been seen
and heard, to make it live again in words,
to adapt it to one's own sensibilities and
justify it by one's own mentality, forms a
pleasing psychic state, an internal labour
which almost gives the impression of taking
part in the mysteries of artistic creation. It
is a work that transports, enchants, takes
possession of us and fills us more and more
with a spiritual essence ; it becomes a power-
ful moving force, and renews the soul and
ennobles the mind.

The Cinematograph- In order to be able to
ic Organization make use of the cinema-
of the O. N. D. tograpn m tj,e recreation
of the working class, the O.N.D. first made
a Convention with the Association of the
Spectacle Industry, which allows it to make
use of all the cinemas m the kingdom at
considerably reduced prices for tickets.

Secondly, as a direct action of its own,
it encouraged the installation of cinemato-
graph apparatus in the different premises of
the Dopolavoro, and had all the cinemas and
halls which had been opened by private
initiative for educational purposes brought
under its jurisdiction, with the object of
directing their activities more satisfactorily,
unifying and co-ordinating them with its
own.

In order to facilitate the increment of the
Dopolavoro cinemas and make sure that

176

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

they had economic projection apparatus of
the type required by the O.N.D., a compe-
tition was opened among Italian firms for
the supply of these apparatuses. The cordial
collaboration of the National L.U.C.E.
Institute was accepted for the supply of
educational films, while those of a recreational
and artistic order were procured from the
private production industry, special agree-
ments being stipulated for the renting of
films at reduced rates.

In a short time, therefore, no fewer than
748 new cinema halls were opened, and the
Dopolavoro was assured a rich and varied
production chosen from among the best
films produced in Italy and abroad.

It is calculated that the cinematograph
halls of the Dopolavoro projected 28,575
different programmes in 1932 alone.

In addition to the regular halls, the Dopo-
lavoro has also a number of portable appar-
atuses, 722 in all, which are used for pro-
paganda purposes in different regions and
in the local premises of the Dopolavoro,
especially in country and mountain centres.
The cinematograph activities are not, in
fact, confined to projections in halls, but
are carried by travelling cinemas to every
centre, even the smallest, where open-air
spectacles of cultural-artistic-educational pro-
paganda are given every week.

We shall see, further on, how the O.N.D's
cinematographic activities in these country
districts are carried on according to special
criteria which guarantee their efficacy and
eliminate all inconveniences.

The Use of the The L.U.C.E. films illus-
Cinematograph by tratjng Italian life are
the O. N. D. for incjude(1 jn aH the cine-
National Educa- matograph Spectacles
given by the O.N.D.
These films, which are living documents
of the regenerated life of Italy, are at the
very base of the O.N.D's action for the
encouragement of national education, which,
according to the Fascist idea, means at one
and the same time the aesthetic and moral,

the individual and social, human and univer-
sal education.

These films arouse great interest in the
crowds of spectators and carry on a beneficent
work of propaganda that is even more effic-
acious than that done by newspapers, because
they bring everything that happens in the
nation before the eyes of the people, with-
out comment.

This propaganda, made by the bare pre-
sentation of facts without the addition of
rhetoric or superfluous comment, is a true
and living documentation of the creative
activities of the Fascist State, and it not
only serves to keep the spectator informed
as to what is being done and to enrich his
cultural acquirements, but it also and mainly
helps him to take part in the life of his
country.

It is obvious that if the individual is to
feel himself the citizen of his State, he must
take part in its life and have a fairly exact
knowledge of what that life is.

The fundamental base of all national
education is just this of calling the attention
of the worker to the social aggregate of
which he is a part, because the more alive
and active his conception of the social body,
the stronger and more active will be his
agreement with it.

This is the reason why the illustration of
the work of the regime, the great manifesta-
tions that are being developed in the nation,
the expressions of patriotic feeling, faithfully
collected and faithfully reproduced and put
into contact with the people by means of
the cinematograph, become powerful elements
for the solidification of the national senti-
ment and, with it, of the social body.

An irrefutable proof of this is the interest
aroused in the working class by the L.U.C.E.
documentary films. The working class wants
to live the life that surrounds it in every one
of its manifestations, social, political, mil-
itary etc., and as it cannot, it finds satisfac-
tion for this lively desire in the film, which
gives it such a vivid presentment of that
life that it has the impression of taking part
in it.

CINEMA AND THE EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE

177

There is also a very useful fusion of spec-
tacle and spectator in the cinematograph
halls of the O.N.D. The projections there
are not simple, cold explanations and repre-
sentations of works, but are living, powerful
documents of the social life of Italy and
of its Fascist faith.

The Dopolavoro public is for the greater
part a homogeneous public whose various
parts know one another, so that the spectacle
has a greater educational power, since the
amicable discussions it arouses facilitate
its assimilation.

With the object of completing the educa-
tional activities whose scope is to keep the
national feeling alive, the O.N.D. chooses
more particularly ethnographical films,
documentary panoramic films and all those
which mirror the qualities, picturesque
beauty and intimate life of the Italian people.

The Use of Cine- The aim of the O.N.D.
matography by ;s not to m] tne people's
the O. N. D. for mind wJth g lot of arid

Popular Culture. 1 1 j j -n 1

knowledge, and still less

to involve it in a labyrinth of philosophical
disquisitions, and the cultural film which is
closely connected with the aesthetic emotions
therefore forms a large part of its programmes.

The criterion guiding the choice of these
films is a catholic one, and includes all those
films which are an artistic success. Prefer-
ence is given, however, to local films of a
historical or geographical nature, documentary
and scientific films and those which give
force to the moral energies of man.

Technical films connected with the various
arts and trades are largely used in vocational
teaching. The projection of such films is
accompanied by the comments of the teacher,
who explains and makes clear the document-
ary process of the film, and makes use of
it to facilitate the understanding of his
lesson.

The precision of the details and the play
of the close ups in these films are not
only of great teaching value but they also
exercise a great influence on the student.

The use of the cinematograph in the

skilled trades is of great use, because by its
means it is possible to show all the intimate
details of the manufactured object and their
respective values, and to call the attention
of the spectator to them.

In Italy, where the arts and crafts have
a glorious tradition and are still flourishing,
propaganda by means of the film is indis-
pensable, and the O.N.D. makes a special
use of it for this purpose.

The O.N.D. includes industrial films
among those of a cultural order, taking the
films which illustrate the various Italian
industries and their respective products,
with the object of not only spreading a
knowledge of the different national industries
and therefore of the national production,
but also of aiding young people in the choice
of a trade or occupation.

Up to a short time ago, it happened,
especially in Italy, that the son generally
elected to follow the same trade as his father.
With the advent of machinery, the choice of
an occupation has become one of the most
serious problems that young people and
their families have to face. In America,
now, they have established special schools
for vocational guidance, where all young
people may make experiments to discover
their own aptitudes.

A great contribution has been made by
the cinematograph to the solution of this
problem, by revealing to young people and
their families the different multiple activities
of humanity and enlarging their field of
knowledge, and therefore also their range
of choice. This problem is of great interest
also to the O.N.D., which organizes visits
to manufacturing workshops, for the purpose
of aiding its members in the choice of a
trade.

The Use of the Hygiene is one of the

Cinematograph for essential problems of the

the O. N. D*s Hy- sodaj body> because jt ;s

gienic Propaganda. . i .■

not so much a question

of making the rules known as of creating a

hygienic conscience. What is necessary is

that the rules become an essential part of

178

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

the psychological organism, that they are
really felt.

The cinematograph, which makes ideas
clear and easily grasped, facilitates this
process of assimiltation enormously.

Hygienic propaganda by means of the
cinema must not, however, be done by
strictly scientific, but by artistic films ; and
the close ups and details of these should be
worked out with great care.

We said that one of the potent levers of
the cinematograph is imitation, and the
producer of hygienic films should utilise
this quality to the utmost.

A production of ordinary films with
hygienic rules incorporated in them, not
presented deliberately but more as habits
of the persons in the films, would give
much better results than do the films we have.

For hygienic propaganda in workshops,
and especially with regard to working posi-
tions, the O.N.D. has made use of the films
produced for the purpose ; but has found it
well to use also certain details and scenes
from ordinary films.

Unfortunately, however, the ordinary prod-
uction takes no account of hygiene, and there
is no doubt that if directors, when working
out the details of a film, were to consider
the action it exercises over the masses and
to insert hygienic rules wherever possible,
the cinema would render great service to
social life. As it does, for instance, to
fashion, by the attention directors pay to
aesthetic detail in the dressing of the women.

The O.N.D's hygienic propaganda is
completed by its activities in connection
with physical education. In this field also
the cinematograph is used for teaching
and propaganda. The O.N.D. has succeeded
in making great progress in physical edu-
cation, as is proved by its Sports Meetings,
Competitions, Excursionist Meetings and
the Gymnastic Competition which is held in
Rome every July, and in which about 10,000
Dopolavorists chosen from among the best
of every province take part.

The Use of the Cin- The Fascist Regime has
ema for Social gjven a great jmpulse to
Welfare Propa- Social Welfare institu-

tions. The propaganda
on this subject is made by the O.N.D. through
the cinematograph in two different ways,
indirect and direct. By the first means
it endeavours to arouse a sense of responsa-
bihty in each of its members, since it is
obvious that a man who feels the responsa-
bihty of his function in the social body and
especially in regard to the family is well on
the way to make provision for the future.
By the second means, it illustrates the utility
of provision for the future by means of
short documentary films.

It must be admitted that in this field also
production ought to follow criteria that are
more in accordance with the sensibilities of
the masses.

Generally speaking, prudential propa-
ganda is done by films which make their
propagandist and advertisement aims too
evident, and their effect is therefore pro-
portionately injured.

In our opinion, if the idea of provision
for the future is really to take root and grow
in the mind of the masses, as little use as
possible should be made of advertisement,
and great use, instead, should be made of
dramatic situations.

Human experience is so vast that it can
supply an artist with numbers of subjects
and arguments to make this form of propa-
ganda lively, dramatic and impressive :
families involved in ruin, lives completely
broken up, comfort that disappears. All
the infinite dramas of human labour could
give stupendous subjects for films, which
would inevitably arouse a desire to provide
for the future.

The O.N.D. therefore preferred to make
use of the indirect method, and to use all
those films which are likely to awaken in the
spectator that sense of responsibility which
every man should have, towards himself, his
family and the State.

CINEMA AND THE EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE

179

The Cinema and the In country organizations
Rural Dopolavoro. 0f the Dopolavoro, cine-
matograph activities are subjected to special
vigilance, since it is well known that it is
not desirable to show all films in farming
centres, and that the greatest caution is
needed in the choice of the films shown.

In country life, the very power of the
film would bring about an effect opposite
to that desired, if it were not used with the
greatest circumspection. It has, in fact,
already done much to bring about a recru-
descence of the phenomenon of gravitation
to the town.

If the cinema, by bringing the peasant in-
to contact with town life, has created new
needs in him and driven him to the town,
there is nothing to prevent it from sending
him back to the land.

In fact, the O.N.D., in keeping with the
tendency of the Regime, has been carrying
on a vast campaign against the tendency to
flock to the town ; and if it has succeeded in
improving the civic life of small rural centres
by the institution of the rural Dopolavoro, on
the one hand, it has also, on the other, carried
out an active propaganda by means of the
cinema to make the conditions of country
life appreciated.

It was thought advisable, at a certain
point, to bring back to life the traditions of
each little village, with its music and songs,
its dances and customs. By bringing these
traditions into honour again, the simple life
of the country has also increased in value,
and country people are becoming more
attached to the land.

The cinematograph projections organized
by the O.N.D. in these centres are always
mixed with programmes of popular songs
and music. The films of the L.U.C.E.
Institute illustrating the different ethnical
Italian regions have always been completed
by spectacles of the dances and songs of
each particular region.

We may mention here the experiments
made at the " Supercinema " of Rome with
the film " Sentinel of the Fatherland ", in
which the Choral Associations of Friuli took

part, accompanying the projection with
their songs and filling the intervals with
exhibitions of the characteristic traditional
dances of Friuli ; and the " Sunny Romagna "
film which was given at the " Quirino " in
Rome, with the participation of singers of
Romagna.

They were typical and characteristic
spectacles of real rural propaganda, which
do justice to the picturesqueness of the places
and at the same time to the wholesomeness
of rural life and its eternal beauty.

When the sound film came to stay, the
O.N.D. at once endeavoured to encourage
the inclusion of the characteristic elements
of country life in these films ; and sent a
letter to all the producing houses in Rome,
putting the organization at their service
for the utilization of popular traditions. The
L.U.C.E. Institute, the " Cines " and others
subscribed to the project with the greatest
enthusiasm.

It would take too much space to give a
list of all the films in which the popular
groups of the O.N.D. have taken part, and
we will therefore give only one as an example,
namely, the Sicilian Ninna Nanna which
was executed by the singers of Etna.

As soon as the production was ready, the
O.N.D. made a widespread use of it in
agricultural centres, thus realizing its object
of making clear the value of country life.

The Use of the Cin- It may be said that
ema for the Agri- tn;s propaganda by
cultural Propa- means of the fiim ;s

ganda of the O.N-D. L • j vi_ a.

being made with the

same criteria ; and it will undoubtedly be
intensified now that the Technical Council
of National Agricultural Cinematography,
which is attached to the L. U. C. E. Insti-
tute, is going to carry out some short metre
and talking films,

The important thing in this propaganda
is to overcome the stubbornness of the
peasant, who is bound to tradition and is
by nature suspicious and diffident. It is a
real work of penetration and conviction,
which only the cinema can carry out satis-

180

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

factorily, whether as regards modern systems
of cultivation, the criteria on which modern
agriculture is based or the rules governing
agricultural hygiene.

It is very dificult to convince the peasant.
He lives an isolated existence, as a rule, and
all his work is connected with his cultivations
and his love of the land. He has no faith in
anything but the land ; it is the only thing
in which he believes. Bound as he is to a
whole cartload of superstitions, he rejects
a priori any teaching, he does not yield to
anything but experience, and is the enemy of
experiment. He needs to see, to be con-
vinced, to make sure.

A knowledge of these facts led the 0. N. D.
to make use, for its propaganda, of those films
which, in addition to rules that can be
taught, were of such a character as to arouse
the interest of the peasant and therefore to
make him put faith in their teaching.

perfectly new aspects of things and also of
seeing themselves in their every movement,
from the simplest to the most studied.

The possibilities of amateur cinemato-
graphy are, in fact, infinite, and, in order to
encourage its development in Italy, the
0. N. D. formed special sections for the pur-
pose in every branch of the Dopolavoro for
the taking of films from life and for Dopo-
lavoro documentation.

One of these Associations, which served
as an experiment for the whole of the Dopo-
lavoro organization, is the CITO of Turin,
which has given magnificent results in the
course of a few months, producing seven
documentary films of great interest.

In accordance with measures that have been
recently issued, all branches of the Dopolavoro
are to deal in amateur cinematography and
to give the greatest possible increment to
the production of documentary films.

The Amateur Cin- To all these profes-
ema in the Opera s;onaj activities, we
Nazionale Dopo- must add the amateur

cinematograph activity,
which is making great strides in consequence
of its special qualities and the interest it
arouses in the great mass of Dopolavoro men.

The amateur cinema, the importance of
which is beyond question, forms a vast and
essentially typical means of collecting the ele-
ments of the civic life of a people. It may be
considered as a documentation of the less
apparent manifestations of social life.

Brought into the family and the premises
of the Dopolavoro as a means of diversion, it
was at once transformed into a means of
education on account of the new world it
reveals and because it gives the possibility
to those who make use of it, of collecting

Conclusion. The utmost importance

is given to cinematography in the 0. N. D.
as we have shown. It is used in every field,
as a means of propaganda, as a recreation, as
a means of culture, and as a scientific, instruct-
ive and teaching means.

For all that, however, we are only at the
beginning, for the field of operations increas-
es day by day, just as the work grows daily
more intense ; and for the 0. N. D. each
new point reached means a stepping-stone
to another.

Fascism never rests, nor has it any pre-
established programmes. Keeping forever
to the living reality, it acts for the moment
and is eternally renewed. It is the miracle
of eternal youth, which we owe to our Duce,
who makes us participate in his spirit, in his
grand ideas and in his universality.

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

CINEMATOGRAPHY AND THE NEGLECTED CHILD

By
Lucy Clarke Simonson.

IT is with the greatest satisfaction that I have
learned of the proposed first International
Congress for Educational and Instructional
Cinematography. I believe that this subject,
so important in its bearing on child life, is
about to come into its own, and I rejoice at
the prospect.

While complying with the request of the
Director, Dr. Luciano de Feo, I doubt if
I can add anything of great value to the
profound contributions of leading educators
the world over. I can only tell of my per-
sonal experience as a New York City teacher
of truant and delinquent girls and boys.

For several years it was my privilege to
teach in the Shelter maintained by the
Bronx Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Children in connection with the Children's
Court. There I daily met boys and girls
who had come from homes disrupted through
sickness, death or crime ; others who had
found crowded home conditions unbearable
and had broken away from parental restraint ;
boys who had yielded to their longing for
pleasure by thieving ; truants either through
mental incapacity for the work of the school
room, or through natural restlessness which
took them to the street bent on mischief ;
psychopathic cases that had been brought
in because of uncontrolled acts, as well as
subnormal and feeble-minded children, the
misfits in home and school ; boys who had
run away from homes in neighboring cities ;
all ages from six to sixteen, all races, all con-
ditions of mind and spirit ; transients all of
them, waiting to have their cases adjusted
in the juvenile court.

Besides teaching at the Shelter, I had
charge of the Visual Instruction in a Boys'
Probationary School in Manhattan. Here
we used the Fox Films as well as lantern
slides provided by city museums and the
State of New York.

Some one has said that the average neglect-
ed boy of the city " serves his time in the
public school, but obtains his education on
the street ". My experience leads me to
amend this statement by substituting in
motion pictures houses for " on the street ".
Of the boys brought into the Children's
Court for stealing, nine out of ten told us
quite frankly that " they stole to get money
to go to the movies ". In the heart of a big
city where home life is often cramped, dull
and unnatural, the cinema affords color,
excitement and relief from the monotomy
of daily existence, and becomes a powerful
influence on the growing child.

We find that attendance on cheap " mo-
vies " with lurid, sensational pictures has
been the very life of many of our boys.
Here they are fed up on " funnies ", grotes-
que and overdrawn, or on the " slick
guy " who " gyps " and gets away with it.
So they get little of the right ideals of con-
duct and scant material out of which real
heroes can be made.

We believe that pictures should show
wrong-doing in its ugliness and in its
final failures and horrible results. When
crime is made hideous, not attractive and
successful, our boys will get the correct
reaction.

In our films on Current History I have

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

been pleased to notice that, although at first
disappointment was expressed, that they were
not to see the " funnies ", they later frankly
said that they preferred such pictures as
" Poland Reborn ", " Mussolini " and " Fly-
ing to the North Pole ".

Boys who had stolen learned through such
pictures the honor of striving for great
achievements, and that things that come
easily are often of little lasting value. Their
oft repeated question, " Why work when it's
so much easier to steal ? " was thus answered
effectively.

I hawe great faith in both the film and
the still picture as strong elements in spirit-
ual and intellectual elevation. An illus-
tration from real life at the Court School
may be interesting.

We were having pictures illustrating
Longfellow's poem ' The Courtship of
Miles Standish ". We were at the climax of
the story. John Alden and Priscilla were in
the church about to be married when Stand-
ish the rival, whom all thought dead, appeared
at the door.

At this point I asked the boys the ques-
tion, ' What do you think Standish did " ?

Ans. 1. " He drew a knife on Alden ! "

Ans. 2. " He drew a gun on him ! "

Ans. 3. " No, teacher ", he said " the
best man wins ".

At the close of the pictures when asked
what part of the story they liked best, all
agreed they liked the part when Standish
came back and *' didn't bust up the wed-
ding ".

For the boy who has run away from the
restraint of home or who has tired of school,
films showing the hardships of great ex-
plorers, the patience of the scientist, the
struggles of many a world leader for an
education, — can awaken a new interest
in life and a determination to strive and
win out.

A word as to the comparative value of
fixed and moving pictures. We have found
that for the child with a slow mind, poor
reading ability and limited apperceptive
basis, the still pictures are often more satis-

fying. Such a child has more opportunity
to compare and ask questions, — a slide can
be recalled easily, viewed again and an
obscure point cleared up.

Our street boys call the fixed pictures
" de stiffs " in contrast to " de movies ".
We have been surprised to find that some
children prefer them, saying, " The movies
are too quick, we can't see through them ".

Many children come from narrow and
contracted homes where ignorant parents are
too intent on the struggle for existence to be
of help intellectually. Pictures stimulate
such minds, wake them up mentally and
lead them into bigger places where imagina-
tion is quickened and vision enlarged. Then
they begin to ask earnest questions about the
vast universe of which they know so little.

To illustrate ; — One day a boy asked the
question, " What are stars, teacher " ?
Before replying. I put the question to
the class and had the following strange ans-
wers ; « Diamonds ", " kites ", " dead peo-
ple , " torches of angels " " peek holes in
the sky that God looks down at us through ",
" buds .

The last answer caused a perplexed look
on my part, and brought out further in-
formation from another boy .
' He means bugs, teacher .

" Sure, teacher ", said boy number one
" de bugs wid de light ". (Fire-flies).

The amazement and reverence which such
children show when introduced for the first
time to the facts of the vastness of the uni-
verse and the orderly movements of the
heavenly bodies are a revelation. How
greatly the cinema aids in such subjects.

We have found that our unfortunate girls
of coarse manners and hardened natures
are uplifted by the showing of rare films
depicting happy, refined homes. Their own
are so often disrupted by dissension and
crime, that they respond intensely to the
showing of love, sweetness and beauty of
which they are cruelly deprived. So, for
the time being, the great black gaps in their
own lives are filled, and ideals for the future
are born.

CINEMA AND THE EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE

183

The cinema, in depicting children of other
nations, — their lives and their sports, is a
powerful aid as " an instrument for bring-
ing about reciprocal knowledge and under-
ding " of the peoples of the world. It is
much easier to teach youths than adults the
possibility of " peace on earth " and " good-
will toward men ".

" The pen is mightier than the sword
and the picture is mightier than the pen.
May this Congress through pen and picture
contribute mightily in the solution of the
great world problems of today !

* sfc *

(Editorial Note). The life of the child vagabond
the Russian besprisorny, in literature, has always had
a particular fascination for all nations. He is always
considered more or less an outlaw who, like the
gypsies, roams the world as he will, a joyous or
tragic figure. He lives his days in the sun and
though an unknown death may await him in the mud
of some ditch, fear is not the companion of his
solitude.

Yet the fate of the abandoned child vagabond
is the saddest stain upon the face of our supposedly
civilized age. These children who have never
known the kiss, and caress of the mother, who
perhaps have never learnt to smile, who are driven
to crime, to petty theft, by the sheer necessity of
hunger, will one day know the sex urge solely in its
most primordial sense, as a simple affirmation of
brutality and devoid of all joy. They will perhaps
only be conscious of a single sentiment towards life
that of hatred — hatred towards a society which did
not know to defend them.

This problem has always been of major impor-
tance to the students of social problems in all coun-
tries of the world. The Juvenile Courts have
everywhere been multiplied in order that the child
criminal, who in the majority of cases, is driven to
crime by necessity, may be spared the shame of
public condemnation. Prevention Institutions have
likewise interested themselves particularly in the
matter ; the cinema has always striven to keep these
children in the public mind by depicting them on the
screen in touching and realistic pictures even when
it did not seek, as in " The Way of Life ' , the power-
ful Russian film, to indicate the possibility of their
social redemption by work. This does not suffice.
As Lucy Clarke Simonson observes, it is necessary
that the cinema should become for them a weapon
and a means of culture and development.

The observations of our contributor, which often
display a spirit of real poetry, show us the soul of

the vagabond and abandoned child how he

aspires to the life which he does not know, which is
beyond his horizon, but which he has the right,
as a being created by God, both to know and to
possess.

Many problems arise here, however, for the cine-
ma. Which is the type of film most likely to interest
the vagabond child and to give him a more ser-
ene conception of life — to teach him to know and
to love work and duty, the two cardinal essentials of
present and future history ? Which is the best
means of gathering these little outlaws about the
screen ?

Philanthropic movements and their auxiliary
institutions are multiplying throughout the world,
but they will always be insufficient for the crying
need which grows daily greater. It is therefore
necessary that an effort be made without delay,
and it is the cinema which has the greatest possibility
of becoming the important factor in this great work.

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

THE CINEMA AND EDUCATION

By
Laura Dreyfus-Barney,

President of the Cinema and Radio Commission of the International Council of Women.

CINEMA and radio are assuming every day
a more and more important place in the
question of education. It is worth illustrat-
ing what has been attempted and what still
remains too be done in this field.

Cinema and Teach- The motion picture is

mS- everywhere admitted

now as a complementary aid to teaching .
Its purpose is to illustrate in a precise way
a given lesson, to make an impression on
young spirits, stressing clearly what they
should retain in their memories.

In order to obtain the effect aimed at, the
teacher must have : an exact knowledge of
the way to use the cinema, a free choice in the
matter of pictures, a clear understanding of
the necessities for such explanations as he
must give before or after the projection, as
the case may be.

It is also necessary that he should know
how to make a wise use of the slow motion
projector, close-ups and stopping the running
of the film. Since the way of showing events
in certain pictures does not correspond with
reality, the teacher must assist the pupil
in distinguishing what is fact and what has
been artificially prepared.

The post-scholastic film which is intended
for minds already more formed has less need
of didactic explanations.

Teachers prefer stills and lantern slides for
very small children.

The organization of the scholastic cinema
and the coordination of the problems which
arise in connection with it are matters which
engage the study and activity of the Inter-

national Institute of Educational Cinemato-
graphy in Rome. They are matters round
which the efforts and experience of several
countries are centred.

In Austria, the Urania Society, which is
recognized as having a public utility qualifica-
tion, counts some 50,000 members in Vienna,
and displays great activity in its work for
education and teaching by means of the mo-
tion picture. The society owns a vast
building which contains eight halls that can
be used for shows and projections and even-
ing schools go on regularly . The projec-
tions include a long cultural picture and short
educational films generally produced by
the Urania itself. It has a renting service for
schools clubs, etc., and loans out the necess-
ary pictures. It uses from four to five mil-
lion metres of film per year.

In the United States, there are well organ-
ized institutions of this kind. All the lead-
ing universities use the motion picture, Har-
vard, Yale (which has some fine stereoscopic
films), etc. Information bureaux have been
established in the large cities for visual teach-
ing and their news reports are often regularly
transmitted to the papers and reviews which
ask for them.

The results of the symposia and researches
made by the Payne Fund will be published
this year. This committee was formed to
study the effect of the motion picture on
children. The International Institute of
Teachers' College will organize a world
inquiry on the effects obtained by the use
of the motion picture.

In various scholastic centres of the United

CINEMA AND THE EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE

185

States, various observations have been made
proving the importance of the teaching film.
Dr Pritchett believes that out of one hundred
words in common use, sixty are unknown to
the pupils of culture centres, and Miss Elde
Merton assistant superintendent at the
Wisconsin elementary schools, has stated
that only 50 per cent of teaching is assimilated.
According to Mr C. F. Hobard, the only
possible remedy for this state of things is the
use of means appealing to the senses, espec-
ially the cinema.

A report issued in August 1932 shows that
there were at that date 640 educational films
in preparation. The number is certainly
larger now since the National Academy of
Visual Instruction and the Visual Department
of the National Education Association have
merged in order to give a fresh impulse to
visual teaching and to coordinate for that end
the various cine-educational units in the
United States.

At Barcelona, a course of cinematographic
culture has been founded, and an institute
will come into existence to carry on such
studies. In France and North Africa, the
educational cinema depends on regional and
departmental bureaux. Many important
centres possess film repositories for the use
of schools. The Ministry of Public Instruc-
tion in Paris, the Ministries of Fine Arts and
Agriculture, the Pedagogic Museum, etc.,
send their pictures gratis to all members of
the official teaching corps.

In France and Italy, a project is being consid-
ered to create a state Cinema Establishment.
The prefect Malvy has proposed its forma-
tion with capital furnished in part by the
State which would also give the site. The
superior committee would be composed
of representatives of the various ministries.
The films required for the repository will be
produced by the institution in question.

In Italy, the LUCE Institute represents
the official organization of the cultural cinema,
the technical organizing of state cinematog-
raphy being under its control.

An important position is given to the
cinema in teaching in England. In London,

in 1932, about 10,000 boys attended special
morning projections every week. The Em-
pire Marketing Board distributed 2,000 pic-
tures from its stock to schools in the first
three years of its existence. A catalogue has
been distributed to the schools containing
a list of 130 pictures which will be sent on
payment of the carriage only.

Messrs. J. Russell Orr and H. W. Samson
have between them opened a central Inform-
ation Bureau for the purpose of centraliz-
ing the distribution of teaching films. The
bureau possesses a good repertory of pictures,
a sub-standard film collection, and a number
of works on the cinema, etc.

One of the most important film archives is
possessed by Sweden, where various associa-
tions engage in distributing pictures. The
tenth general meeting of the Swiss Institute
for the National Scholastic Cinema devoted
a good deal of its time to debating the ideal
format for school films, deciding eventually
for the 16 mm. size.

Russia has given a big impulse to the
cultural film, and the Sovkino has an estab-
lishment in Moscow for producing cultural
pictures. The Russian Mejrabpomfilm, the
capital for which is furnished almost entirely
by the State, has an important teaching film
section. Bulgaria has its State Cinema,
while in Turkey, Holland, Brazil, etc., great
efforts are being made for the development
of the motion picture in teaching. It be-
comes necessary to establish a perfect under-
standing between the book and the teaching
film if we are to obtain satisfactory results.
The motion picture must form a regular part
of the scholastic curriculum, and lend its
aid. It must help to bring about an inter-
national accord on the question of curricula
for schools.

The final test between silent and sound
film has not yet been made, but what we must
look for in the sound teaching film is reality
which is not often found in silent films to
which sound has been added.

I am, however, of the opinion that the
sound and talking picture will make rapid
progress in technical training.

186

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

As the result of experiments made in Eng-
land, it has been agreed that the sound film
is more advantageous for children of tardy
intelligence, and in the case of ordinary
pupils it saves time and holds the attention.

It is considered very useful for the teaching
of languages. The enlarged mouth shown
on the screen allows the student to follow the
making and conformation of the words and
the movements of the muscles which emit
the voice. The Phonetic Institute of Paris
uses films of this kind, and finds them very
effective with its pupils.

The best adaptation of the acoustic part
depends on the film being shown and on
the result desired, and may be accomplished
in three ways : simple registration of move-
ments and sounds without explanatory text;
registration besides movements and sound of
certain words in places where it seems desir-
able ; making a silent picture and then
synchronizing a lecture with it.

To encourage the use of the sound films,
new apparatus with portable sound cabins
has been manufactured and, in Italy, the
model built by Alessandro Michetti is espec-
ially suitable for small cinemas and schol-
astic projections.

The sound and talking film is already
employed as an aid in teaching in the United
States, England and Russia with good results.

Travelling cinemas ought to be given
every encouragement. They render a service
to the rural population at home and in the col-
onies that is quite evident. The results
obtained by Mile. Susanna Karpeles in her
travels to Laos and Cambodia are a proof of
this. We must be on our guard, though, to
avoid showing pictures illustrating the attrac-
tions of the life of big cities, which might
become for rural spectators, as M. Legros
well observes in an article in the Internation-
al Review of Educational Cinematography
" the first group of agents provocateurs " for
the rural exodus.

Moral Education. If in the teaching film,

the teacher and the school have the prepon-
derating share of the work, we should not

forget that in the case of the educational
cinema — moral education, that is — the
family, and especially the mother has the
most important task. Family education
is the first and most important education
that the child receives, and it is a mistake to
think that the school can take the parents'
place.

Realizing the importance of the cinema in
present day life, and admitting that everybody
absorbs for himself those things which are
suited and necessary for his innate disposi-
tion, it is easy to understand that, thanks
to the motion picture, the child can store up
treasures of knowledge such as to surprise
an educationist, or on the other hand, receive
from the film harmful impressions.

It is the mother's task to assume the role
of censor when this is necessary and to
forbid her children witnessing spectacles
capable of having a pernicious influence on
young minds.

Young girls ought not to be taken to see
love pictures, while they should be allowed
to see good films exalting the sentiments of
motherhood and sacrifice. Boys ought to
be taken to see pictures where noble senti-
ments are exalted, whether in a romantic
form or with comic relief. What a happy
means for the formation of character the
cinema can become ! A lesson in good
understanding and organization can be
found in the pleasant picture " Emil and the
Detectives ".

It is only women who can realize certain
effects on nervous children of terror aroused
by some pictures which are not forbidden by
any censorship. A continuous diet of such
films for nervous children will work evil
effects on their mentality and brain.

Inquiries and symposia that have been
held allow us to judge exactly the proper
present day task of the cinema in young
people s lives.

The International Institute of Educational
Cinematography in Rome organized some
time ago a symposium among the children
of various countries on the subject of When
and How do Young People frequent the Cinema ?

CINEMA AND THE EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE

187

One result of the Italian symposium showed
that as the children advance in age they fre-
quent spectacles of a superior quality. The
boys go oftener to the pictures than the
girls, the children of intellectual workers
oftener than workmen's offspring. The
latter prefer evening performances or spec-
tacles given on holidays. In the smaller
centres, the boys prefer to go to the cinema
in the evening, while in the cities it is the
girls who, like to spend their evenings at the
pictures. It was also observed that the
children of working class centres are accom-
panied to the cinema by their parents much
more frequently then in intellectual centres.
From an inquiry held among 21 ,280 pupils
of primary schools in the county of London,
the following facts emerged.

Cow-boy pictures are popular with all
children and especially with very young
children. War and adventure pictures are
appreciated by boys of from 1 1 to 1 4. Little
girls do not like war films. Detective and
gangster films are very popular with young
spectators, while comedies and farces are
not much liked by children of from 1 1 to
1 4. The documentary films are not favour-
ites. Girls of from 1 1 to 14 have a predelic-
tion for love stories, but boys of the same
age do not like this kind of film.

The replies were given verbally, and the
questioners are of the opinion that there was
a certain amount of dissimulation and human
respect in the answers. What really strikes
one is that the moral element in films takes
hold of the children who seek to imitate in
their play and games the things they have
seen on the screen. An inquiry organized
in France by the director of school for
backward children showed that it was
advantageous to let them make drawings to
help them. The pupils draw every day.
On Friday, 75 % of the drawings reflect the
cinema spectacle of the day before (The
children visit the cinema on Thursdays on
their parent's responsibility). From the
drawings and the remarks which accompany
them it can be seen that war films, for instance,
do not give the results one might expect.

Despite the cruelty of death and the sufferings
of the soldiers, the children, show in
their reactions an admiration for the strong.
Pictures of gangsters and cow-boys are
delighted in and have a bad influence on
the children. " They are fighting. That's
fine ! " " They're shooting off revolvers :
that's what I like ".

Radio, Education Radio constitutes a

and Cinema. distraction and a recrea-
tion for the individual and for the family.
As a recreation, its task is a beneficent one.
It brings amusement into the house, and
the members of the family are less tempted
to divert themselves outside their own home
with expensive and sometimes harmful
pleasures. The idea of a good broadcast
programme often unites the family which is
pleased to gather together to listen to it.

The question of radio as an aid to teaching
is debated nowadays. Following a sug-
gestion advanced by the International Com-
mission for Intellectual Cooperation, the
International Institute of Intellectual Coop-
eration with the assistance of the International
Broadcasting Union organized an inquiry
or symposium in some 25 countries, on
" scholastic broadcasting '.

It was shown, in consequence, that broad-
casting is employed as a supplementary
aid for teaching in general in the form of
lectures and addresses of a popular nature
intended for the big public. Subjects dealt
with include : hygiene, agriculture, the
history of art, music. It is almost everywhere
used in elementary teaching and in the study
of languages. It is often used too in secondary
and high schools, and also for music.

Thanks to the valuable collection of infor-
mation and material obtained, the Inter-
national Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
will consult the teachers of various countries
in order to spread the use of this potent aid,
the possibilities of which are not yet com-
pletely understood and made use of. The
daily and weekly press, as well as numerous
publications of various kinds, have an import-
ant part in bringing about the desired results.

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

Radio can be from time to time a guide, a
stimulus for schools and distant parts of the
country far from populous towns. Its waves
coming from afar will arouse somnolent
forces and make folk realize the great duty
that lies upon them to make use of them.

Conclusion. The woman's task in

the matter of the educational cinema and

radio is a serious one. It is an imperious
duty which women must face, for often
enough the future of a person or a nation
depends on education.

We must unite in a common effort of
surveillance and propaganda for safeguarding
moral social and religious principles and to
help in spreading good films and good
broadcasting.

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

THE CINEMA IN THE SERVICE
OF THRIFT AND PROVIDENCE PROPAGANDA

(THE INTERNATIONAL THRIFT INSTITUTE)
Manager : Filippo Ravizza.

Providence, Thrift !
Oh ! remembrances of far-off times
when, as schoolchildren, we went along to
educational ceremonies all excited by the
pleasant prospect of mixing with a crowd
of other children in surroundings different
from the usual hall, and with our curiosity
fired by what we were going to see and hear.
But speech followed speech, or one alone
lasted throughout the ceremony. The
words, all very fine, all persuasive but on the
whole monotonous, sounded in our ears but
very soon their meaning ceased to penetrate
our understanding, so that when at last they
concluded on the grave necessities and stern
duties of life, the heads of the grown-ups
were already nodding with an air of bored
assent, and the mouths of the children were
open in unrestrainable yawns.

Since then, so many things, God be
thanked, have changed, for, otherwise, am-
idst the showy, deafening, violent and mul-
tiple advertisements that are nowadays rained
down on adults and children alike, the ap-
peal to providence made on abused motives
and with abused means would go altogether
unheard and be made in vain.

Certainly, there is not one among educa-
tionists and men occupying public offices or
invested with public responsibility who can
disregard the great importance of thrift, and
the profound repercussions that the varia-
tions of this factor have on the economic
and spiritual structure of the whole of society,
so that to speak here of the pressing necessity

of propagating the principles of thrift on an
ever vaster scale among the people and among
children would be tantamount to trying to
force doors that are already open.

This necessity, realized by governments
and by institutions to be a true social duty, has
not only caused the motives of providence and
thrift to be made more effective and in keeping
with the present psychology of the people,
but has led to the increasing use of the new
propaganda media offered by modern tech-
nique, in order that these motives might be
more deeply and more effectively imprinted
on the mind.

It is for this reason that the Savings Banks,
which have always been the leading promo-
ters in every country of education in provi-
dent measures, have had recourse to the
cinema and will do so in the future to an
even greater extent.

Truth to tell, not everyone has fully under-
stood the special and economic value of the
Savings Banks, namely of those institutions
which, for the purpose of social education
and with no aim of profit- making, collect
the savings of the people, invest them in the
most fertile fields of national economy and
allocate the whole of the profits to public
utility works. Some wrongly consider them
institutions of the past, bound to the period
and to the social environment in which they
arose, living on the heritage of a venerable
but now superseded tradition. They are,
on the contrary, live and robust organizations
developing a vital function, essential to the

3 — la ingl.

190

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

economy of a country. They have taken
gigantic strides, particularly in the last ten
years, in order to be more completely
equal to the exigencies of the new times,
first among which comes a more active pro-
paganda of thrift. In a certain sense, they
can even be considered as institutions of the
future, participators in that New Economy
which is now being fashioned under the mal-
let of the exceptional experiences of this per-
iod, on account of the wide and coordinat-
ed direction they give to their own activity
in relation to the entire productive organi-
zation of the country in which they live,
and on account of the criterion of social
function, dominant and exclusive, by which
their work is inspired.

Side by side with the collection of savings,
they have always been engaged in the propa-
ganda of thrift, which has never assumed
the character of publicity, aiming at attracting
money to their counters. It has always
been inspired by educational ends, already
connected with their activity ever since their
foundation, namely by an essentially ethical
conception of providence and thrift as a
propelling and harmonizing element of the
life of the individual in society.

The principles of the wise use of time, of
means and of energy, of the distribution of
means among present and future needs, of
the prudent management of money, of the
function of thrift for the individual, the
family, society, etc. ; these are, in brief, some
of the fundamental pivots on which turns the
modern propaganda of thrift, and which the
disheartening experiences of this period of
general depression bring out in particularly
striking relief. It must be stated that this
propaganda has never been based on princi-
ples of abstinence and self-denial but on
motives of strength of mind, of construc-
tiveness for the future, of the victory of the
will over the spendthrift tendencies of today
in favour of the necessities of tomorrow.
Moreover, this propaganda aims at placing
the active life of the individual within a vast
framework of productive work, of economic
and monetary order, of social well-being and

co-operation. These are programmes which
seem to ring with bitter irony in the times in
which we live, but which, notwithstanding
this, do not cease to exist in the aspirations
of everyone. They must be taken as guiding
lines, if we wish to get out of the present
painful situation.

In this essentially social activity, the
Savings Banks have not neglected any group
or class of the population, but it is quite
understandable that they should first of all
have paid particular attention to the young
people, precisely on account of the enormous
importance of sound principles and sound
habits of life being imprinted in good time
on the minds of the citizens of tomorrow.

It will therefore not appear strange to
anyone, and especially not to the readers of
this Review, if the Savings Banks, without
renouncing their venerable traditions, but
rather in order to carry them on in a
more effective manner, have applied them-
selves betimes to the increasing use of the
cinematograph in the development of their
educational work.

Immediately after the war, Savings Banks
here and there in the various countries were
able to experience the success and undeniable
effectiveness of educational screenings in
their propaganda work. But it was only
after the First International Thrift Congress
(Milan 1 924) and the subsequent foundation
of the International Thrift Institute as a
centre of union between all Savings Banks
in the world and of exchange of their exper-
iences in the various fields, ranging from
administrative technique to legislation, social
economy, and education, that the Savings
Banks, being at leisure to get to know one
another better even across frontiers and to
compare progress made, began to make more
general use of films for their educational pro-
paganda.

It was in this period that the Savings
Banks also began to deal with the problems
connected with the adoption and use of
thrift films, in the first place the financial
problem, of capital importance, as can be
well understood, which necessarily leads to

PROVIDENCE PROPAGANDA AND THRIFT

191

an association of the efforts and means of
the Savings Banks within the ambit of each
nation in order to produce thoroughly effec-
tive educational films.

At the Second International Thrift Con-
gress (London 1929) the problem was already
ripe for concrete treatment, and with the
demonstration of the encouraging experiences,
the necessity was realized of coordinating
efforts in the international field also, both
in order to promote the exchange between
country and country of the films already
produced and in order to arrive at the produc-
tion of new films which, with the help of the
abundant resources collected at the Savings
Banks of the whole world, might prove
of high educational and artistic value.

In fact, the Congress, by an unanimous
vote of the delegates, invited :

" (a) the Savings Banks and their asso-
ciations to promote the production of slides
and films having not only a local interest and
appeal, but of such a nature as to favour the
circulation and exchange between the Savings
Banks of different countries ;

" (b) the International Thrift Institute to
be the centre of offers and demands for
such slides and films, to supply a brief sum-
mary of such slides and films in its Review,
and at the same time act as production centre
for international films and slides relating to
thrift propaganda, eventually in collabora-
tion with the International Institute of Educa-
tional films ".

How the International Thrift Institute has
acquitted and is still acquitting the new tasks
entrusted to it, is stated in the following
pages.

After 1929, the last year of the insecure
prosperity, the Savings Banks found them-
selves faced in almost all countries with the
effects of the crisis, which gradually became
manifest, and which sometimes did not spare
even them hard blows and grave repercus-
sions.

It is precisely in order to react against the
most unhealthy and acute manifestations of
the depression that the Savings Banks are
eagerly undertaking individual or collective

propaganda campaigns against hoarding and
growing mistrust and with a view to a clear
understanding of present economic and
monetary events. In many countries, this
campaign is developing into a vast and
coordinated activity for the economic educa-
tion of the people (in Germany under the
title of " Aufklaerungswerbung ", in the United
States under that of " Economic education
of the people ") intending to give the indivi-
dual greater consciousness of his function in
the economic world around him and to show
the close ties existing between currency,
savings and the other branches of economic
life.

In this vast activity, which accentuates,
still more the social and educational character
of the Savings Banks and which is eagerly
carried on both in the school and among the
people, the cinematograph, in view of its
great powers of attraction and conviction,
is of necessity occupying the first place among
the means used.

The International Thrift Institute, on its
part, is assisting actively in this work, by
promoting the exchange of educational films,
arranging adaptations of the films to be
exchanged and stimulating the Savings Banks,
through its publications and direct work,
to a larger and more rational use of the
cinematograph for the achievement of the
broader aims of social education imposed by
the new situation.

On parallel lines with the profound trans-
formation that has come about in cinemato-
graphy, the problem of the adoption of the
sound film is being brought before the atten-
tion of the Savings Banks, which are gradually
being won over to the new idea. A good
part of the silent films produced for our
propaganda have now been sonorized or have
in many cases undergone a very successful
musical adaptation. 1932 saw the appearance
in some countries of talking thrift films also.

Further, whilst previously films were pro-
duced having general aims of education in
thrift and providence, in the course of time
films already specialized have been produced,
each having special requisites of its own

J92

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

according to the purpose and use it has had
to serve.

Classification and Thrift films have all
Character of Thrift wjthout exception a
fundamental educatio-
nal character on account of the very nature of
thrift propaganda, the motives on which this
propaganda is based and the nature of !he
institutions promoting it.

Yet bearing in mind this fundamental-
character common to all thrift films, it is
possible to effect among them a first clas-
sification of an exclusively technical sort on
the basis of the prevalent method of using
them, and of the surroundings in which they
are for the most part screened.

Bearing this in mind, thrift films can be
divided into :

A) advertisement films ;

B) educational films properly so called;

C) cultural or instructional films.

(A). Advertisement Films — These are
short films (50, 120, 150 metres) or exceed-
ingly short (20-40 metres) intended mostly
for screening in the advertising part or dur-
ing the intervals of public shows. Their
purpose is to propagate thrift in a general
way by showing some particularly beneficial
aspect of it, or, as a contrast, the harm of
waste, etc. Others are intended as propa-
ganda of a special form of thrift or of the use
of a given service at the Savings Banks, for
instance, the system of payments by means
of transfer accounts (very popular in Ger-
many), saving for home-building, etc.

Whilst the very short films have gradually
fallen into disuse in view of the impossibility
of developing clearly a complete thought on
thrift in a few dozen metres of film, the
50-120 metre films have proved really effec-
tive for the Savings Banks that have made
use of them, particularly in Germany and
Czechoslovakia.

Intended, as we have already stated, to
be screened for the most part in public halls
in the part of the show reserved for publicity,
they inevitably suffer the disadvantages pecu-

liar to films of this kind, irrespective of
successful execution.

The public generally has the disagreeable
feeling that ideas and sensations are being
forced on it that are not exactly the same
as those which attracted it to the enter-
tainment. Furthermore, the ideas awakened
by these short films during the few minutes of
their screening are bound to be overwhelmed
by the sensations that crowd upon the spec-
tator during the two or three hours of the
principal show.

Hence the necessity of films of this kind
being of a racy character, such as will arouse
the spectator's curiosity and engross his
attention by their originality and the beauty
of the idea.

Films of the animated cartoon type (trick
films : adventures of Micky Mouse, Felix the
Cat, etc.) of a comical nature are in general
those still preferred by the spectators, who,
however, show marked intolerance of old
cartoons, too often repeated or executed with
faulty or out-of-date technique. Certainly,
after the magnificent examples of Walt Disney
and the introduction of coloured cartoons,
the field is not an easy one for our institu-
tions, who have not abundant financial resour-
ces at their disposal. It is nevertheless open
to the fertile inventiveness of the artists and
of our educationists, who can draw new and
universally deep-felt inspirations from the
humanity and variety of the aspects of
providence.

Among the films of this type, for which the
German Savings Banks in particular show
marked partiality having ascertained their
effectiveness, special mention must be made
of the most recent, some of them talking
films, produced with a view to combating
hoarding and promoting the economic edu-
cation of the people, in particular the follow-
ing films, produced by the National Asso-
ciation of German Savings Banks :

" Geht man so mit Geld um " 50 metres
(Is this the way to deal with money ?) illu-
strating cases taken from the daily chronicle
of thefts, fires, loss of money, hoarding : —

" Stillstand ist Ruckgang "90 metres (He

PROVIDENCE PROPAGANDA AND THRIFT

193

who does not advance goes backwards)
which energetically states it to be everybody's
duty to refrain from hoarding, in order to
allow credit to function naturally in the
field of production and commerce.

" Der Kreislauf des Geldes " 54 metres
(The circulation of money) a sound film,
showing how the money that flows into the
Savings Bank does not remain there idle but
is directed through hundreds of channels
to all the productive fields of the nation, thus
reviving its activity and well-being.

" Taler, taler du musst wandern " 75
metres (Thaler, thaler, thou must roam)
also a sound and talking film. To trie tune
of an old popular song, the thalers march to
the Savings Bank and come out provided with
work tools. They spread themselves over
the country and set to work (in agriculture,
industry, etc.) and then return to the Sav-
ings Bank with the fruits of their labour
(interest) which goes to the benefit of all the
savers.

Another remarkable film belonging to the
same kind is the one produced by the Natio-
nal Association of Czechoslovakian Savings
Banks " Peni'ze jsou krve hospodarskeho
organismu " 150 metres (Money is the life-
blood of the economic body). This shows
the circulation of money from hand to hand
for the various uses of life (from the Savings
Bank in the form of credits to the farmer, to
the manufacturer, to the merchant, from
these to workers, employees, etc., etc., and
then on again to the Savings Bank in the form
of deposits). A characteristic feature of
this film is the fact that when the money is
seen passing from hand to hand, the coins
are also seen in the foreground in the guise of
small cog-wheels quickly revolving and
keeping the whole of the economic machinery
in motion, whilst when some hand hoards
the money, the gearing is clogged and the
whole movement interrupted.

Another very recent film also inspired by
the same idea is the one produced by the
Post Office Savings Bank of Poland " This
is the best way ", a sound film with musical
setting.

(B). Educational Films Properly so called —
Although, as we have stated, the films pro-
duced for thrift propaganda are all educat-
ional in character and in aim, the special
qualification of educational films is never-
theless attributed to a certain number of
films that lay greatest stress on the moral
aspect of thrift, on its value for the individual
in the various contingencies of life, for the
family, for the nation and for the whole of
society.

Under this category come several average
and long films (400-2000 metres), which can
be used as the principal part of the show at
educational evenings or manifestations and
are then often followed by some short film
of the type included in the previous section.

First of all, we should like to mention the
fine film " Man, animals and money " (600
metres) produced by the Italian Association
for the Propaganda of Providence and Thrift,
narrating the adventures of a well-to-do
peasant who imprudently hoards his money,
and the unforeseen bad luck which comes
in his dream to warn him and lead him to
a sounder way of thinking. Although the
film was one of the first to be produced for
thrift propaganda, it is still one of the best
examples of the educational film, on account of
the modern technique adopted in creating it,
the natural vivacity and spontaneity of the
action and the effectiveness of the warning it
expresses. The International Thrift Insti-
tute has already undertaken editions of this
film in German and French, which have had
great success everywhere.

Another beautiful film is " The Angel of
the Hearth " (900 metres) produced on the
initiative of the Conference Generale of French
Savings Banks, which drew the attention of
educationists in general immediately on
its release, in view of the dramatic intensity
of the story and the artistic quality of
the excution. The films brings out the
contrast existing in a family between the
spendthrift husband, who comes to the brink
of ruin, and the thrifty wife, whose savings,
laboriously accumulated and deposited at the
Savings Bank, are discovered by one of the

194

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

children after her death, just in time to save
the family from extreme poverty and allow
them to begin a new life. The International
Thrift Institute has brought out Italian and
German editions of this film also.

The film " Fathers and sons " (600 metres,
produced by the National Association of
Czechoslovakian Savings Banks shows very
effectively the diverging destinies of two
young men, one an idler and waster, born of
a wealthy family, the other a saver and hard-
worker coming of a poor family.

Another film, based fundamentally on the
same motive but with situations peculiar to
the surroundings in which it is intended to
be used is " Berouw voor het leven ". (A
life's regrets) (1200 metres) produced on the
initiative of the Post Office Savings Bank of
Batavia (Dutch East Indies), which has
already been widely used in those regions for
the propaganda of providence among the
natives.

The Swedish Post Office Savings Bank has
also produced two educational films, " Troll-
bruden ". (The Sorceress Bride) (2000 me-
tres) and " Sven Klingas Levnadsoden
(The fortunes of Sven Klinga) (1200 metres)
which have circulated throughout the coun-
tries of Scandinavia with great success every-
where. The plots of these films also are
inspired by the truth that those who work
and save persevenngly in the end triumph over
all adversity. Of the first of these two films,
the International. Thrift Institute has also
produced an Italian edition entitled " II
talismano della vittoria ". (The talisman of
victory).

Other educational films have been produced
on the initiative of the Philadelphia Savings
Fund Society (United States), all of the same
length (600-650 metres), also presented in a
reduced edition (16 mm.) for school use.
" Saving Grace " (from the name of the small
protagonist) shows the efforts made by
a small group of school children, who succed
in working and saving sufficient to be able
to provide expenses for their higher educa-
tion. " Top Earth " inspired by the
principle that by constancy and thrift all

difficulties are overcome. " The old man of
the sea , is the story of a wealthy spendthrift,
who, when poverty has fallen upon him,
leaves his family and goes wandering about
the country here and there like a ghost
narrating the sad experiences he has had.
« Money talks " gives the strange adventures
of a bank-hote before safely arriving at a
Savings Bank.

(C). Cultural and Instructional Films —
From the fairly large number of thrift educa-
tional films, the cultural and instructional
films can be distinguished by their prevalently
descriptive and didactic character. They
have been produced in order to show objec-
tively the nature, tasks, functioning and ser-
vices of our institutions, their historical
development, the evolution of saving through
the ages, the functions performed by our
institutions in the vast sphere of national
economy, and so forth.

To this kind belongs the German film
" Werden und Wirken der Sparkassen - Der
Kampf um den Sparpfenning " (Develop-
ment and activity of the Savings Banks.
The campaign for the savings penny) in
three parts totalling 1120 metres. After a
brief mention of animals that are noted savers
and the forms assumed by saving from anti-
quity to our own days, the film shows the
rising up of the Savings Bank, illustrating
their development and evolution right up
to our times, and setting forth by means of
cartoons and well planned figurative statistics
the economic and social function of the
Savings Banks for the benefit of the people,
their growing importance in every country,
the propaganda campaigns they carry out in
order ;o foster providence and thrift in the
minds of the people, and of the young ones
in particular.

The high educational value of this film was
at once recognized by the teaching class.
It has even been granted by the Reich Board
of Censors a special license as an instruction-
al film and is allowed to circulate, not only in
the schools but also in public entertainment
halls exempt from tax.

PROVIDENCE PROPAGANDA AND THRIFT

195

Another film to be placed in this category
is the Swiss film produced by the Savings
Bank of Geneva " Premier pas vers I'epar-
gne " (400 metres) (First steps to saving)
intended for screening before junior school
children (7-14 years), showing in an elemen-
tary and persuasive manner the formation
of savings, the way they accumulate, the
benefits they bring to the individual and to
the community.

Circulation and Use It is clear that the
of Thrift Films. work 0f tne Savings
Banks in the cinematographic field is not
entirely exhausted with the production of
propaganda films. It may even be said in a
certain sense that only after having prepared
a good propaganda scenario and had it trans-
lated perfectly into cinematograph terms
by a good firm of producers, does the real
work of our institutions begin for securing
a wide circulation of the film so produced
and its use among the public, thus achieving
the purposes aimed at.

We must therefore mention briefly here :

a) the circulation and use of the films
within the boundaries of each country ;

b) the interchange of thrift films between
the various countries.

Circulation and use of thrift films within the
boundaries of each country. — The produc-
tion and circulation of thrift films are essen-
tially undertakings of centralized propaganda
since they require, as stated before, a con-
centration of resources and a specialization
of functions which can in general only be
secured by the National Savings Banks
Associations.

It is therefore at the head offices of these
institutions that special organs or centres are
generally set up for the preservation of the
films produced and the organization of the
service for the sale and loan of these to the
Savings Banks affiliated.

In Germany, for example, whilst the sale
of film copies to the associated Savings Banks
is dealt with directly by the central propa-
ganda bureau of the National Association of

German Savings Banks, the loan service
is run by the regional federations of the
Savings Banks, which in order to allow the
considerable expenses incurred by the produc-
tion of the films to be paid off, guarantee the
Central Association the purchase of a certain
number of films, which they then lend out to
the Savings Banks of the region on the basis
of a special " films circulation plan " stipu-
lating the turn of every Savings Bank in the
various centres. Usually, the film is not
screened just once, but is left in the same
centre for a week at least, so that the Savings
Bank that has asked for the loan of it and
the other local institutions taking part in
the arrangement may plan a complete cycle
of screenings of the film at public entertain-
ments (a very expensive system but one
which gives better results as a larger public
can be reached in this way), or at special
educational evenings, in the schools, at
continuation-school organizations, cultural
associations, women s clubs, religious socie-
ties, social education reunions, etc., and lastly
on the occasion of exhibitions, fairs, etc.,
and other local events.

In order, however, to carry out a complete
programme of screenings, the Savings Banks
must not proceed on their own but must
make arrangements with all the other insti-
tutions promoting the increase of education
screenings locally, and ask for their inter-
vention and support. In countries where
the loan service for Savings Banks has been
organized, the Associations that have exper-
imented with it state that it has not given
the good results that were expected, as the
films are little used by the Savings Banks
during the year, whilst on the 31st October
(World Thrift Day) or on other occasions the
demand exceeds the supply.

Side by side with the direct work done by
our institutions for the circulation of their
thrift films, mention must be made of the
vast movement which is developing in all
countries in a more or less accentuated man-
ner, and which, thanks to the highly meri-
torious activity of the International Institute
of Educational Cinematography, is acquiring

196

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

the character of a truly international action
for ensuring the development and widespread
use of educational films at public entertain-
ments.

There is really no need to dwell on a subject
of this kind in this Review, which has already
published plentiful information regarding
the systems adopted by the various govern-
ments for encouraging educational screenings.
As is known, these systems range from the
German one, whereby the entertainments tax
is appreciably lightened on public shows in
the programmes of which educational films
are included, to the Italian, which obliges
cinema proprietors to screen educational films
at every show.

The Savings Banks and their Associations
are, on their part, following carefully and
are in full sympathy with this movement,
which, although in some countries it has
already been thriving for some time, in
others is only now, starting to make progress
and they will see to it that among the educa-
tional films intended for screening at public
shows, those for the propaganda of providence
and thrift are given a place in keeping with
the importance of the social principles they
promote.

The diffusion of thrift films in rural centres.
— Side by side with these new plans for the
use of thrift films at public entertainments,
particular mention must be made of the
arrangements made by the Central Bureau of
the Conference Generate of French Savings
Banks in agreement with the General Pro-
paganda Commission of the National Bureau
of Social Hygiene for the screening of thrift
films by the travelling squads at the disposal
of this Commission (1). All regions of

(1) LuciEN VlBOREL has entertained the readers
of this Review (on the last occasion in the Septem-
ber 1933 number) on the flattering results obtained
from the work of these travelling squads for social
propaganda, and from the school teaching of social
hygiene by means of the film. We have just been
advised by the Association for the Propaganda of
Thrift and Providence in Italy of the great success
obtained by the first propaganda tours undertaken
with its auto-travelling sound apparatuses, which
have effected screenings in 300 rural communes of
Lombardy.

France and North Africa are provided with
travelling cinemas for the propaganda of
social hygiene, which circulate throughout
the year within a radius of ten departments.
Each group is formed by a lecturer and
chauffeur-operator and, as regards the mater-
ial, a motor and dynamo, a cinematographic
projector with screen, a collection of films,
a series of demonstration posters, propaganda
booklets and handbills. As a rule, they
remain in every region twenty-five days in the
month. Each squad usually gives two free
performances, one in the afternoon in the
schools, the other in the evening for the public,
distributing propaganda material at the same
time. The beautiful thrift film " L'Ange
du Foyer ", previously mentioned, is inclu-
ded in the shows given by these squads. It
is reckoned that in this way upwards of
800,000 persons are reached every year.

A similar plan has also adopted in Italy by
the Association for the Propaganda of
Thrift and Providence, which equips the
travelling squads with sound apparatuses
as well.

The international exchange of Thrift Films.
— As mentioned previously, one of the
resolutions passed at the Second Internatio-
nal Thrift Congress (London 1 929) explicitly
committed to the International Thrift Insti-
tute the task of functioning as a centre for
the exchange and production of thrift pro-
paganda films.

The Institute's task is therefore of a two-
fold nature : on the one hand to see to the
exchange of films already produced among
the Savings Banks of the various countries,
arranging at the same time for the necessary
adaptations to the language, psychology
and environment of the countries in which
they are to be screened ; and on the other, to
promote directly the production of new thrift
films of an educational character and inter-
national value.

The reasons which prompted the Congress
to pass this resolution unanimously are clear
and obvious. In this way, the horizon and
the propaganda possibilities of the various

PROVIDENCE PROPAGANDA AND THRIFT

197

Savings Banks were appreciably enlarged, by
enabling them to make use, at little cost, of
the films already produced by their sister
institutions in other countries, and making
their own educational activity incomparably
more varied and effective. Moreover, the
purpose of committing to the Institute the
duty of producing new films directly, was to
concentrate around the only international
organization of Savings Banks all the resour-
ces available for this end, sufficient to be
able to arrive at the production of films worthy,
in view of their human and educational char-
acter and artistic execution, of the noble
mission our institutions are carrying out
among the people.

In order to fulfil the first part of the task
entrusted to it by the Congress, namely the
part regarding the exchange of the films
produced, the Institute found it necessary
to solve first of all two problems of great
importance. On the one hand, it had to
overcome the difficulties caused by the high
customs barriers existing in almost all coun-
tries, particularly in connection with cinema-
tographic films, which barriers not rarely
made the price of the films prohibitive for
our Savings Banks. On the other hand,
the Institute had to undertake the work of
producing on its own responsibility special
editions of the films to be exchanged, with a
translation in the languages asked for and
the alterations and additions suggested by
the thrift propaganda necessities peculiar
to the individual countries.

The Institute has made special arrange-
ments so that on the occasion of the various
national Savings Bank meetings, some of
our films reputed as being amongst the best
may be forwarded in good time for showing,
in order to convey to the greatest possible
number of Savings Bank representatives and
officials a clear idea of what is being done
in this field in the other countries. Even
respecting this limited exchange of our films.
the particularly severe customs tariffs in
force almost everywhere have given us a
considerable amount of trouble.

Our Institute therefore gladly decided to

co-operate, in so far as it is able, in the pro-
ject put forward by the International Institute
of Educational Cinematography aiming at
the abolition of customs duties on educa-
tional films. This project, as is already
known, has recently been approved at Geneva
by the Diplomatic Conference specially con-
vened.

It is now to be hoped that the governments
interested will arrange for the earliest possible
ratification of the project agreed upon, which,
it must be admitted, removes a big obstacle
from the development of educational cinema-
tography. In this field also, the International
Thrift Institute has already been of assi-
stance, by inviting the most eminent person-
ages of the savings world in every country,
through the respective National Associations,
to bring their influence to bear on the organs
of public opinion and any legislative bodies
of which they form part, in order for this
project to be ratified as quickly as possible.

Friendly negotiations are also in course with
the I. I. E. C. with a view to our Institute —
as a specialized technical organization —
being called upon to give an opinion on
all thrift and providence films produced in
every country which aspire to obtain the
qualification of educational films.

In the meantime, however, notwithstand-
ing the great difficulties previously mentioned,
the international exchange of films has
already been started in a promising manner,
(a sign that it fills a real necessity) and the
Institute has already undertaken on its own
responsibility, and carried out successfully
from all technical and propaganda aspects,
editions in various languages of the long Ital-
ian film " Men, Animals and Money ", of the
French film " The Angel of the Hearth ' ,
of a short German trick film " The Morning
of the Birthday " and of the Swedish film
" The Sorceress Bride ' mentioned elsewhere.
These films are now circulating in various
countries to the entire satisfaction of the
Savings Banks that have adopted them.

With a view to a more extensive interchange
of thrift educational films, which in all
likelihood will come about with the ratifica-

198

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

tion of the project recently approved at
Geneva, the Institute has sent out to the
Associations affiliated to it and to firms pro-
ducing thrift films, a recommendation to the
effect that, when producing new films, the
possibility of their being screened abroad
should be borne in mind. The idea is to
exclude or minimize the use of words used
in the scenes, and to avoid, without, however,
robbing the film of its national fragrance and
characteristics — such peculiar and unusual
aspects of local surroundings or events as
will not be understood in other countries. In
this way, by substituting the sub-titles and
making other slight alterations, the films will
be able to be screened without difficulty in
other countries also.

In 1930 the Institute already took a first
census of the thrift films existing. We now
wish to complete this with a collection of more
detailed technical and propaganda data con-
cerning both old films and the new ones pro-
duced in the meantime, in order to have at
our disposal, if possible, a complete picture
of all the elements at the service of the cinema-
tographic propaganda of thrift and providence.
We shall be grateful to producing firms and
educational institutions which are in posses-
sion of films of this character and have not
yet informed us of this, if they will let us
have data and information, which will be
extremely useful to us for arriving at a still
wider exchange of our educational films (I).

The data we require are listed in full and
in detail on the following form, which has
served for our census of thrift films, and we
shall be glad if institutions and producing
houses will refer to this, at least in a general
way, when communicating with us.

International Census of Thrift
and Providence Propaganda Films.

1) Title of the film

2) Producer ....

3) Savings Bank or Association ordering the film . .

4) Specify the scenario-writer and state whether he
belongs to savings or providence institutions ....

(1) Replies to be addressed to: " International
Thrift Institute ", Via Monte di Pieta, 1 1 , Milan.

5) Length :

a) with sub-titles ....

b) without sub-titles ....

6) Price :

a) for films as under 5a ... .

b) for films as under 5b ... .

7) Place and date of production ....

8) Censoring and cinematographic revision ....

a) censoring or revision bureau that has given
permission for the screening ....

b) place and date of censoring ....

c) reference and control number of the film ....

d) has the film been officially recognized as of
educational or cultural character ? . . . .

9) Technical qualities :

a) sue (whether normal, 35 mm or reduced) . . .

b) stock (whether inflammable or non-inflam-
mable) ....

c) quality of the frames (whether trick, ordi-
nary, colour, etc.) ....

10) Propaganda qualities :

a) is it a film for educational manifestations ? . .

b) is it a film suitable for use in the publicity
part of public performances ? . . .

c) is it an instructional or cultural film ? . . . .

d) is it intended for use in certain propaganda
campaigns (for instance, against hoarding, for sav-
ing-to-build, for spreading the system of payments
by transfer, etc.) or in general propaganda of provi-
dence and thrift ? . . . .

e) quality of the sub-titles (whether in verse or
prose) in which language written ....

11) Possibility of use of the film :

a) where is it for preference screened (specify
whether during public performances or in the
schools, at educational evenings, etc.) ....

b) has the film been produced for a given class
of the population (schoolchildren, workpeople, etc.)?

c) do the scenes contain words, sayings, docu-
ments, letters, signs in a given language ? . . . .

12) Is the film suitable for screening abroad? ....

13) What alterations, besides the substitution of
the sub-titles would be necessary in order to enable
the film to be screened abroad ? . . . .

14) Brief summary of the plot ....

15) State what results and successes have been
obtained ....

16) Various ....

For the Development We stated previously
of Educational Cine- that wlien usjng tne;r
matography. thrJft fi,ms ttie Savings

Banks must take care to establish the best
possible relations with all those institutions
which either locally or nationally promote the
increase of educational screenings, and
furthermore to avail themselves of their
assistance in order to extend thrift and
providence propaganda activities.

PROVIDENCE PROPAGANDA AND THRIFT

199

For this it is necessary, on the one hand,
that our Savings Banks do not have the
feeling that they are taking the first steps
along an as yet unbeaten path, but that they
should on the contrary be conscious of taking
part, albeit with clearly distinct aims and
widely differing characteristics, in the whole
of that vast educational movement which
aims not only at combating the anti-social
consequences of the misuse of the cinema-
tograph, but above all at using this means
for the purpose of the moral and intellectual
education of the masses, and particularly of
young people.

On the other hand, all institutions engaged
in educational cinematography must under-
stand the social and moral ends by which the
work of the Savings Banks is exclusively
inspired, and where possible arrive at a
profitable co-operation with these institu-
tions for the achievement of the common

aims.

It is necessary that the Savings Banks
participate, where possible and through the
medium of their Associations, in the very
life of these committees, contributing actively
towards the development of undertakings of
interest to them all.

In the first place, the Savings Banks are
directly interested in supporting the move-
ment which aims at giving a larger extension
to educational screenings, particularly in
view of the close and obvious connection
existing between thrift, providence and all
the other branches of education. In the
second place, the task is incumbent on them
of representing among these institutions the
requirements and aims of thrift and provi-
dence propaganda, of keeping themselves
informed as to the new tendencies manifest in
the field of teaching, of the technical progress
of the cinematograph, of the results of the
various national and international inquiries
instituted on the Cinema which reveal
preferences and tendencies on the part of
the public and of young people to be borne
in mind when producing new thrift films.
Then, there is the necessity of supporting
all those enterprises of common utility which

aim at improving educational screenings and
making them safer and less costly as, for
instance, those for the standardization of
the size of the films and the adoption of non-
inflammable stock.

It is fundamentally among these institu-
tions that our Savings Banks can best discuss
and make known our needs and in particular
obtain support for spreading the undertak-
ing that for a long time has been promoted by
the German and Spanish Savings Banks (1),
the aim of which is to approach film-produc-
ing houses in general with a view to avoiding
as far as possible scenes of luxury and wast
and all those which have a demoralizing
effect or are of an anti-educational caracter in
films to be screened before the big public.

In this field, we should like to mention the
work done by the Spanish Savings Banks
Association, whose representatives at the
Hispano-Amencan Congress of Educational
Cinematography (Madrid 1931) gave an
account of the good work that the Savings
Banks had been doing for years with a view
to the increase of educational screenings
and of the projects they purpose carrying out
for the propaganda of providence and thrift
by means of films.

Also highly deserving of merit is the under
taking of the Savings Bank and State-con-
trolled Pawnbroking Institution of Guipuz-
coa and the Savings Bank and Municipal
Pawnbroking Institution of S. Sebastian
Spain, which has purchased a whole series
of cinematograph apparatuses and a complete
outfit of educational and instructional films,
which they lend out to the schools free of
charge.

For the production of new thrift films. — The
production, circulation and use of thrift pro-
paganda films involves the solution of a whole
series of technical, aesthetic, educational and
financial problems, which it is advisable
should not be confined to a limited number

(1) At the sitting held at Madrid (1932) by the
Permanent Committee of the International Thrift
Institute a recommendation to the same effect was
extended to all Savings Banks in the world.

200

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

of persons but sifted and widely discussed
also among the directors of our institutions,
by pooling the treasure of their experiences.
Paraphrasing what others have said, we can
rightly assert that the creation of a thrift film
requires the simultaneous work of a techni-
cian, of an artist, and of an educationist with
a thorough knowledge of thrift problems and
of our institutions. There exist in this field
problems which cannot be left exclusively to
the judgment of one or another of these per-
sons but which must be solved by mutual
agreement.

The questions of whether long or short
films are preferable, whether special films
must be produced for young people and
others for adults, whether our field of activity
must be confined for preference to screen-
ings in the schools and at educational insti-
tutions or on the contrary aim at the big
public, what attitude to take up in respect to
the sound film, the movement for the adop-
tion of non-mflammable stock, for the stan-
dardization of the size of the films, how to
act in face of the activities of public author-
ities for the extension of educational screen-
ings in public halls, are all problems which
must be dealt with and fully discussed also
by us, although we are not technicians, or
better still in co-operation with technicians.

This work of collaboration among the men
of our movement, cinema experts, educators
and all persons in general engaged in the
screening of educational films, can alone
yield the best results for the cinematographic
propaganda of thrift and providence.

Meanwhile, the fundamental problem that
our institutions are called upon to solve in
this field as a preliminary measure, is the
financial problem. The cinematograph is
certainly one of the most effective means at
our disposal for the propaganda of thrift, but
it is also among the most costly, on account
of the expense of material and its use among
the public at large.

It is true that the cost of the films does not
always run into the soaring figures to which
certain giants of the American cinematograph
industry have accustomed us, and that exam-

ples could be cited of films that have circu-
lated and are still circulating throughout
the world with great success, although their
cost was comparatively small. Notwithstand-
ing this, the production of thrift films, even
those intended for screening before school
children and at educational evenings, always
entails a serious expense for our Savings
Banks and one which it would be difficult
for them, taken individually, to meet except
at the cost of abolishing every other item of
propaganda expenditure.

In order to overcome this preliminary dif-
ficulty, the only thing for them to do is to
join forces in the enterprise, pool their finan-
cial resources and distribute the expenses
incurred over the largest possible number of
Savings Banks. Therefore, as already stated,
the thrift films constitute an undertaking of
centralized propaganda, today promoted by
the National Associations or Central Bureaux
of the Savings Banks, tomorrow, let us hope,
carried out more effectively by our Institute
in a vaster circle both as regards financial
resources and the circulation possibility of
the films : the international circle.

It was precisely on the basis of these consid-
erations that the Second International Thrift
Congress committed to the Institute the
task of acting also in the field of thrift film
production. In fact, it is only by co-opera-
tion among the Savings Banks of the various
nations, by a pooling of resources and by
the possibility of an international circulation
of our thrift films, that something really
effective can be done, in keeping with the
importance of the moral and social principles
of which our institutions all over the globe
are the staunch upholders. A first step in this
direction has already been taken by our
Institute with the project for an internation-
al competition for a thrift film scenario,
which, although warmly approved by our
Permanent Committee, it has not been poss-
ible to begin in view of the difficulties of the
present moment.

As we stated in the report presented at the
Madrid (1932) meeting of the Permanent
Committee : " the greater part of our thrift

PROVIDENCE PROPAGANDA AND THRIFT

201

films have their fertile but restricted field of
action in the schools, at educational enter-
tainments, at meetings held by various asso-
ciations on the occasion of festivities, ceri-
monies and the like, and at best are screened
in public places, at special evening gatherings
and, generally, in small centres only. Very
few reach the big public. Those which do,
are for the most part short-length films of
80,100 or 120 metres (animated cartoons, etc.)
which, although being undoubtedly effective,
have the disadvantage of being projected
for the duration of a few minutes only, after
the screen has, for instance, been raining
down on the spectators for several hours on
end scenes of luxury and waste, if not worse,
to dazzle or thrill the public.

On the other hand, whilst recognizing the
highly praiseworthy efforts made by our
institutions in such a short time, we must
admit that the films produced through their
medium — and there are some really fine
ones — are not quite the right thing for the
big public, some on account of their purpose
being too evident or their propaganda tend-
ency too marked, others on account of the
excessive monotony of the themes and devel-
opments, others again because of the tech-
nical and artistic execution, which of necessity
is not of the first order. In short, there
has up to the present been lacking in the
cinematographic field a really great demon-
stration of art connected more or less directly
with the ideals of thrift and capable of exercis-
ing an attraction over the minds of the people
and winning them over.

It may be asked whether the manifestation
of the virtue of thrift is absolutely irreconci-
lable with the sum total of the elements by
turn adventurous, dramatic, tragic or comic,
which constitute at bottom the emotive plot
of the films and succeed in interesting crowds.
We do not think so. We have too much
confidence in Art. We are too strongly
convinced that thrift is an essential element
of individual and collective life to consider
it possible to have any doubts on this point.

Moreover, we believe it to be an unavoida-
ble necessity for our institutions to get into

direct touch with ever widening circles of
the public, especially by means of the cinema-
tograph, for the very reason that it opens
up an otherwise inaccessible path. It is
therefore to be hoped that what each of the
National Associations, taken separately, has
not been able to realize completely, it will
be possible to realize on international lines
by combining all our forces, especially as it is
a question of a sphere, the cinematograph,
where the beauty and artistic execution of a
film implicitly secure for it an international
circulation.

Consequently, it seems to us necessary to
make a collective effort in the field of the
cinematograph, in order to have a thoroughly
and universally effective instrument of pro-
ganda, on the influence of which we can rely
in our future activities, so as to obtain con-
crete results and derive great moral profit
from it, even if indirectly only.

Our idea, therefore, is to join forces with a
view to producing a great film inspired by
the ideals of thrift, in which, however, the
propaganda aims are not too conspicuous
and which, thanks to its artistic qualities and
the interest it arouses, will be able to be circu-
lated and screened at public cinemas in any
country whatever, neither more nor less
than the other films but with the added sup-
port, direct or indirect, of our Savings
Banks. In order to do this, however, a sce-
nario will first of all have to be found : a
cinematographic plot offering full scope for
the propaganda requirements which we
intend the film to serve.

These reasons, which we then set forth,
have lost none of their interest today even in
face of the profound changes that have come
about in the cinematograph following the
introduction of the sound film.

There is no denying that today, notwith-
standing the declared aversion of some of
the leading lights of the cinema to the
sound film and despite the imperfections and
incongruities from which it is not immune,
it has triumphantly invaded the field of
cinematography and is even installing itself
in the scholastic and educational field. Our

202

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

institutions also have not failed to perceive
these new tendencies, and, as already men-
tioned, the first thrift sound films are already
in circulation in some countries. As regards
other films, already mentioned previously, the
expedient of sononzation has been attempted
either directly on the film or by producing
special records for the accompaniment. But
in this field, as will be realized, there is still
a lot of ground to be covered by our institu-
tions also.

Certainly, the silent film, just like music,
could be understood all the world over (in
fact has there not been talk of a cinemato-
graphic Esperanto constituted by the sheer
play of shadows on the screen ?). The
addition of speech has to a certain extent
destroyed this possibility, and the system of
" dubbing with its defects and incongruities
has only been able to restore it in part.

Some persons, however, forgetful of the
fact that the cinematograph is preeminently
a field in perpetual revolution, into which
from day to day new techniques and new
ideas are flocking, opening out ever widening
horizons, have judged too hastily that the
spreading of the sound film would strike a
heavy blow at the international circulation
of the films, and have even predicted the
gradual isolation of the respective national
cinematographic productions, assisted in this
by the strong protectionist tendencies predom-
inating nowadays in all countries. In this
way, the circulation of every film would be
confined to the country or countries where
the respective language is spoken. A new
barrier would thus be added to the many
others already dividing the peoples today.

To tell the truth, these hardly cheerful pro-
phecies have fortunately not been fulfilled.
The technical progress that is constantly
being made in the field of the sound film,
besides having permitted of an appreciable
reduction in the cost of sound films (yet
even today films of this type cost from four
to five times as much as silent films) has
opened up new possibilities for the inter-
national circulation of the sound films by the
introduction of several contrivances, chief

amongst which is the process of post-synchro-
nization enabling the same film to be obtained
in the various languages, even at a distance
of time, without making new versions for
each of them.

Certainly, to return to our thrift films, the
project our Institute wished to bring to a
successful issue aimed at producing a film not
of international content but of international
value. The idea was to create not a typical
average, colourless film that would reflect
indiscriminately any locality and country, but
one which, whilst drawing life and breath
from a given locality and from a given
psychological temperament, could neverthe-
less show, if carried out with true art, the
human and universal nature of the motives
lying at the root of the act of saving in all
latitudes and in all countries. And so much
the better if, whilst showing customs and
habits peculiar to a given country and aspects
clothing with varying humanity the common
thought of providence and thrift, our film
could also serve as an instrument of recipro-
cal understanding and mutual sympathy
among the peoples of the earth.

And now, before arriving at the conclu-
sion, let us turn to a particular class of per-
sons who have perhaps read through the
foregoing pages with patient courtesy but
also with a smile of amiable scepticism, and
mention briefly the fundamental importance
that the cinematograph has at present and
the still greater importance it will assume in
the future for our activities on behalf of pro-
vidence and education, and not only for this.

Unfortunately, it does not appear to us
that in this way we are trying to force doors
that are already open. Beside the enlighten-
ed men at the head of our institutions in the
various countries, there are others, still
today, who consider thrift and providence
propaganda activities, particularly by the
cinematograph, as an accessory, a luxury
for flourishing times, which we can very
well do without today.

PROVIDENCE PROPAGANDA AND THRIFT

203

'. In the hard-working and sensible citi-
zens ", they say, " of our town, of our district,
of our country, the spirit of thrift is inborn.
If it has perhaps weakened somewhat, this is
due to the exceptional circumstances in
which we live. When these circumstances
have disappeared, the people will return to
their thrifty habits. So it is useless trying
to strengthen in them with expensive means
natural principles they already possess instinc-
tively .

" Never as in this period ", say others in
privileged countries, " have the people had
so much confidence in our Savings Banks.
Deposits are reaching figures never before
attained. Why say just now that the virtue
of thrift is flagging and needs a stimulant in
the shape of a few hundred metres of animat-
ed photographs ? "

We must say in all sincerity that the atti-
tude which is clearly revealed by these ques-
tions and of which traces are still to be
found is perhaps one of the most harmful for
the future of the movement impersonated by
our institutions.

In the first place, the mentality and habits
of a people are not something static, immu-
table, eternal. They vary, sometimes radi-
cally, under the influence of so many local,
social, political and economic factors.

Wars, social strife, economic crises, mone-
tary catastrophes, only to mention recent
experiences, are here to warn us and point out
to us the profound upheavals they have
brought about in the human mind and in
human habits.

Besides, if the amount of deposits in gene-
ral has increased at the Savings Banks in
the countries least touched by the wave of
mistrust and pessimism, can we really say
that it represents an actual improvement
on the deposits registered in the first fifteen
years of the present century, comparing the
figures on the basis of the purchase capacity
or gold value of the currencies ? It moreover
suffices to glance at the changed social com-
position of the depositors and at the changed
average of the pass-books to be convinced
that if a large part of the population have

come to our Savings Banks, another conspi-
cuous part, perhaps the most deserving of
our attention, has drawn away, probably
never to return.

Then again, are they all real savings, those
which are at present accumulating in the
Savings Banks of certain privileged coun-
tries ? Who is not aware that the sometimes
heavy inflow of deposits registered in this
period by our institutions does not represent
true savings, but in great part bank deposits,
money withdrawn from investment on ac-
count of the dangers of the times and handed
over for safekeeping to our Savings Banks,
until the clearing up of the financial horizon
causes it to take wing in bulk, attracted by
the mirage of more or less real gain ?

Economists, statesmen and educationists
have ascertained, both yesterday and today,
that the spirit of thrift has been weakening
in the last fifteen years, or that at least the
conditions hampering its development have
increased out of all proportion.

Besides monetary and financial catastrophes
which have thrown disorder into the whole
organization of credit and production, and
which have left a serious imprint on life-
long habits of providence based on the
certainty of a stable currency and of a safe
investment, too many attractions to the easy
life, too many temptations to think more of
enjoying oneself today than of living tomor-
row, and too many sophisms about consum-
ing more and saving less, have been circulat-
ing and are still circulating in the world for us
to be able to look towards the future with
lazy optimism and to shirk contributing, in
a field which is our own, to the moral and
economic reconstruction of the nations, of
which thrift is always the primary and irre-
placeable basis.

It is precisely from this fundamental fact
that arises the duty of the Savings Banks,
which are the staunchest promoters of the
moral and social forces of thrift, to avail them-
selves of all means of tested efficacy for
persuading people to recognize and practise
this traditional virtue, which lies at the very
base of civilization.

204

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

Every evening, the cinemas are crowded
with millions of persons taking part, although
only passively, in the happenings turn by
turn tragic, heroic, adventurous or criminal
projected on the screen. Every evening,
millions of persons assemble together in
silence to submit to a continued bombard-
ment of images arousing deep emotion, of
which the lasting influence is felt, as many
studies have proved, in so many aspects of
individual and collective daily life and,
unfortunately by no means lightly, in the
field of social pathology too.

Is it not therefore logical that the Savings
Banks also should take advantage of this
powerful means of diffusing ideas, the cinema-
tograph, which commercial, political, social
and religious propaganda already uses on a
large scale for its own ends ?

Is it not the duty of the Savings Banks,
which have so much at heart the education
of the young people, to make use of a means
which, as has already been fully recognized
by so many, is capable of exercising so great
an attraction and suggestive force on young
minds ?

In these pages, the International Thrift
Institute has briefly summed up its exper-
iences, the difficulties encountered and
the new methods which the Savings Banks
together with the Institute purpose adopt-
' ing in order to improve the cinematographic
propaganda of thrift, a part of the broader
educational activity which they are developing
in every country.

This is the contribution we offer to the
First International Congress of Educational
Cinematography, at which our Institute
is enthusiastically taking part, convinced that
this will give rise to most useful suggestions
for doing more and better in the future.

The gravity of the times which the world is
passing through, and the vastness of the
experiments which the nations are attempting
in order to prepare a better tomorrow impose
on all social institutions new and more serious
educational tasks, which must be accompli-

shed in a concrete manner by the timely
adoption of means of tested efficacy on the
psychology of the people. Among these, it
is needless to say what place the cinemato-
graph occupies today.

The principles of thrift and providence
education promoted by the Savings Banks in
every country compel them also to follow
attentively the progress made and the new
experiences in the field of the educatio-
nal cinematograph.

The subjects set forth in the extensive pro-
gramme which the Congress is called upon
to deal with are all deserving of our keenest
attention.

The problems connected with the methods
for the use of films in the schools and with
the psychological preparation of the young
people for this are of special interest to us,
particularly because in the future thrift and
economic educational films produced by
the Savings Banks will be able to be more
generally used in the school in harmony with
the instruction given.

The problem of the use of films in all
branches of social education (hygiene, social
safeguards, agricultural life, etc.) has also for
us a particular value in view of both the teach-
ing that can be drawn from these experiences
and the intenser use of our thrift films in the
future side by side with these films.

The action taken by the State in order to
extend the screening of educational films and
to facilitate the circulation of these touches
a point of vital importance for the develop-
ment of our propaganda work.

The very use of the cinematograph as
an instrument of relations and knowledge
among the people involves a principle which
our Institute has already in part acted upon
with the exchange of thrift films between
the various countries, mentioned previously,
which promotes the knowledge in one country
of the various and original aspects of the
social life in others, the spirit of providence
and thrift being recognized by all as the com-
mon foundation of a human solidarity pas-
sing beyond all frontiers.

Lastly, all the technical problems for

PROVIDENCE PROPAGANDA AND THRIFT

205

improving educational screenings and making
them safer and less costly are also of an im-
portance to us which cannot be overestima-
ted.

We should like to say, however, that if the
Congress affords the institutions taking part
a better knowledge of one another and a more
intimate understanding of the various purpo-
ses by which they are severally inspired,
although they all aim at the final goal of moral
and intellectual education, a great step will
have been accomplished by that fact alone,
since it is this mutual knowledge that can
instil in them the desire to co-dperate in a
concrete manner with a view to a wider and
coordinated use of the cinema for education-
al ends.

The International Institute of Educational
Cinematography has already done admirable
work in this connection, for which all insti-
tutions working in the same sphere are
exceedingly grateful. Suffice it to recall, in
addition to the inquiries and extensive infor-
mation collected in every field of social life
in relation to the cinema, the customs agree-
ment recently approved at Geneva and the
organization of the Congress crowning the
first phase of its praiseworthy activity. The
I. I. E. C. has moreover promoted the estab-
lishment of national organizations and
committees for educational cinematography,
whose activities are in full swing today in
many countries.

Our own Institute, which has been closely
co-operating with the I. I. E. C. for years
and has always been at pains to urge the
Savings Banks to make use of the cinemato-
graph in their propaganda activities, would

now have its task greatly facilitated if cordial
agreements were also made locally in the
various countries between the National
Savings Banks Associations and the National
Committees for Educational Cinematography.

Thrift and providence are two fundamental
aspects inseparable from any project in
the well-ordered, hard-working and healthy
life of the individual and of the family.
Thrift and providence are principles which
cannot be left out of any programme for
educating the people to a love of the land, to
life in the fields and to a stronger attachment
to the mother-country and to the family. In
short, thrift and providence are elements of
life inseparably bound up with every teaching
or education aiming at giving the individual a
better knowledge of the social whole of which
he is a part and an expression.

If the perusal of these few pages and an
understanding of the aims set forth therein
succeed in inducing the educational institu-
tions to co-operate with our Savings Banks
in every country in a more active manner for
the use of our thrift films alongside those
having other educational aims, and if this
co-operation leads to the production of
films which, side by side with the other edu-
cational principles, do not disregard those
of providence and thrift, then really great
progress will have been made not only for
our institutions but for the common work of
social education in which we are all proud to
be engaged.

This wish will also be expressed, we think,
by the Savings Banks delegates in full agree-
ment with those of the other educational
institutions attending the Congress.

Ice ingl.

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

THE CINEMA, THRIFT AND INSURANCE

BY

Prof. P. Medolaghi.

THE cinema which has handled so many
admirable educational tasks cannot fail
to contribute its work for the development
of the various forms of provident aid, which,
we say, provides in a way a measure of a
people's civilization. Ignorance and misery
indeed are the two chief obstacles to the
spread of ideas and the adoption of notions
of thrift and insurance. As the economic
and cultural level of a population rises, so we
see a corresponding prosperity in the various
branches of social providence and insurance
schemes in all grades of society.

Not all the forms of social providence are
equally accesible to the understanding of the
big public. If the system of saving has been
able, thanks to a vast organisation of collec-
ting offices guaranteed by the state, to pene-
trate into the humblest strata of society and
overcome the innate diffidence of the rural
classes which bring the largest contribution
in this form to the national wealth, if the so
called popular insurance has in some states
gained much ground as a result of able pro-
paganda and owing to special psychological
conditions of the people, if, in fact, obliga-
tory social insurance is gaining ground
slowly but surely, we must nevertheless recog-
nize that there still remains a great work
of instruction and education to be done to
make the consensus of the people in these
forms of providence more rational, more
widely spread and more conscious.

We must make known to those who earn
their living by their work what are the dangers
which menace their economic stability.
Then when they are well informed of the
gravity of the risks of work against which a
wise policy of defence proposes to assure

them, they will become convinced suppor-
ters of the application of the various existing
laws on the subject. We must study volun-
tary thrift and insurance, which is the more
difficult to practise the more it is indicated
as necessary. We must direct it so that
every one, despite interested advice, is in a
position to see for himself what is most
suitable for his age, family and economic
conditions.

These are difficult tasks. The history of
social assurance, even if we restrict it to the
last decades, is full of experiences which go
to prove how difficult it is to obtain from the
free initiative of the humblest workers that
minimum of providence which is absolutely
indispensable to prevent sickness, injury and
old age from being synonymous with utter
misery. The most considerate and disin-
terested propaganda, large state aid and all
possible assistance and simplification in the
matter of formalities, together with a period
of relative economic prosperity have not been
enough to secure definite progress in this
field. Thus, one after another, the most
obstinate doctrinaire opponents of the intro-
duction of obligatory insurance have been
obliged to give way before the indisputable
evidence of the facts.

Obligatory insurance as a practical thing
offers us other examples of lack of understand-
ing. Often enough ignorance and diffidence
deprive the assured of situations created for
their interest. Thus cases occur where per-
sons do not trouble to obtain satisfaction for
their rights. Then we find an excessive pres-
sure of demands, an attempt to deform the in-
terpretation of the law so as to obtain ampler
benefits. These are, as I have said, examples

PROVIDENCE PROPAGANDA AND THRIFT

207

of incomprehension and. a lack of proper
understanding of the idea of insurance,
which can be found in the history of obli-
gatory insurance in all countries. Such cases
appear with a singular uniformity, and only
education and instruction will eradicate them.

These are not easy tasks, but the motion
picture can become a potent auxiliary in
facing them. I think that the film may be
used here in these three forms : the docu-
mentary film, the instructive film and the
regular educational film.

The documentary film will give a concrete
demonstration of the benefits of providence.
The insurance companies will be in a pos-
ition to furnish the required material in a rich
and varied form. It will suffice, as an
example, to show what the National Fascist
Institute of Social Providence can provide in
this connection in Italy.

Motion pictures of the public crowding
the halls where the pensions are being paid
and employment relief is being given ;
pictures of the out-patients departments
or clinics where cases of trachoma are cured,
maternity consulting wards and anti-T. B.
dispensaries ;

pictures of sanatoriums and hospitals ;

pictures of cure establishments with

crowds of children, women and old men.

With a documentation of this idea, the
public will be able to gather a notion which
few have today of the number and importance
of our relief institutions, all of which have
come into being from the basis of social assur-
ance. The up-to-dateness of the installa-
tions, the crowds of persons who flock to
them and the comfort and medical and eco-
nomic assistance they find there can well
be illustrated.

Similar material can be supplied by other
institutes of social assurance (unemployment,
sickness insurance, etc.).

The thing can be carried further. The
inside of insurance offices can be shown to
the public on the screen. Offices that are
not usually shown can be revealed with all
their complicated organization, with the
accumulations of papers and documents. The

public can be made for a moment to see a life
of which it knows nothing.

Again, we can see the invalid, the sick
person and the man who has suffered an
accident in this own home and the family
deprived of his support. We can see the
members of the family getting ready to ask
for the pension or the sickness relief. We
can witness ths arrival of the demand in the
insurance office and follow the case through
its various formalities until the money is
paid.

Another type of documentary film is one
which is intended to reassure persons regard-
ing the financial solidity of the insurance
company. It can show us the various invest-
ments the company makes with the money
that freely or obligatorily pours into its
coffers. These millions are employed in
land reclamation, in the building of roads,
harbours, railways under the control of
and with the guarantee of the State, the work
of the communes in building schools and
looking after municipial hygiene. Millions
are destined to the creation of entire quarters
of workmen s dwellings in the big cities
and small cooperative houses elsewhere ; more
millions still are employed in various social
enterprises such as the reconstruction of
districts damaged by earthquake, the small
agrarian mortgages to war-wounded men,
the land improvement schemes in the moun-
tainous districts ... to all these sums
must be added investments in real estate with
the notable contributions of Savings Banks
and Insurance Institutions for the carrying
out of city building and general improvement
schemes.

The technical ability of the operators can
obtain notable effects from this mass of docu-
mentary material. In the building of sana-
toria, pictures can be made of the various
phases of the construction so as to give a
brief synoptical idea of the entire work and
impress its importance on the spectators'
minds. This is being done in the case of the
huge sanatorium at Naples, which will have
1400 beds, and cost 40.000,000 lire.

The best kind of providence is that which

4 — la Ingl.

208

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

does not wait for the harm or injury to take
action, but seeks to prevent it from the start.
This means insurance, and especially what
we call social insurance, and it must consider
the question of prevention of accident injury
and harm.

What better way is there of guarding
against an evil than by warning the persons
who is menaced ?

In this department the task of the educa-
tional cinema is really a vast one, and must
be concerned with diseases like alcoholism,
venereal disease, malaria and tuberculois, to
mention some only of the more terrible
scourges which afflict the health of the race.
Here we have a huge mass of facts which
can be brought to the notice of the public, a
quantity of experiences and experiments which
can be shown people in a cinema hall. The
field of prevention of accidents during work
and trade diseases is also rich in possibilities
for documentary instructive material. I
cannot in this brief note go into detail on
this weighty and interesting question, which
is worthy of a regular study to itself. I
prefer rather to touch on other possible films
which it would be desirable to produce in
order to help to dissipate the serious state
of ignorance of the public which unfortu-
nately exists on the subject of insurance.

It is not at all necessary, nor even possible,
for the technique on which insurance is based
to be known outside the circle of specialists
and experts. At the same time, everyone
ought to have some few fundamental ideas
on the accumulation of savings, loans,
mortagages and insurance. A graphic repre-
sentation of the growth of capital through
the operation of compound interest, the
tables of statistics of mortality, sickness and
disability from injuries may not be easy to
prepare, but is by no means an impossibile-
task. Several tables or graphs of this kind
could be prepared to meet the cases of dif-
ferent classes of people, according to the
level of their education and intelligence.

Even if some of such prepared material did
happen to be a bit above the heads of some
of the spectators, no harm would be done.

An extensive literature of propaganda
adapted to suit all classes and imtelligences
has come into being through the efforts of
private insurance companies, while all the
latest and most attractive means of publicity
known to art and science have been used. This
vast body of material which has come into
existence in the ordinary routine of profit-
seeking business with commercial ideas can
provide us with notions which we may use
for a loftier purpose, that namely of disinte-
rested propaganda for provident work inspir-
ed by a pure desire for the public welfare.

Since example is one of the most effica-
cious means which the educationist can
use, it is not an exaggeration to state that
educational cinematography can find in
every insured person an opportunity to be
developed. If we could know the private
history of some of our policy-holders or
savings' bank depositors, penetrate into their
domestic lives, learn the obscure tragedies
of their families, share their hopes, fears
and plans for the future, and make a
vivid motion picture of it all, we should
have at our disposal an inexhaustible plot with
which to work. Where knowledge cannot take
us, fancy may, and films of this type must
be imaginative reconstructions of episodes
drawn from the common life of every day.

I do not disguise from myself the fact
that this programme has difficulties. Great
technical ability and a great sense of art are
required if pictures of this kind are to avoid
banality and produce the effect aimed at.
I recognize, in general, that the task of
arousing the sense of providence, thrift and
foresight is one of the most difficult that
educational cinematography has to face ; but
at the same time, I maintain that it must not
be neglected, and that experience, better
than any a priori postulations, will show us
the right road to follow.

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Editor and Responsible Manager

Rome — « L'Universale » Tipografia Poliglotta.

209

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MCATIONAL (INENATOGRAPHY

V

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

Monthly Publication
of the INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY (L. of N. )
Rome - 1-a, Via Lazzaro Spallanzani - Rome

YEAR VI.

APRIL 1934

N. 4.

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

STATE AND CINEMA — JURIDICAL FILM PROBLEMS —
NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ARCHIVES — THE
CINEMA FOR DOCUMENTING THE LIFE OF THE PEO-
PLES — TECHNICAL FILM PROBLEMS

A. Perna - L. Gesek - E. Rust - A. Nichtenhau-
ser - L. Dreyfus Barney - E. Golias - V. Viola -
A. Mukoyi - A. Hubl - E. Wrench - E. De Luca -
L. Gomez Mesa - K. London - A. Miralles - E.
Rust - Namias - W. M. Gregory

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING BODY

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of State, Professor of Law at the University of
Rome, President.

LUMIERE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.

BROWN J. W., Director of the British Film Institute.

CARTON DE WIART Count Henry, Minister of State, Member of the Child Welfare

Committee of the League of Nations.
FOCILLON Henri, Professor at the University of Paris, Member of the Permanent Committee

of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.
GANGULEE Nagendra Nath, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor of Agriculture and Rural

Economy at the University of Calcutta.
KOZMA Nicolas de, Ministerial Councillor, President-Director of the Hungarian Telegraph

Agency.
LLOPIS Rodolfo, Deputy in the Cortes, ex-General Director of Primary Education at

Madrid.
MISTRAL Gabrielle, Authoress, Ex-Directress of the Lycee for young girls at Santiago.
OPRESCU Georges, Professor at the University of Bucharest, Member of the Permanent

Committeee of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.
ORDYNSKI Ryzzard, President of the Polish Film Producers' Association.
REYNOLD Gonzago de, Professor at the University of Fribourg, Member of the Commission

for Intellectual Cooperation.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,
The President of the International Agricultural Institute,
The Director of the International Labour Office,
The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the I. C. I. C, Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW.
Dr. Luciano de FEO, Editor.

P. Berne de Chavannes, Erntst Holzer,

Giuseppe de Feo, Edward STORER,

Jose Maria GlMENO,

Maria Elena APOLLONIO, Secretary.

G. Ward Price,

Director of associated Newspapers Ltd. (The "Daily Mail"), and of British Movietone News Ltd.

Of all the new influences that are moulding human character to-day, none is comparable
in the strength and universality of its effect to the cinematograph. Just as the past fifty
years have seen a profound improvement in the general standard of intelligence in all civilized
countries due to the educational and informative influence of the popular newspaper Press,
so the next generation will find this process continued and expanded by the effect of the
cinematograph upon the public mind.

The indirect appeal of the printed word to the mind has been supplemented by the
direct appeal of the eye and ear. The modern sound-film is certainly one of the most
powerful instructional influences existing in the world to-day.

For this desirable process to be carried on to the best purpose, consultation in necessary
among the various organizations concerned. The best film-producer is not necessarily the
best judge of the kind of film that the educator desires. By bringing together all parties
concerned in this great work of stimulating the formation of the youthful intelligence by
means of the cinematograph, the International Educational Cinematographic Institute is
performing a valuable service to society.

As one who is director both of a large newspaper and of an important cinematographic
news-reel company, I have always found that the closer the co-operation that could be
brought about between these two apparently competing interests, the greater the advantage
to them both. In the same way, divergences of view between the entertainment and educa-
tional interests are likely to be removed by the contact for which the Congress held in
Rome this spring will provide an opportunity.

G. Ward Price.

STATE AND CINEMA

THE STATE AND THE SCHOLASTIC CINEMA

BY

Prof. Amedeo Perna.

' I 'HE question of the cinema, when we con-
* sider it, as we should, in all its various
aspects, is without doubt essentially a poli-
tical one and therefore very complex.

The aims it is desired to reach, choice of
productions and control over projectors and
film material, preparation of the technical
staff in handling films, supply of projectors
and films, building up archives and film re-
positories, cinema censorship and enforce-
ment of respect of educational laws in the
interests of children and young persons are
all problems which the state cannot fail to
take into account. Equally, if not more
important, are the questions regarding the
formation of a mentality which recognizes
the needs of the nation and can find the best
way of satisfying them, vocational guidance,
the necessity of furthering commercial and
agricultural developments in various coun-
tries, the coordination of different private
and collective enterprises.

If the cinema is, as we believe, one of the
most potent means of ordinary and political
education, owing to its suggestive and per-
suasive power, the State must concern itself
with it and control it. It can offer great
advantages when it aims at the elevation of
the people, just as it be an instrument for
evil when — operating among the uncultured
masses who are ready to pick up the ugly
side of things — under the cloak of repre-
senting the truth, it gives a false conception
of life. It then becomes, even if involun-
tarily, a means of corruption and an incite-
ment to violence if not actually to crime.
Its influence is enormous.

Russia has perfectly understood it as a
social power. We may say of it with Mar-
gherita Sarfatti (Review of Educational
Cinematography January 1933) that it is the
revolutionary fifth estate which cements
the unity and universality of sentiments,
creates a cultural link between different
peoples, and penetrates deep down into pop-
ular strata of society.

Even the restricted scholastic cinema used
in various grades and classes does not ap-
pear less important really, or less deserving
of the direct interest of the State.

The young people of today who will be
the men of tomorrow should be permitted
to acquire the necessary aptitudes for a
number of experience without, however,
their being in any way subjected to an effort
superior, to either their physical or intellec-
tual energies.

The teacher must first of all be a convinced
believer in the motion picture as a visual
aid, and it is here that the action of the State
is required for a work of preparation, The
best way of reaching the pupils* mind is
(as Horace Mann and Vidari have stated)
" to make the eye rather than the ear work
at the acquisition of notions. The eye is
superior to all the other senses in quickness,
precision and in capacity. It is the true
connecting link between the external material
infinite and the internal spiritual infinite ".
The teacher must be persuaded that the
cinema not only allows a saving of time.but
facilitates his task, since it increases the pu-
pils' activity and makes study easier for
backward children.

STATE AND CINEMA

22t

The cinema, when organized and not
abused, can be of assistance to young per-
sons in what may be called integrating the
work of the family. In this respect, the
scholastic cinema must be considered as one
of the most potent means for the spiritual
assistance of young people. Experience
has shown us that it is far from easy to have
this kind of assistance outside the school.

I will go further and say that if the scho-
lastic cinema were organized in such a way
as to place in their proper light several pro-
blems connected with dwellings, hygiene,
commercial economy, land improvement
schemes, industrial output, etc. the State
would have an opportunity through the
young people themselves of carrying on a
work of excellent civilizing propaganda for
families, combating dangerous habits and
prejudices, inducing at the same time,
through the influence of the screen the popu-
lations to adopt a manner of life more in
keeping with modern needs, as well as a
profitable work within the sphere of their own
activity.

How can the State develop its action with
regard to the scholastic cinema ?

We know through the medium of the Re-
view of the I. I. E. C. and similar publica-
tions, what has been done in all the nations
by the State or semi-governmental bodies,
or cultural associations for the scholastic
cinema.

The United States, Canada, Japan, Bel-
gium, Spain, Germany, England, France,
Czecho-Slovakia, Sweden, Denmark, Rou-
mania and many South American States,
as well as Australia, have realized the import-
ance of the educational film, and made spec-
ial provision for the scholastic motion pic-
ture. Russia has made it one of the essen-
tial instruments of her political system.
Fascist Italy has made provision for the use
of the film for didactic and educational
purposes through the activity of the ministry
of National Education (General Direction).

The Ministry of Agriculture has also set
aside in its budget an annual sum for agri-
cultural propaganda by the film in city and
ountry. The Fascist government has creat-
ed the L. U. C. E. Institute, which, as is
known, has served as a model for other sim-
ilar institutes recently founded in other
countries. (Masaryk in Czechoslovakia; Brit-
ish Film Institute in England, etc.). The
L. U. C. E. Institute does admirable work in
the way of encouraging a wider use of the
teaching film and the use of the motion picture
in scientific research, while it is charged with
looking after all those state activities which
are connected in any way with the educational
and teaching film. It is part of its task to
coordinate, in collaboration with scholastic
institutions, the various systems of didactic
projections for students, suplying the requis-
ite material. Moreover, by the law of
April 3, 1926 (N° 1000), an obligation was
placed on exhibitors to include a certain
number of pictures of an educational and
national propaganda and general culture
character in their programmes.

Much has been done, but I do not think I
am wrong in stating that the scholastic
cinema has proceeded slowly and some-
what disorderedly owing to serious obstacles
of a financial nature. It will not be useless
therefore to refer to some of these ques-
tions.

One fundamental matter for the state
to consider in connection with the use of the
motion picture is :

What films should be shown to the pupils,
and how are they to be produced and acquired ?

The question is a complicated one, since
among other things, it requires the posses-
sion of proper scientific knowledge which
it is not always possible to have, and affects,
not only didactics, as we have said, but
the whole essence of the question of the
education of the young. The choice of pic-
tures already on the market is a difficult mat-
ter, as is the preparation of fresh films. We
must always remember that every visual im-
age making a strong impression on the fantasy
awakens a great number of ideas and senti-

222

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

ments which are bound to exercise an enor-
mous influence on the formation of young
persons' characters, especially in the case
of children and adolescents.

It is therefore necessary for the State,
while leaving the professors at liberty to in-
dicate or even choose films best suited to the
special requirements of their teaching, to
intervene through its administrative and
technical organs to regulate the production
and purchase of scholastic pictures and to
superintend their quality.

Plan of Work. Special commissions

of scholastic authorities and experts, draw-
ing advantage from their many years' ex-
perience ought, as happens in other countries,
to establish for the different grades and clas-
ses, including the infants' classes, and also
taking account of the sex of the children,
what sound and silent films, — preferably
non-inflammable — can be useful for the
study of the various subjects, They should
also decide which pictures may have an
educational value and are capable of provid-
ing an adequate general knowledge, of
human activities. They should also, by
taking account of the progress of technique
and scholastic requirements, determine which
types of projectors are most convenient and
most easily handled in schools. Other mat-
ters which should be within their decision
include the formats of films, the reduction
of existing sizes with the general object of
obtaining a uniformity in size which would
permit of an exchange of films on a large
scale. The excessive length of films intend-
ed for scholastic projection should be guarded
against, and, besides accuracy in documenta-
tion, a minimum of artistic qualities should
be insisted upon to render the pictures ac-
ceptable.

These commission ought to put forward
special suggestions for talking films intended
for export and for propaganda of the national
language.

Let us not forget what Lord Hailsham
recently said : V Nations are judged accord-

ing to the type of film they produce, and the
future of the cinema is therefore rigorously
linked up with the State ".

If we take account of the financial possi-
bilities in connection with all the state activ-
ities and the requirements of the various
schools, as well as of the desirability of the
cinema penetrating into the loneliest rural
centres, the commissions ought to decide
when it is the case to give projectors and films
and where only projectors when there is an
opportunity of obtaining films otherwise
than through the state. In some places it
will prove more convenient and economical
to leave the projections to travelling cinema
units.

What is wanted then is a general require-
ments plan. To satisfy this, the State can
make agreements directly with producing
firms which, being sure of their sales, will
produce under better conditions and with
better results. Another way would be to
entrust some semi-governmental body with
the production and distribution as is done
successfully in Italy and elsewhere. It is
clear that the State, if it is to give direct or-
ders, must by means of its various bureaux
etc., have a proper knowledge of the possi-
bilities and aims of the cinema trade, and
especially all that is connected with produc-
tion in series and standardization of ma-
chines. Nor should it be forgotten that
the intervention of the State will certainly
help in directing the film towards better
and more suitable art and science forms, just
as the State's interest, whether direct or in-
direct, in the purchase of didactic and scien-
tific material, or in the choice of text books
contributes enormously to a better produc-
tion of both.

Financial Means. A complete plan for
the utilization of the cinema in schools would
require a very large number of projectors and
films and a heavy outlay which, owing to the
prevailing economic crisis, no nation would
care to face all at once. The fear of this
expense — which has probably been exag-

STATE AND CINEMA

223

gerated — has been so strong and general
that many schemes have been retarded or
indefinitely postponed in the belief that the
advantages to be derived from the use of the
motion picture were not worth the heavy
outlay. Now that we have a better idea of
the advantages of the motion picture, and
technique has given us reduced size and non-
inflammable films, the financial aspect of
the question has considerably changed.
The necessity of introducing the motion
picture into the schools is generally recog-
nized, and every attempt is made to find
the requisite means. In any case, it is evi-
dent that a number of years will be required
for the full solution of the problem.

The use of the motion picture is not only
an advantage for the young but also for all
who are interested in it, from producers to
publicity firms. It is therefore quite fair
that all should take a share in the expense of
spreading the use of the scholastic film. The
State ought, at any rate for the first few years
to set aside a regular sum in the education
budget for scholastic cinematography so as
to give it every chance of developing. The
pupils and students of middle schools and
institutes of higher education might be
called upon to contribute voluntarily to the
supply of projectors and films, especially,
in small towns and rural centres, as is, as a
matter of fact, already done for the furnishing
and decoration of local schools.

Proper legislative measures might secure
the participation in the expenses of the pub-
lic cinemas (this is already done in some coun-
tries) as well as the big producers.

Film Repositories. Even with liberal con-
tributions from the foregoing, it would be
impossible to supply all the classes of the
elementary and middle schools with the re-
quisite projectors and pictures for all teach-
ing subjects. Thus cinema libraries or re-
positories of films become necessary. They
should be organized in a rational fashion, both
centrally and for outlying districts. They
should be vital, worth-while institutions and
not merely museum archives. Among state

cinema libraries or repositories, we may men-
tion the cultural repository of the Italian
L. U. C. E. Institute, the Masaryk Institute
in Czecho-Slovakia, the Bureau attached to
the French Ministry of Agriculture, and the
various film libraries connected with the
departments of Commerce, Agriculture, etc.
in the United States.

While such institutes ought to be organized
in the big centres so as to be in a position to
supply many schools easily and with small
expense, on the other hand, such bureaux
are more needed in the small rural centres
where there is a greater need for the film
to bring its image and echo of palpitating life
to the world of peasants and artisans. The
number of schools served by the various re-
positories ought not to numerous, if we want
the pictures to arrive quickly and at the right
time at their destination. This means that
until ell schools have a regular stock of mo-
tion pictures, the number of small film re-
positories serving groups of popular schools
must necessarily be large. The organization
and operation of cinema libraries — which
are real circulating libraries of films — could
be entrusted to scholastic inspectors and di-
dactic directors, provided such persons were
acquainted with the use and working of
projectors and pictures.

It may be pointed out here that experts
are divided in their choice of film repositories,
some prefering one kind, and others another
variety. Some didactic experts are all for
regional cinema libraries, depending on de-
partemental or provincial deposits, which in
turn are supposed to draw their collections
from a national central repository, which
takes upon itself the work of choosing pic-
tures and distributing them. Other persons
favour specialized libraries for the various
branches of human science, while there
is a current of opinion that would give film
repositories a general character. They ought,
that is, according to this view, to col-
lect all kinds of motion pictures without
distinction and without regard for the spec-
ial object for which they were originally
produced.

224

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

It is my opinion that film repositories
ought to be run like scholastic libraries, that
is, under the care of the State and the res-
ponsibility of the directors, but with a cer-
tain freedom of action and a stock of pic-
tures suitable for the schools to be served.

The more important film repositories,
owing to their special work and more compli-
cated nature, could be placed under the di-
rect authority of the state or provincial bodies.
Such repositories ought to be fitted up with
a laboratory for the repair, examination and
handling of films and for repairing projec-
tors.

The travelling cinema would be sufficient
for the outlying rural centres, if properly
organized and entrusted to experts of good
will.

National Committee In the matter of insti-
for Cinema Re- tutes 0f higher teach-
searches. Jng> the gtate>s ac_

tion ought to be limited to providing the
necessary funds for organizing visual aid
teaching and for encouraging scientific
research. The age of the pupils, the nature
of the curriculum of studies and the special
competency of the professors would render
the direct intervention of the State unneces-
sary for such matters as choice of films, and
their utilization. In Italy as elsewhere,
the motion picture has come to form an
auxiliary part of the teaching in university
courses through the initiative of the faculty.
On the other hand, it would be an excel-
lent idea if, as has been proposed in Italy,
and it would appear actually done in Cali-
fornia and elsewhere, a National Committee
for cinema research came into being. The
task of such a body would be to coordinate,
encourage and subvention scientific resear-
ches in which the use of the motion picture
is essential. Such committees ought, more-
over, as far as possible, to keep in contact
with all the national and international organ-
izations interested in the widest possible
use of the cinema in art, industry and
social and political life.

Collaboration of Pub- It should not be
lie Bodies and Pri- thought, however,
vate Individuals. that the State must

acquire a monopoly of the scholastic film.
The State, conscious of its duties, will seek
to provide for the most urgent educational
and didactic requirements independently
of the action of other bodies, but it is obvious
that the State, which cannot look after
everything, must be grateful for the coopera-
tion of cultural associations having as their
chief aim education by means of the motion
picture. There are a number of such well
deserving associations in every country.
Amateur cinematography too ought to be
encouraged, as should the foundation
of juvenile organizations for cinematography
of the type of the Italian University Students
Branches.

It would be a good thing if, by means
of proper coordination, all the individual
and collective forces of a country were
placed at the disposal of the State for the
welfare of the schools.

We could thus have recourse in our work
of spreading the use of the cinema in rural
centres to forms of scholastic cooperation
like that which has come into being in France
in the Jura, or to other institutions having
the definite object of bringing the educational
motion picture effectively and periodically
into the schools. Certain public or private
institutes or educational establishments might
be entrusted with studying the effect of
cinema education in certain definite branches
of science for which they expressly exist
by law. The cooperation of scientific, indus-
trial and commercial firms might be secured
for the preparation and production of didactic
or vocational guidance pictures. Such coop-
eration might be secured from naval, war,
engineering, medical, biological, chemical
institutes and also from art and science
museums, from zoological and botanical
gardens, libraries and archives, iron works,
silk factories, mines, banks, etc.

As experience has shown, it would also
be useful to hold national and international
exhibitions of films and film apparatus, and

STATE AND CINEMA

225

to give lectures illustrated by films to which
professors of each subject and type of school
could be invited.

Advantages of no slight importance would
also be obtained if the promoters of scientific
expeditions or religious missions allowed
their pictures to be shown.

Coordination. Cooperation to be

effective must be well organized, and this
can only be done by the State which can
concentrate and direct the national energies.
The State, both directly and by means of
national institutions under its immediate
control, must develop an activity along lines
such as govern the working of the LUCE
Institute, for instance and the British Film
Institute that is :

It should be a central bureau of infor-
mation for all that concerns production and
renting of scholastic films ;

It must act as technical organ in all
that concerns the purchase and renting
of apparatus and films and systems of
distribution and projection.

It should act as a coordinating factor
between the big commercial producers and
the wide circles of persons and institutions
interested in cultural and educational appli-
cations of the motion picture.

It should also encourage and assist,
through the agency of its technical and
administrative bureaux and' departments,
research on the use of the cinema and sound
and talking film apparatus.

It should contribute to the formation
of national film libraries or repositories and
the maintenance of a catalogue of all films
of recognized educational and cultural value.

It should establish a widespread control
to trace and report on all films of a didactic
and educational character likely to be useful
for schools.

It is obvious that it is not within the
bounds of our task to go into the details
of how all this organization and work should
be prepared and carried on. There is too
much to say in a general way and not enough

in a particular fashion, unless we know the
details of the various cases in which the
intervention of the State might be desirable,
either directly or indirectly.

It will be better worth while to refer to
the formation of historical archives, the
compilation of catalogues, the control to
be exercised over films, transport, etc.

Archives. Little has been done

so far for the formation of historical film
archives, although the necessity for such
becomes more apparent every day.

The matter has, as is well known, interes-
ted the I. I.E. C. from the very beginning
of its activity, and has formed the object
of researches and inquiries undertaken in
cooperation with the Intellectual Cooperat-
ion Committee of the League of Nations.
I am certain that as usual, the work of the
I. I. E. C. will be crowned with success.
Meanwhile, since many of the difficulties for
the creation of archives have been overcome
owing partly to the introduction of non-
inflammable films and sub-standard pictures,
it would be a good thing if every nation,
following the example of England, Russia,
France, Austria and Holland, would take
steps to prevent the loss or dispersion of the
valuable film material existing, especially
that of a scientific character. In a short
while, a national phono-film archive will be
formed in Italy which will be a regular
historical archive of sound and talking
pictures. These archives or repositories
ought, in my opinion, always to have
a didactic-educational section and to be
formed in institutions of higher education
or museums of some importance so as to
provide a means of completing the general
culture of the public. In addition to the
state archives, which could be of an historical
character principally, there could be formed
general film repositories or even specialized
ones along the lines of what is being done
in the United States.

The State ought always to have the right
to issue regulations regarding the formation

226

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

of archives and repositories. One of such
regulations might well be an obligation on
all producing firms to deposit one or more
copies of each of their films with the State
archive much in the way that obtains with
the book trade and the legal obligation to
deposit a copy of every book published
with certain state libraries. Such a regulation
could only be enforced, however, when the
cost of films has considerably decreased.
Another regulation might be that original
pictures which the owners do not intend to
make further use of could be ceded to the
State archives which should be empowered
to receive all film material offered them,
entrusting the selection and cataloguing
to specialized bodies.

Catalogues. There is a lack in most

countries of state organs for spreading in-
formation and knowledge about the scho-
lastic cinema and for engaging in propaganda
for the didactic motion picture. The work
on these lines undertaken by some govern-
ments remains therefore generally unknown
to other states and to experts in general, who,
as a rule, only occasionally hear of such init-
iatives through didactic or cultural publica-
tions which publish fragmentary reports,
news items, circulars, etc.

A proper catalogue of films is what is re-
quired for putting cultural cinematography
on a solid basis. What we have at present
is incomplete, and there is no adequate in-
formation about the great mass of short films,
among which we find many pictures of great
interest that are utterly forgotten. We ought
to proceed to a general examination of the
whole situation, followed by a regular cata-
loguing of all those films having a cultural
interest and, in particular, those interesting
the school. Here too a rationalization of
work would be necessary, a revision of the
sporadic efforts of the last years. The big
moving picture producers could contribute
financially, as well as all those official and
semi-official organs which are concerned
with the cinema in different countries, and

are therefore in a certain way interested in
the publication of such a catalogue. Apart
from a State film catalogue, we could very
well have the catalogues of national institutes
which are engaged in producing scholastic
films on the lines of those issued by the Ital-
ian LUCE institute and the catalogues of the
various film libraries. In order that cat-
alogues may prove really useful to the schools,
it will be necessary that foreign didactic and
educational pictures are exempted from
customs dues and the operation of quotas
following proper international conven-
tions.

Together with the catalogues, a wide
publicity and circulation ought to be secured
for those publications, especially the Review
of the International Institute of Educational
Cinematography, in which experts point
out everything that is worth pointing out in
excellence of work and novelty in the domain
of the motion picture.

Censorship. Regarding the control

which the State ought to exercise over films
to be used in teaching, it should be noted at
once that it is not possible to establish a
legal system which will apply equally well
to all countries, except perhaps regulations
affecting imports and exports and quota
systems.

At the same time, we must face the ques-
tion if a central censorship bureau is neces-
sary for every nation. Although a single
censorship bureau is desirable, I am of the
opinion that from the practical point of
view it is better to decentralize, entrusting the
censoring of films to local commissions com-
posed of technical, administrative and poli-
tical persons, the intervention of the latter
being required especially when educational
rather than purely didactic pictures are being
examined. Films should not be examined
only on moral grounds, but also for their
precision, correctness and good construc-
tion, for their suitability for the purpose they
are intended to serve, their historical truth,
their technical visual qualities and their

STATE AND CINEMA

227

general efficacy in promoting the intellec-
tual and practical activities of the pupils.

The control or censorship bureau should
also ascertain — on request of the interested
parties — that authors' rights are being duly
protected, so that pictures of real didactic
and educational value are not, for instance,
ignorantly mutilated. Refering to this mat-
ter of authors' rights, it is becoming clearer
that it is necessary to establish a federation
or confederation of film authors and produc-
ers to form part of the General Confedera-
tion of Artists, at least as far as Italy is con-
cerned.

Some sort of intervention might be made
in the actual production of films, and the
Teachers Council or College ought to have
a say in choosing pictures, as it does at pre-
sent in the matter of scholastic text-books.

With regard to foreign films, these ought
to be allowed free circulation, though we
must not forget that each people has its
own artistic ideas, which it likes to find in
its films, together with other concepts and
facts which illustrate the national tradition,
and the great men of the nation. These
are preferences which must be taken into
account.

Transport. This is naturally div-

ided into national and international trans-
port. At the present moment, it will suf-
fice to consider the former, for as things
stand at present, there is little opportunity —
save in some rare instances — of organizing
the transport of pictures between different
states.

An inquiry carried out by the I. I.E. C.
on the question of despatching films from
place to place ascertained that, without tak-
ing account of the difference of cost accord-
ing to railway postal rates, the expense
bears heavily on the renting price of the film,
and prevents an easier and more extensive
circulation of cultural and educational pic-
tures. It is therefore to be hoped that at
least films declared by a competent national
or international body as having a scientific,

cultural or educational character, may enjoy
a special pastal and railway tariff. This con-
ditional state of things should be allowed
pending an international regulation enfor-
cing the recent customs convention approved
at a meeting of the League of Nations on a
scheme sponsored by the I. I.E. C.

In the matter of facilitations, prizes, awards
etc. it is known that every state provides such
from time to time according to the require-
ments and conditions of the film market.

Cinema Didactics. The duty and possi-
Preparing the Teach- bility of using the
ers' cinema in the educa-

tion of young persons ought not to mean
that they should be subjected to work of a
heavier character and of a nature to interfere
with their proper amusements and physical
exercises.

The use of the cinema in teaching has
created, it may be said, a new pedagogy which
ought not to be in opposition of any kind
to the older pedagogy, but should, on the
contrary, absorb and improve it. The mo-
tion picture places the pupil at once in con-
tact with things as they really are and there-
fore rapidly awakens many new mental
images, and favours the inception of new
ideas with a closer connection between them.
The teacher in many cases no longer feels
the need of spending time in long and often
useless descriptions, which have to be re-
peated continually, with fatigue for pupil
and teacher.

The thing becomes more evident if we
think of the schools in which the motion
picture ought to be more widely utilized,
that is, in the middle schools, the elementary
and the infants' schools, as well as in tech-
nical and trade extension courses, in even-
ing schools, and popular university lectures,
where the technical language is a constant
and far from negligible difficulty. In these
schools, the screen must transform culture
inculcated with a verbal and intellectual sys-
tem into a direct culture education by means
of the picture.

228

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

I am repeating things which are well
known, I am aware. If we could project
scenes of daily life, as it is really lived,
scenes from the home of a modest family,
or an agricultural undertaking, or a factory,
we should not only spare a great quantity
of explanations of a more or less convincing
character, but we should fix the attention
of the scholars on facts which they would
probably never forget. Moreover, all tech-
nical work seen on the screen, is likely
to lose its heaviness and its unpleasants
aspect when considered as an isolated phen-
omenon in its crude reality, so to speak.
On the screen, it gams in liveliness and
acquires something of the nature of a
productive necessity, and hence something
pleasurable.

There is therefore the necessity for the
State, at any rate to begin with, to provide
some form of instruction regarding the best
way to utilize the motion picture in connec-
tion with scholastic programmes. A film,
it should be remembered, ought only to be
projected when it is certain that its screening
will provide a genuine didactic aid such as
to justify the expense and time required in
producing and projecting it.

The question arises spontaneously here :
— if we introduce the cinema widely into
the schools, shall the text-book preserve its
original structure for the individual subject
matters ? We have not sufficient experience
in the matter to furnish a guide, since, at
present, films are only projected occasionally,
that is, without a pre-established plan, con-
sequently we cannot answer the question
with certainty. Everything goes to show,
that, at any rate for certain subjects, the
text-book will have to undergo alterations
in its composition, if it is not to lose a great
deal of its importance.

Another question now arises. How is
the teacher to acquire the requisite prepara-
tion to be able to use projectors and films
with didactic profit ?

There can be no doubt that such prepara-
tion is necessary, and that the State ought
to take it in hand, by establishing courses of

study for future teachers and professors,
just in the way that special technical train-
ing for experimental demonstrations is giv-
en to men intended to illustrate scientific
experiments in scientific courses. The vis-
ual teaching side of such experiments is
one of the most important. The preparation
ought to permit the professor to carry on his
visual teaching with healthy, didactic cri-
teria . Such courses for film teachers should
go into all the matters connected with the
preparation and working of projectors and
film apparatus, the way to use them to ob-
tain the best results, the film material to use
in different cases and under varying condi-
tions. Information on the types and for-
mats of films, projectors, lenses, slides, which
are to be found in the market should be
given. The future teacher by the film
should see how the motion picture is insert-
ed in the ordinary lesson with the text-book
and other didactic aids. He should learn
film technique, photographic and cinema-
tographic technique, how to buy material,
and he should be informed of the numerous
publications issued in connection with the
film and cinema questions. The curricu-
lum for such teachers ought to include dis-
cussions on the influence of the cinema
on children and how best to interest them
without fatiguing them.

The preparation courses ought to be given
so that the students have access at the time
to laboratories where there is the possibility
of examining and studying questions touch-
ing the value and use of the educational
film.

The State should arrange in its general
plan of instruction some special courses for
elementary teachers, as has been done in
America, France, and Germany, though cour-
ses of this kind can be given also by scholastic
associations and cultural bodies engaged in
motion picture work as occurs in England,
Austria and Germany.

The courses could be completed by the
so called " cinema weeks ", which are re-
gular concentrations of all that is being done
in the field of the scholastic cinema.

STATE AND CINEMA

229

Study of the Effects To secure a better
of the Cinema. choice of films for

projection and a bet-
ter development of the cinema, the State must
exercise a surveillance over the effects of
motion pictures. Periodical reports of scho-
lastic authorities attached to the inspection
of schools, and questionnaires like those
issued by the I. I. E. C. and the British As-
sociation, the results of which were referred
to in the Review, ought to be of assistance
to the State for a better and more widespread
use of the motion picture.

In conclusion, we can say that the State,
if properly conscious of the importance of
the scholastic cinema, ought to do everything
to encourage its use in the schools in the
place of other visual means, such as graphs,
drawings, geographical maps, models and

collections of minerals and biological spec-
imens. In almost all countries, the State
which encourages scholastic excursions and
instructional travel, offering occasions to
put young people in direct contact with
real life, ought to do everything to increase
to the maximum degree the effect and value
of this new educational instrument in the
schools by means of suitable legislation, to
advance the cause of the cinema which con-
vinces us by its truthful representations
and without effort and with no undue ex-
pense, which takes us to far off lands and re-
veals to us the life of our fellow beings under
different skies, which helps our progress in
research, shows us the harmony of the uni-
verse and leads us to self-improvement with
the powerful aid of example.

JURIDICAL FILM PROBLEMS

THE RECREATIONAL FILM AND
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN

(LEGISLATIVE MEASURES IN AUSTRIA)

BY

Dr Louis Gesek.

Motives for Protect- rf-iHE fundamental

T

ing Young People. X base of the Aus-
trian law on the cinema is the decree of the
Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry
of Public Works of September 18, 1912
(R. B. B. L. N°. 191) dealing with the organ-
ization of public cinematograph spectacles.
The authority behind the decree and the
cinema legislation of the greater part of
other federated states show that the moving
influence behind it was the desire to take
measures of defence against the dangers of the
motion picture. The future development
of the film which has grown at a tremendous
rate without restrictions had to be directed
in an orderly direction. This was the
object of the decree.

The line taken by the decree, which was,
with a few exceptions, the line taken by indiv-
idual federal districts is inspired by the
dominant idea : how can we preserve the
people from the dangers connected with the
film both as regards how these dangers affect
their bodies (fire, etc.) or minds (moral
damage) ?

The particular sensitiveness with which
youth reacts to dangers in the period of its
physical and spiritual development demands
special protective measures. These meas-
ures are included in the decree cited and are
to be found in practically all legislations.
Differences appear in connection with the
definition of the term " young " and " youth-
ful " or " adolescent ". The age limit

oscillates between 16 and 18, and there are
differences of phraseology to be found in the
local legislations, as to the significance of
" a film suitable for projection before young
people ".

Definition of Child or The Austrian legisla-
Adolescent. t;on <joes not take the

scholar undergoing obligatory education
especially into consideration, but " children ".
It uses the collective term " young " to
persons who have not yet completed their
sixteenth, or seventeenth or eighteenth year,
as the case may be. As is understood in
ordinary language, all persons under deter-
mined age limits are included in this cate-
gory, and consequently children not yet
obliged to attend school as well as children
exempt from such obligation and also adoles-
cents. All the legislative regulations regard-
ing recreational films and young people refer
in Austria, with two exceptions, to the group
indicated and not only to children under
obligation to attend school.

Regulations on the In lower Austria, the
Cinema in Lower questjon 0f tne atten-
Austria. dance of young people

at the cinema is regulated by various ordin-
ances. The decree of September 1912 on
the cinema already quoted, lays down in
paragraph 23 : Attendance of Children and
Young People : " Children and adolescents
below the age of 16 years (completed) can

JURIDICAL FILM PROBLEMS

231

only be admitted to cinema performances
which have been declared suitable for children
and young people according to the regula-
tions laid down in paragraph 1 8, comma 2 and
also only when such spectacles end before

8 PM.

Paragraph 18 refers to the concession of
an approval of representations of films, and
is included in the section Film Censorship.
Since the declaration of the Constitutional
Court of Justice of June 23, 1926 which
establishes that the principle followed by
the provisory National Assembly on Octo-
ber 30, 1918 (Official Gazette N° 3) — " any
censorship, as being contrary to the citizen's
fundamental rights is abolished ' — film
censorship is also abolished. As a result,
paragraph 1 8 and the corresponding reference
to it in paragraph 23 have become without
effect. This clear cut decision of the Supreme
Court decides on the question under our
consideration that all the regulations of the
decree on the cinema, even those regarding
projections for young people, continue to be
valid in law, but that there does not exist
any ruling to decide which films may be
shown to children.

Ordinance of the In Lower Austria, the
Lord Lieutenant, ordinance of the Lieu-
tenant of the Archduchy unter der Enns dated
June 1916 concerning the issue of prohibi-
tions by the police, in order to remedy the
insufficient protection of young people, deals
with cinema attendance and lays down in
paragraph 6 : " Children and young people are
forbidden to frequent public cinematograph
spectacles. Cinema owners and exhibitors
are forbidden to allow the entry of children
and young persons into cinema halls. Only
those projections especially prepared and
intended for young persons and approved
by the authorities and clearly indicated as
such, may be attended by children and young
persons ".

The regulation further declares in article

9 that by adolescents are to be understood
persons of both sexes who have not yet
completed 18 years.

This notice must be affixed in a clearly
visible position in every cinema according to
article 10. Transgressors will be punished by
the district political authorities with a fine up
to 200 shillings, or with imprisonment up to
14 days.

This ordinance is rendered more explicit
in an edict of July 15, 1916. It is laid down :
" The admission of children and young people
to performances not specially approved by
the authorities as spectacles for young people is
forbidden. This holds good even if scholas-
tic pictures declared specially suitable for
children are being projected at the same time
in such halls or theatres.

Requests for concessions for spectacles for
young persons must be addressed, together
with a copy of the programme, to the political
authorities of the district who can grant their
approval of such representations and make
them good for even the youngest children
if they see fit, also fixing special dates.

In any case, paragraph 23 of the decree on
the cinema of 1912 which lays down that
children and young persons can only attend
performances which end at eight P. M.
remains valid.

This regulation, the most definite of its
kind, sets out to render the attendance
together in cinema of children and adults
impossible. The projection of a film adapted
to young people may only be witnessed by
young people when the projections have been
declared by the local authorities of the district
as being specially for young folk, that is
when it is reasonable to expect that adults
will not be in attendance.

Such regulations aim not only at preventing
the projection of unsuitable films for the
young, but also the presence together in dark
halls of adults and young persons.

Since the censorship created by the decree
is abolished, it is the district authority, at
present which must decide in an independent
fashion which pictures it intends to permit
in projections for the young. If the autho-
rity has no report from anyone on the suit-
ableness of the film to guide it in its decision,
it must charge some one to see the picture.

232

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

Application of the This ordinance of

Regulations in the Lieutenant which

Various Parts of gQes back tQ Ae waf

Austria. l 1

is, however, only in

force in Lower Austria. In federal districts
which have no laws of their own on the
cinema, and where such matters come under
the effect of the decree of 1912, decisions
ragarding films that cannot be shown for
young people are chiefly in the hands of the
1 ocal district authority. The various federal
cities which the decision of the Supreme
Court absolved from enforcing the central
law have faced the situation in various ways.
The ways chosen include the following :

(1) A local cinema law has been applied.
This system is in force in Styria, the Tyrol,
the Voralberg and Vienna.

(2) The rulings of other cities of the
confederation are applied. This possibility
is contemplated in all the special laws of
the various cities and districts, with the
exception of Vienna. In the decree on the
cinema, paragraph 21 provides a basis for
working out this plan. It is the way in which
things are done in Burgenland, Upper Aus-
tria and in part of Salzburg.

In the particular cities, towns and districts,
the regulations in force are applied in this
form.

Burgenland. — In Burgenland, the decis-
ions taken in other federal districts are gene-
ra ly recognized by the authorities as are
those made by the censorship bureau of the
Ministry of Instruction regarding the suita-
bility of films for young people. Since the
majority of pictures shown have their first
view in Vienna, where they are previously
examined by a magistrate, his decisions are
as a general rule followed in Burgenland.

A bill has been recently laid before the
Burgenland Diet concerning the cinema that
recalls the law obtaining in Styria (to be con-
sidered later). This measure proposes to
make the presentation of all films introduced
into the country obligatory, and stipulates
that a special bureau, created by the local
government, shall examine such films. The

chief task of the bureau would be to examine
motion pictures intended for showing to
adolescents.

CARINTHIA. — By the decree of May 23,
1933 the obligation to present films to the
license concession bureau of Upper Austria
was reintroduced. It was also decided that
the government may concede to other author-
ities, whose judgments are recognized in
Upper Austria full faculty to grant license of
approval. By means of a notification of the
District Government of Upper Austria, dated
May 23, 1933, the decisions of the censorship
bureau of the Ministry of the Interior on the
suitability of films for young people were
recognized. This ordinance makes a distinc-
tion between children of legal incapacity
(that is, according to law, children until they
have completed their fourteenth year) and
young people (adolescents) that is young
persons between the ages of 17 and 18. It
lays down that until some other decision has
been taken by the censorship bureau, all films
recognized as instructive films may be projected
before children and young persons, while films
recognized as educational films may only be
shown to adolescents.

A decision given regarding a picture by
the censorship bureau of the Ministry of
Instruction is regarded as rendering necessary
the presentation of the film to the bureau for
issuing licences for Upper Austria (therefore
to local government or district police).

Since instructional and educational films
only form a fraction of all the motion pictures
presented, the majority of the decisions lies
with the local government, which is, in effect
the district police.

In this connection, however, the local
government has allowed it to be understood
that, in practice, decisions on the suitability
of films for young persons are recognized,
even if such pictures are not specially pre-
pared for strictly instructional or educational
purposes.

Moreover, since the Ministry of Instruction
makes no distinction between children and
young persons in the matter of films for

JURIDICAL FILM PROBLEMS

233

the same, it may happen that in Upper Aus-
tria educational films classified by the ministry
as being special films for young persons may
not be allowed to be shown to children.

At present no other decisions are recognized
than those of the ministry of Instruction.
Moreover, similar to the ordinance in Lower
Austria to provide against the insufficient pro-
tection of young persons, Upper Austria has
a decree of the Lieutenant for the Austrian
Archduchy ob der Enns of July 14, 1916
which in paragraph 6 establishes that atten-
dance in cinema halls is forbidden to children
of legal incapacity, and to young persons
even if accompanied, with the exception of
those special spectacles already expressly
approved of for Upper Austria as being sui-
table for children and young persons.

" For children of legal incapacity (under
14) attendance at theatres is forbidden.even
if they are accompanied by adults, with the
sole exception indicated above. Parents,
guardians and those looking after children
permitting children to frequent theatres for-
bidden as above are liable to punishment ".

SALZBURG. — In Salzburg, the Federal
Government Bureau or the political authority
of the district, and more particularly the
Federal Direction of Police at Salzburg,
nominally the government of Salzburg,
decides which pictures may be seen by young
persons. Apart from the decree, an ordin-
ance of the political authority of the district,
dated April 5, 1923, lays down that children
and young persons up to the age of 1 6 (com-
pleted) may only frequent performances and
projections which have been declared suitable
for young persons and are finished not later
than 8 P. M. Children can attend cinema
projections only in company of adults charged
with looking after them, except in the case
of day projections specifically set aside as
spectacles for students and young people.
The distinction made between children and
young people refers only to their attendance
at cinemas, and does not imply any particular
classification or criticism of the film.

Legislative Ordinan- The federal districts
ces in Various Dis- 0f Styria the Tyrol>

tricts- the Voralberg and

Vienna have laws of their own on cinema
performances.

Styria. — The Styrian law lays down that
film projections may only be witnessed by
persons who have completed 1 7 years of age.
Children in arms under three years of age
may be admitted. Persons excluded by these
regulations (that is children and young people
from three to 1 7) can only be present at film
projections declared suitable for young people,
provided such projections are over by 9 P. M.

The government of Styria decides as to
the suitableness of films for young people.
In the regulation for enforcing the execution
of paragraph 1 4 of the federal law of May 7,
1930, this right was devolved by the Styrian
government on the Police Direction of Graz,
which is expected to seek the opinion of
federal scholastic inspectors. The Police may
forego the censorship of a film and issue a
licence to project it if another competent
authority in the territory of the State has
issued an opinion on the suitability of the
picture : It is especially laid down in the
regulation for the execution of paragraph 1 4 -
par I, comma 2 - : "Films examined by the
Ministry of Instruction are exempt from a
fresh examination ' .

In paragraph 2, it is laid down that the
Ministry of Instruction must issue the certif-
icate for a film, which certificate must state
if the picture is suited for young persons, if it
possesses instructional or educational value
for the people, if it tends to assist the nation's
economy, or the national health or culture of
the people. On the strength of this certifi-
cate of the Ministry of Instruction, the Police
Direction of Graz grants the permit to project.
The Police can, however, subject the picture
to a fresh examination, or decide in a different
manner on the suitability of the film for
voung persons without any fresh examination.

This order contains in paragraph I and in
paragraph 2 a condition which obviously
frustrates the desired object of rendering
a fresh examination at Graz useless, after the

2 — ic,

234

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

projection carried out in the censorship
bureau of the Ministry of Instruction. When
a renter who submits a film to the Ministry
of Instruction is sure of projecting it at
Graz, it is naturally more convenient for
him to have the picture examined directly
at Graz.

The local government may also forego a
projection of a film when the content is
known to the bureau through other channels
(visits to the cinema by officials or witnesses
worthy of belief) or when the film, in view
of its instructional or educational value, is
recommended by experts.

Who these experts may be is not established
by the law. Reports on the education of the
people issued by the Central Government,
the censorship bureaux for films of the Mini-
stry of Instruction, the National Scholastic
Council, the German Urania and similar
organs and institutions are naturally among
them.

Every film which is projected in Styria
must, according to this law, be provided with
a certificate from the Police Bureau of Graz.
Besides this, the exhibitor must communi-
cate his programmes to the Police Bureau 1 4
days before projection.

The Tyrol - 1927. — In the Tyrol, the
law of February 2, 1 927 regulates the ques-
tion. Paragraph 15 prohibits the employ-
ment of children and young persons in cine-
mas. Paragraph 16 lays down that projec-
tions which endanger the public tranquility,
which offend religious sentiment or which
have a deleterious or immoral influence on the
spectators may be prohibited by the Federal
Government. In addition to this protection
for the entire population, paragraph 18 adds
special regulations protecting young persons.
It lays down that attendance at cinemas is
allowed only for persons who have completed
17 years of age. Young persons who have
not attained this age may only be admitted
to see those films which have been declared
suitable for young persons by the regional
government after a Youth Councils opinion
has been heard. The governor must call

men competent in the field of education and
public relief to form this Council.

Spectacles which finish later than 9 P. M.
can be attended by young persons. Para-
graph 17, comma 2, lays down that films
provided with certificates from other federal
authorities or which have already been seen
and pictures the content of which is already
officially known through other channels do
not need to be submitted for another cen-
sorship examination. Paragraph 1 of the
executive regulation of April 27 limits this
order to those authorities which have been
indicated by the governor in the bulletin of
decrees and regulations. This indication
has not so far been furnished.

Voralberg. — In the Voralberg too, the
matter is regulated by a local law of Decem-
ber 22, 1927 on luminous projections. The
law is on the lines of the Tyrol legislation
as far as regards spectacles for young persons.
The age limit is increased to 18 (completed).
Moreover, it is laid down that spectacles at
which young persons are admitted must end
by 9 P. M.

In the regulations for enforcing this law,
the composition of the commission is taken into
consideration. The commission consists
of a permanent employee of the territorial
government of the Voralberg, a magistrate
and three representatives of humanitarian
institutions engaged in popular education
and assistance for the young. Two substi-
tutes are allowed for each member of the
commission, and the members remain in
office for three years. If the commission op-
poses the projection of a film, it must append
a motivation in its report. A report of its
decision must be communicated to the sub-
mitter of the picture and to three district
lieutenants. Strict observance of the foregoing
regulations is insisted upon in the Voralberg.
Article 3 of the executive regulation lays
down : that at all cinema projections a dele-
gate of the district lieutenant, an employee,
or some suitable person must be present in
order to exercise a watch over the advertising
matter, as well as to see that the regulations

JURIDICAL FILM PROBLEMS

235

regarding young persons are strictly carried
out.

VIENNA. — The admission of young per-
sons to films is a matter regulated in Vienna
by the territorial law of June 11,1 926. Para-
graph 8. Prohibition for Young Persons on
States :

(1) Only persons who have completed 16
years of age may be present at film projec-
tions in cinema halls. Children in arms up
to the age of three may be taken to such
places.

(2) The competent authority will decide
in an exceptional way on cases of persons un-
der 16 being allowed to enter cinemas, and
their decisions will be based upon the rules
set forth in paragraph 7. After hearing the
report of a council composed of the Burger-
master, as governor of the district, and of
other experts in the field of education and
relief to young persons, the decision will
be taken.

(3) The persons referred to in the preced-
ing paragraph are prohibited from attending
cinema spectacles in cinema halls or theatres
which end later than 9 P. M.

(4) During a projection of films dedicated
to young persons, according to paragraph
2, two seats must be reserved for members
of the council and the magistrate's represen-
tative who must be duly furnished with ident-
ity papers.

(5) The exhibitor is under obligation to
prove to the members of the Council and the
representatives of the magistrate that he has
complied with the regulations for the admis-
sion of the public according to the rules
set forth in paragraph 2.

In paragraphs 1 -3 the protection of young
persons is regulated, while in paragraphs 4
and 5 provision is made for the necessary
censorship.

Employment of Chil- The employment of
dren and Young children and young
Persons. persons in cinemas is

forbidden by the decree on the cinema. The

local laws of the Tyrol, the Voralberg and

Vienna include this prohibition.

Advertising. — Paragraph 25 of the
decree on the cinema seeks to prevent the
evil effects of objectionable advertising mat-
ter exposed in places accessible to everybody.
It lays down : « Advertisements which stimu-
late the expectation of immoral projections
or count upon a taste for shows contrary to
morality are forbidden ; Example : " Evening
for Men Only », " Parisian Nights " or
" Piquant Films '*.

This rule has been included textually by
the local Viennese law on the cinema in
paragraph 9. The same idea is explicitly
recalled in paragraph 21 on the Tyrol Terri-
torial law with which the law for Voralberg is
perfectly in accord. The latter regulation
says : " In places accessible to young persons
(therefore in the street) photographs of
films can only be exhibited when such films
have been declared suitable for young persons.
" In the case of other pictures, the advertis-
ing matter must be approved beforehand
by the government authority ".

Censorship Bureau In order to have an
for Films at the objective and author-
Ministry of In- itatjve basJs for the

struction. i , .

increased production

of films which have a cultural value, the
Ministry of Instruction instituted, with the
decree November 5, 1930 a bureau for cen-
soring pictures. This bureau is to " judge
films submitted to it according to their didac-
tic, instructive or artistic value for the people,
and will classify them as instructive, artistic
or popular culture pictures, declaring at the
same time their suitability for being witnessed
by young persons ". For some time, the
classification of " artistic " has only been
made on special request.

Schools9 Right to Moreover, according
Forbid Films. to paragraph 79 of the

Scholastic and Teaching Regulations, the
directors of schools and the scholastic autho-
rities can forbid pupils to attend cinemas for
a given period of time and for reasons con-
nected with teaching.

236

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

This prohibition is independent of the
kind of film being shown, and may therefore
refer even to films declared suitable for
being seen by young persons if the interests
of teaching require it.

Predominating Con- To sum up the matter,
siderations. we „„ see from tnjs

rapid glance at the Austrian legislative
provisions for the protection of young persons
in the field of the recreational motion picture
that the governing principles inspiring the
regulations are as follows :

(1) Only pictures should be presented
to young persons which have been approved
by reputable educational authorities.

(2) Evening attendance (after 8 or 9 P. M.)
is dangerous for young persons, and therefore
forbidden.

(3) The employment of young persons
in cinemas is forbidden.

(4) Advertisements capable of proving
harmful for young persons are prohibited
by various severe laws.

(5) Decisions on the suitability of a film
for young persons are not made by the cen-
tral authority, but according to the operation
of local laws.

Districts which have a legislation of their
own on the cinema have further established
an obligation to submit pictures from which
exemption can be claimed only in determined
circumstances. This obligation lies at the
base of all decisions regarding the suitability
of films for young persons.

Decisions are in the hands of the local
authorities themselves, and do not lie with
the local technical council, whose decision is
merely in the nature of an opinion which the
authorities are not obliged to follow.

Practical Result of If a firm wants to
Film Projections, exhibit a picture before
all the young persons in all the various districts
and cities of the State, it must show it in
Vienna first of all.

If declared suitable for young persons in
Vienna, it may be shown everywhere in the
territory of the district of Vienna. In Bur-
genland, Carinthia and Salzburg, the Viennese
decision is generally accepted without there
being any further need for submitting the
picture again locally.

At Graz, Innsbruck and at Bregenz, the
film must be submitted and shown again.
Often the local decisions of these districts are
not in agreement with the verdict of the
capital. In Lower and Upper Austria, it is
the district political authority which decides
if a film may be projected before young
persons. In Upper Austria, the verdict of
the Censorship Bureau of the Ministry of
Instruction takes the place of a fresh exam-
ination. The same thing holds true of Bur-
genland and Carinthia. In Styria such a
decision may be recognized.

At the back of these diversities in applying
regulations, etc., there lies the sound guid-
ing notion that projections intended for
young persons of the capital need not neces-
sarily be suitable for a similar category of
young folk dwelling in an Alpine Tyrol
village.

The merit of the Austrian law in the
cinema lies in the rigorous protection granted
to young people.

Its defect lies in the fact that when the
decree on the cinema of 1912 was quashed by
the decision of the Supreme Court, the entire
legislation took on a fragmentary character,
producing a number of local expedients not
in accord with one another.

The Tendency To- In March 1933, the
wards Unification. National Federation of
Austrian Catholic Youth, in a petition address-
sed to the competent ministers requested the
institution of a central bureau for the general
censoring of films, such bureau to have also
the faculty of examining pictures intended for
young persons. The petition further urged
that the minimum age for young people to be
admitted to cinemas should be raised from
16 to 18.

JURIDICAL FILM PROBLEMS

237

Cinema Bureau of The Cinema Bureau
the A. G. Juvenile 0f the Austrian-Ger-
Federation. man juveniie Federa-

tion has recently prepared a list of basic prin-
ciples for a regular cinematograph legislation
in Austria.

Fundamental Prin- The second and third

C1P"S* of these fundamental

principles are directly concerned with the
protection of young persons and the increase
in the number of films adapted to young
people. The other principles touch the
matter indirectly. It is urged that :

First Fundamental Principle : Each film
or series of films ought, in the first place, to
be considered for its spiritual content (like
a book), and only in the second place as
merchandise. The mere consideration of a
film as a commercial object is not sufficient.

Second Fundamental Principle : Decisions
regarding the permission to project a film in
public cinemas and its suitability as an educa-
tional picture and as a film for young persons
should be effective and applicable for the
territory of the State.

These decisions could be emitted, if not
by some newly created bureau then by the
censorship bureau attached to the Ministry
of Instruction.

The presentation of the film to this bureau
should exempt the exhibitor or renter from
presenting it for examination in other federal
districts.

Third Fundamental Principle : In distin-
guishing the admissibility of a film for gene-
ral public projection or for projection before
young persons as well as in classifying a film
as either educational or instructive, a clear

distinction must be drawn between films good
for urban populations and films intended for
purely rural districts.

For the carrying into effect of these regu-
lations the state authorities in the depart-
ment of popular instruction of the various
federal districts must determine annually
which districts towns and villages are to be
considered as urban, and which as rural from
the point of view of culture.

The application of these fundamental prin-
ciples would regulate the question of the
cinema in a central manner, and especially
those questions dealing with the protection
of young persons.

It is also in the interest of all persons or
firms engaged in the film industry to assist
in rendering the unification of cinema regula-
tions possible, while it is absolutely necessary
that all decision should emanate from one
central bureau.

At the same time, the diversity of views
existing between city and country districts
must create a diversity in settling age limits)
(16 for the cities and 18 for the country).

The other fundamental principles not
referred to here are intended to assist the
increase of production of instructive, educa-
tional, sub-standard size films and also to
help in increasing the output of pictures for *
young persons.

These fundamental principles will shortly
be laid before the central government.

Bills and draft regulations have also been
laid before the governments of federal
districts for the regulation of questions con-
nected with the motion picture and the pro-
tection of young persons in connection with
films.

238

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

CINEMA AND LEGISLATION

(Editorial Note). The problem of the cinema is
not merely one of production and a revision of
the values which it manifests from the national and
international, didactic, and artistic points of view,
but is especially a matter of safeguarding it from
communicating those possible dangers lurking in the
motion picture and capable of harming individuals
and society.

Whence the necessity — ever since the film ap-
peared in the public cinemas and became an instru-
ment for the objects of teaching — of considering
to what forms of control and inspection it should
be submitted to allow it to be freely shown, without
fear of harm, to children and adults.

Systems of control and safeguarding end by being
systems protecting the film, since censorship, when
properly undertaken by experts who are guarantors
of perfect objectivity, becomes an arm against the
producers themselves, forcing them to follow a ratio-
nal criterion in creating works of art which hus pre-
vents the occurence of economic damage that might
come from suppressions or mutilations, and permits
free representation in picture halls. This of protec-
tion has, except in exceptional cases contemplated
by sporadic legislative measures, nothing to do with
artistic concepts which are left to the decision of
the producer and his collaborators and the verdict of
the public.

Three systems are in use in the various countries
of the world . The first lays down that the state
must take a direct interest in the problem and make
the necessary provision through the government
organs and determine the proper policy for safe-
guarding children, adults and society. The second
system recognizes, in principle, the right to full
liberty, but tempers it through the operation of
unofficial organs which exercise a sort of semi-
official censorship, and whose decisions are as matter
of fact recognized by the police and the municipal
authorities. The third system is based on the fullest
kind of liberty. It does not tolerate any form of
pre-release censorship, but allows the police repres-
sive functions so that they can intervene when they
deem it proper.

These three basic systems are adopted with certain
small modifications or combinations in most coun-
tries.

The system of complete liberty and police power
to suppress films is typically American, and is in use
in almost all the states of the Union. The system
which might be called semi-official censorship of

films is exemplified by the British method, as adopt-
ed by the British Board of Censors, a self -controlled
organization of persons interested in the spread of
good films, and indirectly, but necessarily, in a
qualitative selection of the national output. As we
have said, the decisions of the British Board of
Film Censors have not the authority of law, but rather
consultative value. The municipalities in whose
jurisdiction the films are to be shown can accept or
not the decisions of the Board. They are free to
accept these decisions, or to reject them. In practice,
the decisions are almost always respected.

The system which is the most widely spread in
the world is, as we have said, the system of official
prerelease preventive censorship either carried out
by bodies created especially for the purpose, or by
organs to which the power is delegated or by the
police acting not to repress, but to permit.

There are a number of variants to these systems as,
for instance, the regarding of censorship for adults
and for children in a different light, or when censor-
ship is limited to the intellectual and spiritual pro-
tection of children only. Some systems only consid-
er the films shown in public halls, while others re-
serve their examinations solely for pictures intended
for childish audiences ; some are concerned with
the ages of the children that can witness pictures, or
sometimes even their sex. Sometimes the censors
have to think of political and religious criteria, as
well as moral and artistic considerations.

Without going into a particular examination of
the various systems in force, it is doubtless more
useful for the purposes of the Rome congress to
consider synthetically the arguments pro and con,
raised and debated at length by supporters of the
two opposing methods, that is the liberal system
which includes the last two methods referred to
and the method of pre-release preventive censorship.

The supporters of the first theory maintain that
is not conceivable in a period of liberty of commerce
and industry to put into force coercive measures by
the state, such as to impede the free development
of intellectual activities and limit the possibilities of
production by imposing iron chains that may be
considered dangerous and too strict. These people
maintain that censors are always or nearly always
incompetent persons subject to personal opinions,
and that if it is proposed to recognize logically the
principle of an official censorship, we ought also
to institute a series of specialized censorships for
various aspects of life such as a military, political

JURIDICAL FILM PROBLEMS

239

and scientific censorship etc. to be directed only
by experts who would lay down rules. It is further
argued that this incompetence, which is more ser-
ious now that we have talking pictures in which
words, sounds and music form an ensemble of art,
and reveals itself in absurd mutilations which in any
case are always unfortunate. It is also argued that
the adult ought to be presumed to be capable of
self-control and self-criticism, and that it is absurd to
think of him as a person of low intellectual and
psychical level, whose deficiencies must be made
up by the state ; that — and this is the chief argu-
ment of the liberal theorists — it is not exact to state
it is the censors who in the past have and still con-
tinue to elevate the moral level of films, but rather
the control esercised indirectly on the producers
through the pressure of public opinion.

It is affirmed that the principle of automatic se/ec-
tion is the one which should prevail. This form of
selection consists in leaving the spectator full liber-
ty to see and to criticize in allowing him to crowd or
desert the picture halls, obliging, in the latter even-
tuality, the producers to bring their pictures into line
with the public's requirements in the matter
of art.

The supporters of the restrictive theory, on the
other hand, maintain that the state cannot disinter-
est itself about questions which have so important
a moral significance behind them, since it is incon-
ceivable that all the members constituting a « cinema
public » in any picture hall can be on the same intel-
lectual and spiritual level, so that not all of them
can have those inhibitions and forms of self-con-
trol already referred to. Further it is advanced that
it is incorrect to speak of incompetency when our
censors are chosen from typical categories of persons
in view of the tasks they carry out, and that there
are other forms of censorship of a military and polit-
ical character in which liberal ideas cannot be
admitted. These are the chief reasons which mili-
tate in favour of or against the two contrasting
systems.

The argument is a burning one, and right in the
forefront of actual cinema problems. It cannot be
easily resolved by means of some legislative measure
since every law is only valid and effective within the
borders of the nation promulgating it, unless and
until the question is later revised from an internat-
ional point of view.

The Rome Congress has therefore a matter of
great importance to debate here, nor can the vital
nature of it be diminished or disguised. The Con-
gress, in dealing with the question, must be in a

position to illustrate all the vivid contrasts between
the opposed points of view. It will have to decide
if the state, or internationally speaking, an accord
betwenn several states, is to lay down general laws of
control and censorship for those sections at least
which, while leaving political considerations on
one side, consider the moral defence of the indivi-
dual and the public, and especially the intellectual
and spiritual welfare of children. The decision to
be made on the other side of the question is if it is
not better to leave to private interests and the film
producers themselves the task of carrying out this
pre-release preventive censorship, as is done in
America with the Motion Picture Producers which
could be done on examination of a script of the
scenario and a view of the rough takes without
waiting for the final edition of the film and leaving
it to the public to judge, approve or reject the
films which it considers unsuitable morally, tech-
nically and artistically for its spirit sentiments, and
conscience.

In view of the Congress, a work of international
cinematographic legislation recently published in
Italy by Roberto Rosso Canevari is of outstanding
value. The work in question is entitled Theoretical-
Practical Treatise on Cinema Law, and is published
by the S. A. Cooperativa Poligrafica, Milan, 1933.
It is in three volumes, and contains a wealth of
notes, criticisms and bibliographical reports and
items. It examines, perhaps for the first time in
the history of the world all the various sections and
infinite aspects of cinema legislation throughout the
world, both in the matter of censorship authors*
rights, transport, customs, labour, etc., and also the
artistic side of the matter.

The work is a valuable contribution which Rossi
Canevari has given to a magnificent instrument of
culture and education such as the motion picture.
His work proves once again that the cinema, once
considered as something not worthy of serious
attention, something like an amusement for children,
has gained its full rights to recognition in life and
in legislation.

In the work in question unexpected aspects of
the question appear as regards amateur cinema-
tographers, and their work for the screen. These
aspects deserve to taken seriously into consideration
by the various legislations and should no longer be
considered in the primitive manner of the past.
New mechanical means are continually modifying
principles which appear static and show again that
the dynamism of the film has its repercussions in the
legislative sphere.

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ARCHIVES

THE CLASSIFICATION OF EDUCATIONAL FILMS
FOR AN INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE

BY

Dr. Ernst Rust,

of Zurich.

A international catalogue of educational
films which should result from the col-
laboration of all national bureaux entrusted
with the task of judging the value of films as
a means education constitutes an urgent neces-
sity. Even if some of the pictures exhibit
national tendencies, it is always possible to
find material useful for a general work of
education and instruction beyond the frontiers
of the country of origin. This would deven
be justified if the subject matter were relative
and limited to the phases of activity of the
particular country. There is also the que-
stion of customs duties which impede greatly
the exchange of films between one country
and another. The ratification of the Geneva
convention, promoted by the I. I. E. C, will
render the exchange of films much easier than
it is today.

Up till now, anyone finding himself
obliged to make a choice for given reasons
of the educational films listed in the existing
catalogues has found it impossible, or almost
so, to carry on his work, because the catal-
ogues contained nothing about the objects of
the films listed or about the systems of classi-
fication ; nor was it possible to learn for what
ages and scholastic grades the films would
prove useful. What was worse, such indi-
cations as were given were often erroneous as
regards the scientific classification of the pic-
tures.

It seems obvious enough that the inquirer
ought to be able to learn if the films he is

considering were made for purposes of teach-
ing, propaganda, recreation, etc. If the
films contain points on education, didactics,
art, etc., all indications useful to the educa-
tionist ought to be listed in the catalogue.

It should also be clearly indicated in all
catalogues for what ages and scholastic grades
the films are intended, or if they may be
considered good for all ages and grades and
can be used in more than one class. For
example, a film dealing with coffee plantations
etc., may be useful at one and the same
time for instruction in geography, botany
and technical commerce.

This mass of information is necessary for
the teacher unless we want to have him
complain that after having requested and
secured some twenty or thirty pictures, he dis-
covers that only one or two of them are any
good for the purposes of the teaching he has
in mind, and that the others are practically
useless to him, and that he could have well
done without them, thus saving time and
money for himself and the distributors.

A big film catalogue, if it is to have real
international value, must be based on a sys-
tem which does not rest solely on the lan-
guage of the country of its origin, but offers
its information in a manner to be universally
comprehensible. This will be possible if
we choose an international language based on
numbers and figures which can be read with
the use of a key. Another advantage of such
a system would be the saving of space and

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ARCHIVES

24T

time. National languages should be used
solely for the explanations of the contents
and titles of the films. The proposal which
follows is based upon a classification which
deals solely with educational films in the
strictest sense of the term, films examined
and recommended by the second European
conference of the educational film held at the
Hague. The classification has been ampli-
fied with the help of Dr Walter Giinther,
director of Film-und-Bildwart of Berlin.

Classification and De- The classification in

finition of Films. question is the result

of an experiment carried out recently in the
cinema world on practical lines so that to
explain the system to non-experts is certainly
less easy than to carry it out. In any case,
the concept remains unchanged that : the
classification must supply the person anxious to
organize film projections for educational artistic
and teaching purposes the necessary information
to allow him to find as quickly as possible and
with the greatest possible exactitude the pictures
best suited to his purpose.

The definition used should be as brief and
simple as possible. Lengthy logical descrip-
tions and sub-divisions must be abandoned
because, as a matter of fact, they are of little
use and only make the catalogue clumsy
and complicated. Sub-divisions of single
groups should be reduced to the strictest
limits possible. Only when the number of
pictures existing in a given section seems
excessive, the I. I. E. C. could communicate
fresh sub-divisions.

It is certainly impossible to contemplate
publishing titles and information in one sin-
gle volume. Two different volumes are
required, one of which would contain the
titles, while the other would carry all the
information obtainable about the films listed.
The first volume would be edited in various
languages, while the second, which might be
called the classification volume should be
arranged on a cipher system as suggested.

The first volume would register the films
of every nation, divided according to subject
matter ; the second the films of every nation

registered according to a numeration system.
A glance at the first volume would show the
titles.

Titles Volume. Films ought to be indi-

cated by (1 ) a number ; (2) by an indication of
the format or formats in which they are avail-
able ; (3) by an indication of the year in which
they were produced.

The division by groups ought to be made
according to the various subject matters,,
since in the majority of instances, if we are
looking for a film, we look for one that has
a certain content and belongs to a given type
or category.

The following system of indications may
usefully be observed :

Order of Countries. — The nations must
follow in international rank. If abbrevia-
tions are required to indicate countries, the
international initials used for automobile
registration marks should be followed.

Subject matters :

(1) Mathematics and Astronomy;

(2) Physics and Metereology ;

(3) Chemistry and Mineralogy ;

(4) Geology ;

(5) Botany (strict and biological) ;

(6) Zoology, including anthropology and
animal biology ;

(7) Geography inc. political geography;

(8) Ethnography (popular traditions cus-
toms, etc.) ;

(9) Medicine inc. veterinary science and
pharmacology ;

(10) Agriculture including cultivation
of plants, cattle-raising, cheese-making;

(11) Forestal Economy, including hunt-
ing, fishing ;

(12) Arts and Crafts and small trades*
technique, great industries, mineralogy, tech-
nology, metallurgy, examination of raw mate-
rials, rationalized work, history of industries;

(13) Traffic (means of communications) ;

(1 4) Political Economy (production, con-
sumption, commerce, fairs, exhibitions, etc.) ;

(15) Public Instruction, teaching and
education (schools, curricula, etc.) ;

(16) Applied Sociology (Hygiene, public

242

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

health, dwellings, social providence, relief
and first institutions, prevention of accidents,
life-saving, police, etc.) ;

(17) Sport (physical culture, the dance,
etc.) ;

(18) Army and Navy;

(19) History;

(20) Fables, anecdotes, drama ;

(21) Miscellaneous .

From the examination of a large number
of films, it can be observed that the classifica-
tion suggested would perfectly well answer
the purpose aimed at. Title and subject
matter sufficiently denote the film and its
content, without having recourse to further
sub-divisions. If a film fits into several cate-
gories, it must be included in all of them. If
its importance for a certain subject matter is
not very great, it can be listed in parenthesis.
In order to economize space, we could ar-
range that a film which belongs under several
headings is indicated in the first instance in
full, with title, description, etc., and in the
following citations with just its number.

Number in Catalogue. — Number of Clas-
sification Volume :

Size : n 35 mm. normal format

k 16 mm. Kodak

p 17,5 mm. Pathe.

The other formats have a lesser importance
for educational films. They can be indicated
with letters, with the exception of those ini-
tials used for other indications. For exam-
ple, the Baby Pathe size (9,5 mm) ought to be
indicated with a " y " and not with a " b .

Title of Films and Year of Production. — For
the title of the film, it is well to use that por-
tion of the title which best characterizes the
contents of the picture. Thus, for a picture
bearing a title such as Great Metallurgical
Industries, Mines and Blast Furnaces, the
indication should read : Mines Metallurgy and
Blast Furnaces ; Great Metal Industries.
Single parts of a film which can be shown
independently should be registered apart,
whether they are hired or produced. If it is
not clear that they constitute a whole, the
iact can be remarked in a parenthesis on the

right of the annotation. If a film belongs to
several departments and fields of study, we
can place, after the title, the corresponding
numbers of the other sub-divisions, divided
by commas.

The year of the film s production should
follow the end of the title (and after the refe-
rence numbers) and after a colon, repeating
only the last two figures in the date of the
year. For example, Inoculation 10,29 means
that the film (registered in the botanical
section) belongs to section 10, agriculture,
and was made in the year 1929.

The volume of titles should also contain
indications for the classification of the films,
for eventual special annotations and refer-
ences.

Classification Vol- This volume ought to
ume* contain the indications

necessary for choosing a film for its didactic
peculiarities with the indications in figures
joined in seven groups. Films should be
divided according to countries, and registered
progressively with numbers. The volume
should contain the groups of films in the
following order : (I) number in the numera-
tion system, (II) intellectual level or instruc-
tional level of spectators ; (III) objects of
films ; (IV) type of picture (how made) ;
(V) length ; (VI) names of producers, direc-
tors, operators, etc. ; (VII) other remarks.

I. Numeration. — Each national catalogue
should begin with N°. 1 . The supplements
will assist in completing the preceding num-
ber. The number must in all cases remain
attached to the film, which will continue
to be indicated by its number and the abbre-
viations of the country where it was pro-
duced.

II. -

(1) Students from 7 to 9 years ;

(2) » » 10 » 12 »

(3) » » 13 » 15 »

(4) Upper classes of elementary schools ;

(5) Normal and trade schools ;

(6) Courses for young persons for 4, 5
and 6 persons of from 1 6 to 1 8 ;

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ARCHIVES

243

(7) Universities ;

(8) Adults for 7 and 8 persons, over 18.

Supplementary Indications :

(a) male ;

(b) female ;

(c) gymnasium ;

(d) government ;

(e) commercial ;
(/) normal ;

(g) technical ;

(h) agricultural ;

(i) pedagogic ;

(k) artistic ;

(m) social ;

(n) school of general character ;

(p) vocational guidance ;

(q) rural ;

(r) urban.

Other supplementary indications :

— number underlined (to be printed in
heavy characters) — useful only for the grade
indicated.

! after the number, means film should
only be shown by an expert or technician.

!! means film should be projected sepa-
rately to the two sexes.

-! means film prohibited for young
people.

III. Objects of Film :

(1) researches ;

(2) teaching ;

(3) education ;

(4) instruction ;

(5) art impressions ;

(6) recreational ;

(7) propaganda.

Additional Information :

-with list of titles ;

* text illustrated ;

* * with comments ;
i : with slides.

A film can more or less well answer a
determined purpose. It will be possible to
have one or more research (1,2) films which
could equally be used as teaching pictures.

(3), 6 would mean that a recreational film
had educational tendencies and so on.

IV. Type of Film (technically) :

(1) Documentation of nature ;

(2) Taken in scenes ;

(3) Microscopic picture ;

(4) X-Ray picture ;

(5) Trick film.

Supplementary indications :

(a) slow motion ;

(b) accelerated motion ;

(c) colour film ;

(d) sound film ;

(e) stereoscopic film ;
(/) trick film ;

(g) animated cartoon ;

(h) silhouette ;

(i) models ;

(k) synchronized film.
If the letters " a " or " b " are not present,
the film is a normal speed picture (silent
films with 1 6 to 18 images a second ; sound
films with 24 photograms per second). If,
in the case of sound films, the " k. " is lack-
ing after the letter " d ", this indicates that
photographs and sound were registered
together. For mixed films, we can place
after the indication of how the picturee was
made the length preceded by a colon. For
example,: /1, 5 ag : 46 /= natural science
film with 46 metres of slow motion trick
film work.

V. Length :

(a) metres of animated cartoon ;

(b) metres of stills ;

(c) metres of talking film ;

(d) metres of musical film ;

(e) metres of titles ;

(/) total meterage (length) ;

(g) length of reel.
The figures indicating the length should
be placed before the sign letters followd by
a comma. If the indication of the length is
missing, a zero is added to the comma. The
letter indicating the format follows the length
letter already indicated. If the same film is

244

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

available in normal and reduced size, the
indication of the format should follow the
normal length. The length of reduced size
films should be indicated only after the normal
length. For example, 210a, 30e, 250/n,
96fk, means : the film is composed of 210
metres of pictures and of 30 metres of titles,
so that the normal lenght is 240 metres, while
the sub-standard edition is 96 metres long.

VI. Collaborators in Production of Film and
Censorship Bureaux :

(a) Author ;
(o) Producer ;

(c) Seller ;

(d) Renter and Distributor ;

(e) Firm making ;

(/) Censorship Bureau where film ex-
amined ;

? Unknown person or firm ;

0 not rented and not sold (should follow
the letters c and d).

The collaborators or persons helping to
duce the film and the censorship bureaux
should be indicated in alphabetical order with
their names, in the classification volume, and
following the respective number. The ad-
dresses of seller and distributor should be
included. Since many films are the result of
a spiritual co-authorship, more than one
author's name may be appended if they have
had any essential part in the material produc-
tion of the picture, as might happen, for
instance, in the case of teaching films made
by a specialist and a pedagogue.

VII. Other Indications. — Such other pos-
sible indications might consist of the number
and length of the parts of the film. For
example,: a 212, 257, 302 would mean that
this was a film in three parts respectively
long 212, 257 and 302 metres. If there are
no parts to be noted, the numeration used
for other groups should be followed. The
same for other possible indications that might
be added. If such indications have more im-
portance for the country in which the film
was made, it will be as well that such indic-
ations references be placed in the volume of
titles.

Research Films. — These in general are
documentary films on nature and natural
phenomena made with the purpose of ac-
quiring new knowledge through a scientific
utilization of the motion picture.

Teaching Films. — These should have a
precise, objective content, utilizable for or-
dinary teaching and of a nature to be included
both on account of their form and length in
scholastic lessons ;

Educational Films. — These have as their
object the idea of arousing and strengthen-
ing the sentiments and the will necessary for
the development and progress of man, and
should be kept within the form and limits
marked out as necessary for classes ;

Instructional Film. — These are films which,
as contrasted with teaching films, are inten-
ded for instruction ob specialized groups and
not hetereogeneous assemblies of spectators.
They do not require any special perparations
and offer in a pleasant form, an opportunity
for acquiring certain forms of knowledge
which would not otherwise be gained. In
view of their special characteristics, they
cannot be considered as being connected strict-
ly with any special tendency ;

Art Films. — Only pictures calculated to
give the spectators an artistic perception of
the things shown are to be included in this
category ;

Recreational Films. — Amusement pic-
tures which have no particular educational or
instructive purpose ;

Propaganda Films. — These pictures are
intended to draw the attention of the spec-
tators to determined manifestations, insti-
tutions and forms of commercial activity
outside the ordinary orbit of education and
instruction.

With regard to the manner of making
the Films :

Pictures taken with a mise-en~scene. These
include scenes which have been specially stu-
died and prepared beforehand, and which
depend on special details inserted by the
artistic director. They are therefore partly
artificial, and not ordinary.

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ARCHIVES

245

Nature documentation Films. — Pictures
in which the natural surroundings are not
altered or modified by the artistic concepts of
the director ;

Trick Films. — Films made with the use of
appliances or models or other objects which
are introduced and removed closer or farther
off so as to produce effects outside ordinary
natural effects ;

Length (meterage) ;

Length of animated projection. — Part of
the film in which the movement forms an
essential element for the object represented,
either because it is desired to give the
effective demonstration of movement, or
because it is intended to illustrate some fact or
or phenomenon by means of movement ;

Length of Fixed Projection. — Part of film
which has no movement or only non-essen-
tial movements to allow the understanding of
the object being shown, so that the object
in question can be, if necessary, represented
by a fixed projection ;

Length of Spoken part of Film. — Part of
the sound film containing sound track for
speech or natural sounds.

Musical Length. — Length of film given

Example : (taken from a Swiss list).

over to musical accompaniment synchronized
with the photos ;

Circular Film. — " Short " in which the
two parts — beginning and end — are
joined so that it is possible to repeat the pic-
ture at will for as long as is desired ;

Collaborators and Co-Authors :

(a) Author. — The person who accom-
plished the essential spiritual work for the
creation of the picture should be given as the
author. Generally it is the writer of the
scenario.

Formation of Inter- Volume of Titles-Use.
national Catalogue. (A) Explanations on
system followed in catalogue ;

(a) Explanations of the figures and signs
used for the various groups in the catalogue ;

(b) List of examples for explaining the
possibilities of classification referred to under
the letter " b " ;

c) list of abbreviations contained in the
volume of the classifications.

(B) The list of titles, should be arranged by
producing countries, divided for each country
according to the category to which the pictu-
res belong. The list should contain the
sign number of the film, its format, its full
title and the year of production.

N.

Size

Title and year of production

4
8
3

n,
n,
n,

5.
k
k
k

B

otanic :

Division of cells: 31.
Germination of pollen : 33.
Inoculation, 10 : 29.

1

2
5

n,
n
n,

6.

k

k

Z

oology :

Seagull (Bird life) : 30.

Seagull (commented edition) : 30.

Heartbeats : 3 1 .

9

k

7.
11.

Geography :

Irrigation and Land Cultivation in Egypt : 33.

Agriculture :

7

k

How the Peasant works and sows the land : 33.

6

k

12.

A

rts and Crafts {Technique and Industry) :
How to make a table : 32.

246

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

Classification Volume. — As we have said,
only the titles and the indications of the
various groups in the different languages are
indexed here, the rest being expressedfin
numbers, ciphers, letters or signs, the key or
which will be found in the volume of the
titles.

Film Collaborators and co-authors. — Auth-
or, producer, seller, distributor, director —
all in alphabetical order. Each name must
be indicated with a proper number and with
the specification of the kind of collaboration
given.

Examples: (1) Buhler, E Zurich, a;
(2) Hess, Prof Dr W. R., Zurich, a ; (3) Imhof ,
Dr G., Basle, abe ; (4) Noll, Dr H., Bsle, a ;
(5) Lehrfilmstelle des Erziehungsdeparte-
ments, Miinsterplatz 19, Basle, bde ; (6)
Schwarzenbach, Dr F., Wadesnwil, a ;

Examples : (taken from a Swiss catalogue).

(7) SAFU, Schweizerische Arbeitsgemein-
schaft fur Unterrichtskinematographie, Son-
neggstr. 5, Zurich, 4 bode ; (8) S. S. V. K.
Schweizer Schul und Volkskino, Erlach-
strasse 21, Berne, bed; (9) Tiipke, H.,
Bratislau, a.

Film Censorship Bureaux. — These should
be indicated in alphabetic order of their adres-
ses with a number in parenthesis.

Example : Basle Schweizerische Lehr-
filmkammer, Miinsterplatz 19; (2) Berlin,
Filmprufstelle ;

Classification of Films. — It should contain
the films indicated in the volume of titles :
(I) with numeration number; (II) grade of
culture of spectators and their age ; (III)
objects of films ; (IV) type of picture (tech-
nically), (V) length ; (VI) collaborators ;
(VII) other indications.

I

ii

in

IV

V

VI

VII

1

3,6

2*:: 19

l,la:10

285a,25e,310fn,125fk

a4,bc7,d5n:7k, (1) (2) (3)

2

5,8!

(2),4*::19

l,la:20

670a,30e,700fn

a4,bcd7, (1)

4

3

3r

2*

1

94a,3b,3c,100fn,40fk

a6,bc7,d5n:7k, (1) (2) (3)

4

3,4,8

2*

5bg

38a,2e,40fn,16fk

a6,bc7,d5n:7k, (1) (2) (3)

5

3,4,7

2

5ag

o, 2fn, o,8fk

a2,bc7,d0, (1) (2) (3)

6

1

2*

1 (2)

I53a,16e,168fk

al,bcd7, (1) (2) (3)

3,6

7

1

2

1

56a,4e,60fk

a3,b5,cd7, (1)

3

8

1,4,7

2*

3b

lOOa.lle.lllfk,

a6,bcd7, (1) (2) (3)

9

3,4,6,8

2*

1

104a5,e,109fk

ab9,cde7, (1)

The catalogue, in relation to the volume of
titles, should be read as follows : Film No 1
(Seagull) is intended for pupils of from 13
to 15 years, and may be projected during
shows for young people (11,6). It is a
teaching film (111,2) and illustrative com-
ments are available (III) as well as 19 photo-
graphs (III, : : 19). We have a documentary
picture of nature (IV, 1) with 10 metres slow
motion running (IV, la : 10). It is composed
of 285 metres of animated projection, 25 me-
tres of titles, and totals altogether 310 metres

as normal, and 125 netres as sub-standard
size film. Author is Dr H. Noll, Basle ;
producer and seller the SAFU of Zurich ;
Renting of normal size edition belongs to
the section of the Educational Film of the
Education Dept of Basle. Renting of sub-
standard edition by SAFU of Berlin. The
film has been submitted to the Swiss Cham-
ber of Educational Film Censorship Bureau
in Basle and to the Berlin censorship office.

Examples may be given for the other films
by means of letters, and signs. Film No 2

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ARCHIVES

247

the Seagull is for projections outside of
schools intended for young people and the
instruction of adults. It belongs to the cate-
gory of instructive films (111,4) but has a
more educational than recreative character
(111,2), and therefore should be shown and
commented by an expert, someone acquainted
with birds. (II, !). It is double the size of a
ordinary school edition No 1 , and is available
only in normal size. (V, 700fn) Its projec-
tion takes 700 : 20 = 35 minutes (I), and to
this should be added the projection of the 1 9
photographs ; the text for illustration is
available. Moreover, further photographs
can be had (VI 1,4). Film has been submitted
to the censorship in Switzerland only as an
educational picture (VI, (I)).

Film No 3 is intended for urban schools and
children of from 1 3 to 1 5 (I I, 3r). Film No 4
on the division of cells is a trick picture with
great acceleration (5bg, IV) it lasts only two
minutes. Film No 5 on heart-beats should
be made in so simple a way that it can be of
use for teaching children of from 13 to 15,
but it should be precise enough to find a
place in high school teaching. The author is
a university professor. (VI, a2). Film No 6

How to make a table ' is a teaching film for
children. It is taken from real life, but with
some scenic alterations (IV, I (2) 9.

It is useful for language-teaching, and
knowledge of things (VII, 3). Its titles consist
of small phrases to be read by the scholars
in chorus (VII, 6). It lasts 168: 8 = 21
minutes (2), and ought not to be all projected
at one time but on several occasion .s Film No
7 " How the Peasant works and sows the
Land " it not intended for agricultural
schools, but for children. Film No 8 is a
micro-cinematographic picture for accelerated
motion (IV, 3b). Film No 9 " Irrigation and
Cultivation of the Land in Egypt is a
version in sub-standard made by the SAFU
(VI, e7), and is reduced from an ordinary size
cultural picture.

Other formulae can be added to these

(1) 20 metres of silent film = 1 minute.

(2) 8 metres reduced size film = 1 minute.

according to information supplied by the
individual nations for the formation of an
international catalogue. In these lists are
also included the indications of the titles and
the volume of classification. Since these
lists are set out according to the numerical
order of the films the indication of the subject
matter should come first.

Examples :
4,7/2 13/n/ Yellowstone Park Geysers: 12/
II (4); 6, 8/ III 2/ IV 1/V 320a, 332b;
253e, 905fn/VI a ?, bcd58, e21/
16/21 4/n,k/ Dentistry: 26/ 1 1/2/ 1 1 13/ IV

2,5g/V 160a, 102e, 292fn, 1 1 7f k/VI a6l,

b75,cl3,d44,e21/VII5/

(2), 3/215/k/ Liquefying Crystals: 22/11
4,7/111 2/IV 3 /Vo; 2,6fk/VI abcd37>
dO/

Film No 213 which treats of geology and
geography is less suitable for teaching than
instruction and recreation, and is not of a
scholastic character. It contains many stills
(V332b) on landscapes, terraces, spent geysers
etc., which have been added to complete
the picture, and also some very long titles for
a public unacquainted with the subject.

Film No 214 (The Care of Teeth) is an edu-
cational film for young people to illustrate for
them the best ways of preserving their teeth.
It is made up of arranged scenes and tricks.
The titles are edited in verse so as to amuse
the pupils. These titles are listed in the vo-
lume of titles (IV +). Film No 215 Lique-
facient Crystals is a micro picture intended
for scientific use (VI, 4, 7).

I have attempted with the foregoing explan-
ation of the system to show that with the use
of numbers, letters and signs that it is pos-
sible in a limited space to give the most neces-
sary indications to allow a choice from the
catalogue of a picture for any instructive
purpose. A catalogue which fails to supply
these particulars is, at any rate for educatio-
nal purposes, almost valueless. It is hoped
that the foregoing may be considered as a
contribution to the question of compiling
an international catalogue of educational
films and may provide a base for a definite
discussion of the problem.

248

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

FOR THE CREATION OF

AN INTERNATIONAL FILM ARCHIVE

By Dr. Adolf Nichtenhauser of Vienna.

1. Present State of the Scientific Film. —
Utility of the Scientific Film. The use of the motion
picture in science has various objects. As a didac-
tic film, it is useful for teaching students. It is a
means for fixing and documenting processes and ob-
jects of research. In a final analysis, it is a means
of research since the technical means of the film
allow us to reach scientific results obtainable in no
other way.

On this present occasion we propose to limit our
remarks to the teaching film and the scientific pro-
paganda motion picture. The film ought to com-
plete the traditional methods in all cases where
such teaching promises to be more effective than
ordinary teaching methods. The ideal would be
a cinema encyclopedia of our cognitions in the limits
in which they can be filmed in a more effective way
than is possible through speech or writing, or ex-
periments. We are, however, far from having
arrived at this state of things.

Disorganization of the Scientific Film. The ad-
vantages offered by the motion picture in practical
science have long been known, but the organiza-
tion of the applications of the same are stilt defec-
tive. It is true that scientific films are produced
in all civilized countries with more or less regular-
ity and system, but the scientific motion picture,
as applied at present, has two disadvantages. One
refers to production. The production of films of
this kind is rarely carried out with method and
persistence, and depends too much on local condi-
tions and on financial possibilities of a variable
nature. Pictures produced in this fashion deal
with special problems, but without any organic
system. A motion picture dealing systematically
with subjects in a vaster way would be hard to find.
The second disadvantage lies in the very imperfect
methods of handling and distribution of such films as
do exist since in the majority of cases it is only pos-
sible for a relatively small number of people to have
a chance of examining such pictures. Thus,
French medical pictures are not shown in Austria,
and German technical films do not arrive in Amer-
ica. Even Austrian national pictures remain un-
known to many possible renters and purchasers.

Reasons for the Disorganization. The reason of
this disorganization lies especially in the lack, of
places where scientific films can be projected. If we

want to introduce scientific films in laboratories,
universities and technical schools and in institutes
of popular culture, there must be a possibility of
witnessing a projection. The use of normal (35 mm)
film has so far impeded this. The institution of
places for the projection of scientific pictures has
been rendered impossible up to now by the com-
plicated efforts of the police owing to the danger of
fire and also by the high cost of motion picture mat-
erial. Even in important European universities,
one does not ordinarily find proper projection halls.
Safety machines enclosed in cases have not been
regularly employed for projecting scientific films.
It is possible to hire a projector for a single show
from time to time, but it is difficult to transfer a
filmed academic lesson into a cinema hall.

In addition to these drawbacks, there is a lack,
of a proper distributing system for scientific pictures.
When a public institution, a university for instance,
produces a picture, there is a certain guarantee
that the film will be available at least to other uni-
versities in the same country. But when a scientist
or a private firm produces a film the latter will re-
main unknown to many interested persons in the
country of origin, since there are no organizations
for distribution available for the producers to ap-
peal to.

In these conditions it is easy to understand the
harm that comes from customs duties on films.
Renters count in customs dues when fixing a price
for a film, but in the distribution of scientific films,
the matter is entirely different. When an institute
hires a film from abroad, it must pay the customs
dues, even if the picture is only shown once. If
another institution in the same country wants to
hire the picture, it has to pay the customs duty too.
This is one of the reasons which makes the exchange
of scientific pictures almost an impossibility, for
the means at the disposal of universities and similar
institutions are generally scarce and do not permit
the payment of carriage and dues. In view of these
facts, it is eminently desirable that the customs
franchise proposed by the I. I. E. C. should become
effective as soon as possible.

2. Importance of the sub-standard film in
SCIENTIFIC PICTURES. — Advantages of sub-standard.
With the coming of reduced size film, the position

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ARCHIVES

249

of the scientific picture has been fundamentally
changed. The projection of reduced size film is
free from police regulations regarding the danger
of fire. Reduced size pictures may be shown in
any hall where there is electric current and the pos-
sibility of darkening the room. These conditions
are practically available in all halls, laboratories
and similar places which makes the projection of
the film in teaching and practical science easy.

Organization of the Scientific film. The tech-
nique of the reduced size film therefore offers a basis
for a systematic organization of the scientific pic-
ture on a wide ground. It is necessary that : —

(1) all superior schools (universities, polytech-
nics, academies of fine arts etc.) technical and trade
schools research institutes, scientific societies pop-
ular universities, etc. should provide themselves
with sub-standard size projectors. To begin with,
it is not necessary for each single department of
an institution to acquire a projector. It will suffice
if in each school, clinic or institute there be an appar-
atus to carry from hall to hall as required. The
purchase of such an apparatus does not mean a very
heavy expense.

(2) The general adoption of reduced size appar-
atus may form the economic basis for a systematic
production of scientific films, As things stand today,
in view of the lack of any renting organization, it is
not possible to amortize in one way or other the
production of scientific pictures, and still less to
earn a profit. This is the reason why the production
of such films remains sporadic. When all the
consumers are equipped with sub-standard projec-
tors, the production of scientific pictures will be
able to be established with a vast body of customers
and exhibitors, and will so become rationalized.

(3) It is true that this will only be possible if
a regular renting system is evolved with the pur-
pose of spreading the scientific picture in all coun-
tries. A great part of the existing material is in
private hands or belongs to universities state archi-
ves, etc. The renting organizations could be either
state or private, but excessive dispersion should be
avoided. At the same time, we should consider
that universities or industrial firms are not always
disposed to loan their films. Therefore, it may
become necessary to create intermediary centres
with the task of listing all films presenting interest
and arranging the loan between proprietor and ex-
hibitor. As is known, the I. I. E. C. proposes to
publish an international catalogue of the instruc-
tional film. With regard to this matter, it would
be advisable to create an institute to look after the
circulation of instructive films.

(4) In order that such efforts be crowned with
success, it would be advisable to abolish as soon as
possible the obstacles deriving from the imposition of
customs dues on scientific films, quotas and other
difficulties to diffusion of the material among the
public.

Reduced Size Film in the Schools. Much has
been done in the school since the introduction of
sub-standard film. In those countries where the
sub-standard film has been introduced into the
schools, an important development of scholastic
cinematography has been noticed. In some coun-
tries, such efforts have progressed considerably
especially in the United States. As far back as 1926,
Kodak began with the foundation of a great repos-
itory of scholastic pictures, the " Eastman Class-
room Films ". The collection contains now about
200 pictures (16 mm) treating of all branches of
science. In Europe too, some scholastic film re-
positories have come into being. They are general-
ly founded and run by didactic authorities.

So far in Europe, the reduced size film has de-
veloped less in the department of science than in the
school. America is much more ahead here too.
For some time now there has existed in America
an organization which meets our requirements in
many ways " The Kodak Medical Film Library ".

3. An Archive of Medical Films. . — The Film
and Medicine. The employment of the film has a
particular importance in the field of medicine since
the objects or processes studied can be rendered
visible. This explains why the use of the film is
more widespread in medicine than in any other
branch of science. It has a very important part
in medical teaching. Technical film processes
such as the slow motion camera, the accelerated
running off of film, trick photography, close-ups
micro-cinematography render it possible to repre-
sent and fix processes which are inaccessible to or-
dinary observation. We can obtain with the film
original pictures of things that cannot be seen other-
wise. We can take clinical pictures of diseases, the
study of which is made difficult by their rarity
or the fleeting nature of the phenomena. While
the student in the operating theatre can only ob-
tain a general idea of the operation, the surgical
film slows a detailed study of it. Moreover, filmed
operations are executed by expert hands which al-
lows the technique of celebrated foreign surgeons.
to be studied.

The Kodak Medical Library. Notwithstanding
this, even in the teaching courses of many European
universities, the film is used without proper system

J Ice ingl.

250

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

and only in individual cases. It is true that there are
more medical films than films in other branches of
science, but the difficulties and especially the
shortage of halls for projection is the same here as
in other fields. In the United States, the classic
country of the cinema, the conditions are different.
Here the film is used in medical science extensively.
This is the reason why the Kodak film decided some
years ago to found an archive of medical films in
16mm size.

The catalogue which we have before us was pub-
lished, it would appear, in 1 932. It can be obtained
at the Medical Dept. Kodak House Kingsway, Lon-
don, W. C. 2 and includes a list of 133 films cover-
ing a wide scientific field. The following branches
of medicine are catered for : anatomy, normal phy-
siology and pathology ; medical biology, clinical
cases, neurology, surgery orthopoedics, obstretics,
and gynaecology, diseases of the throat nose and
ear, dentistry, X-ray treatment, first aid, films for
lectures popularizing instructions for nurses, films
on embryology, hygiene and veterinary science.

This summary list will suffice to illustrate the
wealth of the collection but a study of the detailed
catalogue shows how it has been possible to col-
lect a representation of the most various medical
and biological subjects.

What gives the Medical Film Library a special
value is its completeness from the didactic point of
view. For example in the surgical pictures, the
particular phases of the operation are not only ex-
plained by means of titles, but the understanding
is assisted with schematic drawings which illustrate
particulars not easily perceptible through a simple
observation of the field of the operation.

A splendid example is the picture Diagnosis and
Treatment of Infections of the Hand by Allan B.
Kanavel. Every student of medicine knows the
anatomy of the hand and the pictures of the dis-
eases which cause infection in it. The motion
picture uses models which almost render the hand
transparent and visible in all it anatomical partic-
ulars. By means of photographic tricks, the course
of the various infections is rendered visible in the
models. For the anatomical preparation generally
used the anatomical process is substituted. In this
way, the invisible is made visible and therefore
clearly and easily comprehensible to the mind. A
particular virtue of this film is that the models are
copied closely from nature which makes it possible
to use dissolving pictures to pass from the artificial
anatomical process to the real clinical picture. The
cleverness of the tricks are evident when it is a case
of illustrating complicated processes. There are

few pages of medicine so deeply studied as the phy-
siology of the heart. Yet how difficult it is to re-
present with clarity and precision the cardiac mov-
ements. A motion picture like Mechanism of
the Normal Heart shows us by means of animated
drawings a clear and comprehensible picture of
this important and complicated process, rendering
mental reconstruction superfluous.

The Medical Library is an international repository;
American, German and Austrian films are represent-
ed. To mention a few, we may list the names of
Sir Thomas Walker (London), De Lee (Chicago),
Joseph (Berlin) Bohler (Vienna). These names of
themselves demonstrate that the Medical Library
does not confine itself to dealing with fundamental
medical subjects but illustrates the special methods
of various scientists.

Despite the wealth of the Medical Library col-
lection, the scheme is still in its beginnings if we
consider the vastness of the medical field. Thus we
can see why certain branches are barely or not at
all touched. Such branches, for instance, are the
upbringing of children, dermatology and pharmaco-
logy.

In the case of dermatology and children's diseas-
es, we shall probably have to wait for the coloured
film. The diagnosis of internal diseases is largely
a question of hearing, and therefore we shall have
to have recourse to the reduced size sound film.
It would be a good idea to possess some pharma-
cological motion pictures which would eliminate
animal experiments in academic lessons in a number
of cases. In the same way for representations
of psychical illnesses and medical jurisprudence
pictures.

The Medical Library is a circulating archive but
the pictures are also for sale. As far as we know ;
the Medical Library only exists in the United States
and England. In other countries, only isolated
medical pictures are in circulation. It would be an
excellent plan if the Medical Library were introduc-
ed into other European countries which have so
far neglected the medical picture for teaching
purpose. We do not believe in the excuse that
the means are not everywhere available to do this
owing to the economic crisis, because several clinics
could club together to purchase a sub-standard pro-
jector. By dividing the renting charges, each insti-
tute or clinic would pay a small fee. It may be
supposed that students will have no objection to an
arrangement of this kind.

Practical Importance of the Medical Library.
If we urge the spread of the Medical Library, it is
for the following reason : we consider the continued

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ARCHIVES

251

use of the film in medicine desirable and useful.
As far as we know, the Medical Library is the only
international circulating film archive within the reach
of those interested in the subjects dealt with therein.
The Kodak firm has representatives all over the
world and can therefore distributes the films to
customers.

Development of the Medical Film. Naturally
apart from the Medical Library there is a large
number of medical films, but the majority of them
never reach their public because no one looks after
their proper distribution. Many of these pictures are
precious and useful, and their owners might well
cede certain rights in them to the Medical Library
to look after a proper distribution of them. The
task of organizing the distribution etc. of medical
films really belongs to to the administrative depart-
ments of medical and scientific institutions.

Finally, we should not forget that the reduced
size film makes it possible for all students and ex-

perts of medicine to make films themselves. The
Kodak firm points out that the production of med-
ical films is not only the business of film experts,
but belongs in the first place to the medical profess-
ion. The American doctors have for some time
taken advantage of this opportunity. When such
films are made and have more than private interest,
it would be well to see to their inclusion in the cata-
logue of the Medical Library for the benefit of
others.

We have dealt at length with this Medical Li-
brary because it is the first international collection
of special films available for persons interested through-
out the world. It demonstrates the importance of the
reduced size film, and renders clear the necessity
of increasing the production and distribution of the
scientific film by using the sub-standard size. It
should merit general interest, and incite people
to renewed efforts towards organization in the field
of the scientific film.

THE CINEMA IN THE LIFE OF PEOPLES

THE CINEMA AND PEACE

(SUMMARY REPORT OF THE CINEMA AND BROADCASTING COMMISSION
OF THE INTERNATIONAL WOMEN'S COUNCIL)

BY

Laura Dreyfus-Barney.

(President of the Cinema and Radio Commission of the Women's International Council).

THE International Women's Council which
attaches the greatest importance to the
development of a wider understanding and
better feeling between peoples has pleasure
in presenting this report — necessarily limit-
ed in scope — on the role of the cinema in
this matter.

Tte Cinema and After the giant steps
Union among Peo- taken by science dur-
p ing the last few years,

it would seem that frontiers no longer exist.
The telegraph, the telephone, the cinema,
wireless and television are joining up, often in
a direct and immediate way, the most various
types of humanity living in parts of the
world far distant from one another. Peoples
who had no knowledge of one another in the
past can know each other today and realize
the truism that on general lines humanity is
much the same the world over. If the ideas
and the customs of peoples differ, this is a
lesson to be learnt from this too. Thus,
different as may be the temples of Kyoto,
Benares and Karnac, the cathedrals of
Westminster and St Peter's in Rome, or
the Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem : all
are places for prayer and worhsip. Shall
we recall the film Melodie du Monde where
all humanity exchanged sympathy in the most
significant acts of life ?

What does the cinema do to aid the better
understanding of the peoples ? What more
can it do ? The answer is, much, and its

powers which are among the greatest possess-
ed by civilized man today impose correspond-
ingly important duties on it.

Thanks to the motion picture, the know-
ledge of other peoples, formerly acquired
through books and travel, is today within the
reach of everyone as a living thing. Distance
is abolished. We can travel round the world
seated in our armchair, or rather we can
watch the world pass before our eyes. The
extreme points of all civilizations have been
seized by the camera, and the success enjoyed
by the big documentary films is a witness
to the interest which everyone takes in what
is happening in other parts of the globe.

In order that the motion picture may be of
assistance in promoting a better understand-
ing among peoples, it must be treated in a
certain fashion and on the treatnent depends
its peace-promoting effect. Now, after 30 years
of existence, the motion picture has become
faced with a difficulty in interpreting peoples
to one another by the developments of the
talking film. The image, this universal
language, has lost something of its power.
From being purely international, the film
tended to become national again when the
word began to assume an equal place with
the image. The drawback was so widely
felt that various processes and plans were
evolved to abolish the watertight compart-
ments of different languages.

As one of the recommendations of the con-
ference held in Rome in October 1931 by

THE CINEMA FOR DOCUMENTING THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

253

the Women's International Council put it :
" it is necessary to exclude from programmes
all films which are capable of arousing or
developing sentiments of hate or hostility.
We must avoid with care all errors or
erroneous interpretations of another nation s
customs or ideas. We must guard against —
as is affirmed in the censorship regulations of
many countries - films tending to diminish the
prestige of a state or to disturb relations with
a foreign power, or films likely to offend natio-
nal susceptibilities. In this way we should
avoid regrettable incidents like some of those
which have happened during the last few
years, as for instance at Shanghai where a film
showed incidents offensive to the Chinese,
a fact which was pointed out to us by Mile
San Kao, professor at the University of Nankin
and also by our cinema correspondent in
China.

Another danger arises from the issue of
different versions of the same picture accord-
ing to the country where it is proposed to
show it. Thus a character in Shanghai
Express was presented differently in Central
Europe and in France, and at Bucharest
provoked the intervention of the legation of
the country which considered itself placed in
a false position by the film. On the other
hand, the tact with which a film is treated
allows a delicate situation to be handled
without arousing anyone's susceptibilities.
The Czech film Forgotten Patriots (national
movement of 1840-50) mentioned by the
Film Kurier of Berlin is a case in point.

To sum the matter up, we must do for the
film what is done for text-books, expurgate
them, compile them with every care, and
supply them with judicious comments.

As a result of some experiments made in
order to learn the effects on children of cer-
tain pictures showing the customs and
manners of different peoples, it became clear
that these effects varied according to the
fashion in which the subject was treated.
In showing films which tend towards creat-
ing good feelings betveen peoples one may
develop and create a spirit of solidarity,
while on the other hand, there is a real

danger in presenting pictures which are
tinged with a definite prejudice.

Subjects with a wide human appeal, and
those illustrating different forms of activity
and work and questions which interest all
men irrespective of their language and coun-
try, films revealing the inner life of human
beings will contribute something towards
creating a feeling of fraternity if properly
handled. There should be no doctrinaire
appeal, for this is boring, and such pictures
should be neither too long or too short. The
Tragedy of the Mines is a model along these
lines and we shall be glad to see Pabst's new
disarmament film. Cavalcade has also gained
the approval of some people.

It is evident that the necessity of produc-
ing pictures of this type has been felt, since
many societies have offered prizes for the
best scenarios with a fraternity appeal.

Not only do these big pictures exercise a
salutary influence from the point of view
of a better and fuller understanding between
men, but they also provide a picture of
current events which is admirably chosen as
a rule.

News-reels showing on the screen poli-
ticians of different nations gathered together
to discuss important subjects and the words
of wisdom and hope which accompany such
films produce a profound impression on the
masses, and favour the idea of understanding
between peoples. The same thing is true
of those films which show scientists and
their discoveries rendering the vast frontier-
less domain of science accessible to all, also
films which reproduce acts of generosity or
heroism in the face of danger. Such pictures
gather humnaity into one common family.

This type of news-reel acts better to the end
proposed than pictures of the latest engines of
destruction : tanks, super-dreadnoughts, etc.,
which appear too frequently on the screen.

The new three minutes film can illustrate
for everyone the questions of the day. It is
a vivid summary constructed with the aid of
the animated cartoon, schematic drawings,
graphs, arrows, etc., compelling the spec-
tator's attention without ever tiring him

254

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

making him examine matters of a political,
economic and scientific order illustrated with
clarity and precision. The Question of the
Debts, Three Minutes Astronomy, The Pacific
Question are all shorts which will help to
clarify intelligences, hearts and wills.

Films on the League of Nations illustrat-
ing its objects and work will find helpful
assistance of a technical character at the Rome
Cinema Institute, which is about to form a
committee of eminent producers to give
advice and proffer collaboration.

The following lines of Dr Emmanuel Horn
seem to us to resume the entire question of
the importance of the film in the matter of
creating a better understanding between the
peoples : " One cannot speak in too condem-
natory terms of Chauvinism in this domain.
We do not want watertight departments
among the various types of film which ought
rather to come together and adapt themselves
to one another. These are very human
things. The lofty and eternal sentiments
which move every man tend towards uniting
the peoples in one community. In the
final analysis, the film is international ".

War Films. What has been the

result produced by war films ? What
results have they brought about for further-
ing the idea of peace ? Opinions differ.
According to some people, such films have
produced a satisfactory effect on adults.
The recollection of horrors, the sad pictures
and sufferings seen have naturally led to a
desire that such things should not be repeated
and in this way there is a gain for the idea
of peace.

According to the views of other folk, their
efficaciousness is practically null from the
point of view of peace, and they are sometimes
even capable of fanning the desire for revenge.
The symposium organized by the Revue du
Cinema of Paris among a number of differ-
ent French personalities (P. Morand, E.
Borel, H. Barbusse, A. Cremieux, Dr. G.
Dumas) supports these conclusions.

M. Jule Destree, in Le Soir of Brussels,
does not believe in the pacifist effect of such

pictures. For war films really to be effective,
they would have to attain a degree of realism
insupportable by the public. On the other
hand, is it wise to show to certain natures the
frightful realities of a duty which, we hope,
they will not be called upon to fulfill ?

The question is not decided then of the
utility or otherwise of war films, and the way
in which they are produced is all important.
To obtain the desired effect, they must be
made with exactness and correctness. Pic-
tures like " No Man's Land ", " The Wooden
Cross ", " All Quiet on the Western Front "
" The Man I killed " made a great impres-
sion on the public.

What is the effect of war films on children ?

Inquiries and symposia have been under-
taken in several countries on this question,
and the intelligent and careful work of the
I. I. E. C. in this domain has helped to clear
up the point.

From the symposium carried out in Italy,
we see from the children's replies that they
feel the horrors of war, the sentiments of
heroism, faith, courage and self-abnegation.
" Better live one day like a lion than one hun-
dred years as a sheep " wrote a boy of 12.

On the other hand a teacher has told us
that he saw his pupils becoming enthusiastic
over the attacks of their countrymen against
the enemy trenches.

A teacher of backward children has related
that despite the fear of death, and the suffer-
ings understood by many, numbers of the
children have reacted in this fashion ;
" This is fine, people are fighting and —
" It's splendid to watch men firing cannon ;
now we shall see which side is the stronger .

All pedagogues recognize the effect of
nervous shock produced by such films on
young persons.

Influence of the Cin- Granting the different

ema on Peoples effects which the cin-

of Different Races nema can have on

and Different Cul- peop,es q{ different

tures. ,. . I-* ^

races living in different

latitudes, we must bring the greatest care
to the choice of films exported. Many coun-

THE CINEMA FOR DOCUMENTING THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

255

tries are quite well aware of the importance of
this fact already.

We must make a collective effort to prevent
the distribution of bad pictures which can
have a prejudicial effect on natives. We
should especially consider the mental charac-
teristics of Oriental peoples and peoples of
the Far East, who have lively imaginations
and great sensibility.

A feeling of opposition to the emancipation
of women has been provoked among Mussul-
mans by their seeing pictures coming from
Europe and Anerica. In India, the governing
classes and Buddhist reformers have been
led to organize a campaign in favour of a film
censorship in order to safeguard the moral
and religious traditions of the Hindus.

The evil effects on these races have been
vigorously detailed by Professor Wang Ting
Hsiang of Tien-Tsin, one of the most
distinguished scholars of the old school.
" To tell the truth, the list of bad habits and
deplorable customs to be attributed to your
cinema is a very long one. How is that you
yourselves do not see that this shameful
exhibition of the worst side of your cinema
and European civilization is certainly not
of a nature to create respect for you among
our masses ? ".

The Reverend Father J. Harry Cotton
returning from China, stated at a talk to the
Women's Association of New York that the
American cinema is exercising more influence
on the people of the Far East than the mis-
sionaries' word.

In various Central and South American
states, the government intervenes with the
aid of the censorship in the fight against
immoral pictures sent from Europe and the
United States.

On the other hand, we are well aware how
useful the cinema can be in these far of
parts of the world, how it can aid in the spread
of constructive and civilizing ideas. We
cannot go into detail here in this matter
which is full of promise for the future, but
we should like to quote two instances related
by our colleagues.

Mme Gallagher de Parkes, Honorary

President of the National Council of Women
of Peru, in her interesting report on the Peru-
vian cinema, shows us how the film has been
used with great effect to fight alcoholism
among the Indians, while Mile Suzanne
Karpeles of the French Women's National
Council and secretary of the Institute of
Buddhist studies at Phom Penh has been able
to follow this question of the influence of the
motion picture very closely. Her correspon-
dence is a precious and comforting document,
and her personal experience can and ought
to serve as the basis and an example of the
film policy to be followed in these countries.
She writes :

I have made some films in order to
render the lessons easy to understand for a
public composed of naive peasants, besotted
soldiers and fine and cultured bonzes. Group-
ing the films by categories, I have arrived
at having sufficient material to supply six
good projections of one hour each ".

" 18 August, 1932.

" Yesterday we inaugurated a new kind
of amusement, and I can assure you that
the films were appreciated as perhaps they
have never been appreciated in France.

" The Mihcians, their families and
friends, and the preacher surrounded by
a number of yellow sages, passed a delightful
evening. There were about 600 of them
bubbling over with delight, crying out and
clapping their hands, while we explained
to them the pictures Paysages de France and
A School of Agriculture. When they saw the
big cattle and the huge horses and the fields
being worked like rice fields their enthusiasm
knew no bounds. It was a surprise for them
to see Frenchmen working the land just as
they do.

" At the beginning of the projection,
my secretary explained that it was thanks
to the cinema section of the C. N. F. F.
composed of women of lofty sentiments
working for the good of humanity, that we
were able to show them that evening and on
several other occasions these fine pictures.

"23 August, 1932;

" The projections which we are offering

256

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

regularly to the Milicians and the Buddhist
clergy in large numbers have shown us to what
degree this kind of manifestation is a precious
aid for the spreading of our influence and for
a better understanding among peoples ".

In order better to assist us in understanding
the Far East, would it not be advisable to
distribute pictures made in those countries ?
A recent article pointed out that during the
last five or six years only five Asiatic pictures
have been shown in the United States.
(3 Japanese, one Chinese and one Indian).

To conclude, we may state all the reasons
for hope which we are encouraged to have
by the voluminous and interesting docu-
mentation gathered together by the I.I E. C.
of Rome as a result of the iniquiry undertak-
en by it among peoples of the Near and Far
East. There were more than 200 replies
coming from persons qualified to speak and
these replies allow us better to understand
this important question of the influence of the
motion picture on peoples of different races
and cultures. The question has unfortunate-
ly been too much neglected up to now.

It has seemed right to the Cinema and
Radio Commission of the Women's Inter-
national Council that an effort should be

made by each of us within our own spheres
and capacities to reach the object aimed at :
the better employment of the motion picture
in the cause of peace. Films which are
dangerous for international understanding
and good will should be notified as such, while
on the contrary, pictures which favour a
better understanding between nations should
be welcomed. The difficulties encountered
and successes obtained should be made
known ; the producers of good films should be
encouraged, while those who produce pictures
with an anti-international tendency calculated
to stir up evil and revengeful feelings should
be pointed out to the press.

We should like to submit to the Congress
the motion adopted by our Cinema and Radio
Commission on the occasion of the meeting
held in Rome in October, 1932.

" The conference demands that films which
are likely to arouse and develop feelings
of hostility or hate between different races and
peoples should be rigorously excluded from
cinema programmes, that special encourage-
ment should be given to producers in all
countries who produce pictures bringing out
national values into favorable relief, while at
the same time not failing to illustrate the
collective benefits that can come from inter-
national collaboration and the work under-
taken by the League of Nations ".

THE CINEMA IN THE LIFE OF PEOPLES

THE FILM IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

BY

Eduard Golias,

Vienna.

THE peculiar conditions by which the
film industry is governed and the large
capital sums which have to be sunk in any
given production make it imperative to se-
cure the most extensive market possible for
each individual film. It is impossible, on
purely commercial grounds, for the American
industry to dispense with the European mar-
ket, and America is equally important for
European productions. Such being the
case, film authors and producers are compel-
led to keep the peculiar features of the indi-
vidual markets perpetually in mind, and to
eliminate anything which appears in any
way likely to destroy or even to restrict the
market prospects of a particular film. For
this purpose even the closest international
sales organization is not sufficient ; the film
must also be conceived, both as to outward
form and inner meaning, so as to give it a
commercial sale value.

It would be too much to attempt, within
the limits of a short report, to go into all the
details of the highly organized film industry
and the very large capital by which it is backed.
Suffice it to say that, in view of both its
manufacture and its subject-matter, the film
is a very peculiar product, at once commercial
and of the mind, whose market possibilities
are determined in no uncertain fashion by
the spiritual concepts, moral and social con-
victions and taste (as the most commonplace
expression of aesthetic values) of the groups
of consumers (cinema-goers) concerned.

It is these purely commercial considera-
tions which determine the tone and scope of

each production and necessitate the elabora-
tion of specific " formulas " aiming, for
economic reasons, at a standardization of
subject-matter and technical and ethical
treatment. In this respect, the sound film
has not made matters any easier for producers;
on the contrary, it has greatly complicated
their task.

The development of transport and of wire-
less broadcasting which has done so much to
increase the possibilities of cultural relations
between peoples and the building up of a
system of world trade embracing constantly
expanding markets, etc. have gone far to
standardize general intellectual and spiritual
conceptions in all countries.

Nevertheless, there exists as yet but little
to bridge the lack of mutual understanding
between the Occidental or European-Ameri-
can culture grousp and the Eastern-Asiatic
groups. These great civilizations have for
centuries been developing independently of
each other, and have attained to a highly
individualized culture in the intellectual,
spiritual and social spheres. A single exam-
ple will suffice in substantiation of this as-
sertion, — Japan. In a few decades that is-
land Empire of a purely Mongolian stamp
has assimilated Occidental civilization, but
without sacrificing anything of its own Asia-
tic-oriental and national civilization, which
was evolved under conditions quite different
from those prevailing in the West. To the
Japanese, Occidental civilization has been
more than a welcome and adeptly wielded
weapon in the struggle to secure satisfactory

258

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

conditions of existence. It would therefore
be a grave error to suppose that because out-
wardly Japanese life bears a certain imprint
of Western civilization the Japanese people
has already drawn closer to the West in the
spiritual, intellectual and social aspects
of culture. Even among the Western nations
themselves, conditions are very similar,
though the differences are not so deep-seated.

After this brief preliminary reference to
the fundamentals of the subject, we may
now pass to the question of how far the film
can act as an intermediary in the international
relations of peoples.

That the film is capable of performing such
a function need not be demonstrated in de-
tail. In spite of the sound film and the
talking film, it is still a fact that the cinema's
most effective means of expression is its
pictorial side and the representation of
time sequences or consecutive series of events.
Visual effect is still paramount in the film s
representational and expressive possibili-
ties, whether it be in the purely documentary
reproduction of facts and events or in the
free and creative narrative treatment of an
event ; and though this effect may to some
extent be heightened by the sound accom-
paniment, the latter can never replace or
supplant it.

The film, which is merely an objective
report of facts, will produce the effects to
be expected of such a report. It would
be a mistake, however, to suppose that a
mere report of facts will suffice for the spir-
itual and intellectual comprehension of
what has actually taken place. In many
cases, it is only through exposition and in-
terpretation that the event recorded by the
film can be grasped in its proper setting and
with its full intellectual and spiritual signi-
ficance. When the film enlists the aid of
methods drawn from dramatic art, and freely
creates intellectual and spiritual themes, it
is found to be much more deeply rooted
in the intellectual and spiritual traditions
of the civilization from which it springs and
whose idioms it employs as symbols —
and indeed must employ them if it is to be

" understood " and produce its effect upon
the intellect and psyche. In this connec-
tion, we need only refer to the film " Nip-
pon , which reproduces Japanese drama.
This film has only to be compared with any
film drama of European or American origin
in order to prove conclusively how essential
are the differences in dramatic means of
expression as determined by the various
civilizations. The difference would be
equally great if we were to transport a twent-
ieth-century Greek into an ancient Greek
theatre, the effects of which would be based
upon essentially different psychical hypothe-
ses, a quite different capacity for illusion,
a different receptivity and accessibility to
symbolic treatment. Every European who
visits a Chinese theatre experiences the same
inward helplessness and the same inability
to understand, while, conversely, a great
deal of what takes place in a European
theatre remains incomprehensible to a China-
man unfamiliar with things European.

We are nevertheless justified in main-
taining that the film being perfectly capable
of dispensing with the spoken word, is in a
position to play a very important part as an
intermediary in the international relations
of peoples, and it is therefore not at all Uto-
pian of those who, on purely humanitarian
grounds or in the interests of peace, are striv-
ing to draw closer the bonds of international
relationships, to wish to influence film pro-
duction to that end ; but, as we explained
at the outset, these endeavours are counter-
acted by the commercial considerations and
interests of the film industry.

The film as an instrument of propaganda for
the mutual understanding of peoples and the
service of peace.

Peoples are divided not by what they have
in common, but by that in which their res-
pective modes of life and fundamental con-
ceptions are at variance. The strong wave
of nationalism, which is spreading more es-
pecially over Europe and intensifying the
national consciousness of the various peo-
ples — and to such a point that we can ac-
tually discern tendencies to autarchy in

THE CINEMA FOR DOCUMENTING THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

259

cultural life — seems to be driving the peo-
ples apart. Understanding of foreign peoples
however, presupposes knowledge of one s
own. It will be for the people's leaders, in
their farsightedness and wisdom, to see that,
even while national characteristics and pecu-
liarities are fully emphasised, it is realized
that each national culture can only stand to
gain by the exchange of cultural assets and
indeed can scarcely ever develop without
such exchange. The principle of autar-
chy, which in the long run is inapplicable to
a State's economic life, is no less inapplicable
to the ordering of its cultural resources.

It therefore behoves men of goodwill in
all countries to join their efforts to secure the
objective representation of the culture and
civilization of their own peoples and to keep
each other mutually informed. Flights of
national enthusiasm lead all too easily to over-
estimation of one's own and under-estima-
tion of foreign culture and civilization,
without its being realized that here too all
judgments are relative — inevitably so —
and that it is quite impossible to comprehend
any culture apart from its topographical —
geographical, historical and economic back-
ground.

Comprehension of one's own character
and usages presupposes a high degree of
self-criticism, feeling and objectivity ; and
among instruments of propaganda, visual
representation is especially valuable. It
has abundant powers of suggestion ; it can
dispense with the spoken word ; but it is apt
to lead to the mistaken belief that in the very
nature of things the camera cannot lie. Yet
anyone, familiar with the highly developed
camera technique of the cinema will under-
stand that a method of representation which
can even represent the impossible and make
it credible can very easily lead to a distor-
tion of facts such as cannot always be detected
without difficulty. That is the danger.
To realize its full magnitude and withstand
it will be one of the most vital duties of all
who have at heart the pacification of the world
through mutual understanding.

An ideal solution of this question, would

be international supervision of production
with a view to objective representation in
documentary films. Only thus will it be
possible to open the way to reciprocal pro-
paganda of a far-minded and objective kind.

Si vis pacem, para pacem /In accordance
with this maxim those responsible for such
film propaganda would have to muster suf-
ficient courage to show that the fundamental
causes leading to the conflits of war are the
instinct of self-preservation and the desire
to obtain assured and adequate conditions
of life. Such propaganda films must there-
fore not be confined to exhibiting a country
and the men whom fate has placed in it in
every aspect of their existence ; it must also
show the main springs of their economic life
as developed and determined by history.
That will require courage to depict the truth,
the courage to ponder existing facts, the
tension they engender in the life of the peo-
ples and the consequences to which they may
ultimately lead, and to give them cinematogra-
phic representation. It is significant that the
population of Germany was approximately
eight million in 1 648, at the end of the Thirty
Years' War, and approximately seventy mil-
lion in 1914, — facts which explain the ex-
pansionist urge in the life of the German
people, especially when their geographical
situation is also taken into account. It is
impossible to understand the various aspects
of the life of Germany until this fact has been
grasped.

If the susceptibilities of the peoples are
not to be wounded or their passions aroused
by a medium of propaganda as dangerous
as the film, international agreements will be
necessary. Whether and how far Europe
is psychologically prepared for such a de-
velopment, the present rapporteur cannot
presume to decide. He can only refer to
his proposal to set up an international com-
mittee, a kind of " Film League of Nations ,
whose primary duty it would be to supervise
film production (as is already done with re-
gard to the production of textbooks) and
scrutinize it from the standpoint of the con-
siderations set out above. It would also,

260

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

however, have to concern itself with the
question whether and how far it is possible
to conclude an international convention cal-
culated to bring about an atmosphere of
justice, impartiality and equity.

This committee would also have to be em-

powered to urge the departments of psycho-
logy in the various universities to enquire ful-
ly into the influence and effects of the ci-
nematograph on peoples of different civili-
zations and to place their material at the com-
mittee's disposal for mature consideration.

SUMMARY REPORT FOR THE INTERNATIONAL
TEACHING AND EDUCATIONAL FILM CONGRESS

THE EDUCATIONAL FILM IN THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

BY

Vittorio Viola.

The Film as a
means towards
the spiritual and
moral elevation
of the Working
Classes.

T

'HE pace of the life
we live nowadays
and the mechanization
of the systems of work
in all sections of pro-
duction do not permit
the worker any time for increasing his culture,
while on the other hand, he is not able to
find in any kind of labour that satisfaction
which derives from doing work of a personal
character. The film offers a way out of this
situation, for it can offer us, in a relatively
short space of time and without much expense
a maximum of new impressions which can
satisfy that romanticism which lies deep in
the heart of every man. These circumstances
explain the popularity of the film with the
working classes, and show the necessity of
recognizing it as a fact of extraordinary impor-
tance in the life of the peoples.

Unfortunately, this great influence of the
motion picture on the masses was, to begin
with, only recognized by persons who consider
the motion picture from a purely commercial
point of view. The important possibilities
of its use for culture and education were
neglected.

As far back as 1914, there were attempts

on the part of isolated Austrian associations
and individuals to organize a campaign against
pernicious films, but the means adopted in
this fight were chiefly the production and
exhibition of nature films.

It was only in 1920 that responsible educa-
tionists in Austria began to change their neg-
ative opinion on the recreational motion
picture, and recognized that the film, stren-
uously opposed, first of all, as an education-
al aid, ought to be utilized unconditionally
as an instrument for the education of adults.

In the course of little more than ten years,
it was frequently possible to prove that a good
film, carefully prepared, has great chances of
delighting the working classes and justifies its
existence on economic grounds.

The economic crisis has proved the great
obstacle for the utilization of the motion
picture for educational ends. People who
believe in it, however, have faith in the pro-
gramme they have set down for themselves,
that is, to enter the field and boldly oppose
good films to bad.

The bodies which devote themselves to the
use of the motion picture in the education
of the masses are the two big independent
popular cultural institutes : the Urania of

THE CINEMA FOR DOCUMENTING THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

261

Vienna and the Popular Culture Club of
Vienna. These two organizations run instruc-
tional theatres in Vienna, and all the provin-
cial organizations of the kind depend on them.

The Urania of Vienna issues the following
communique on its activities :

The Urania Institute of Popular Education
of Vienna was founded on April 16, 1897
through the efforts of N. 0. Gewerbeverein
(Arts and Crafts Association of Lower Aus-
tria). The first temporary edifice of the
Urania was built in 1898 on the occasion of
the Jubilee Exhibition in the Prater. Follow-
ing performances and lectures with lantern
slides, some films of an instructive character
were projected for the first time, that is,
barely three years after the invention of the
moving picture. Old files of the Urania
show that in one year the association already
possessed a regular stock of films. The
collection has been regularly increased and
improved since then, so that at present the
Urania has a film repository of about 450.000
instructive and didactic films with exclusive
right to project. This film archive is without
doubt the largest repository of instructive
and didactic pictures in Europe.

Instructive pictures were regularly repro-
duced by the Urania during its first twenty
years of existence. They were shown dur-
ing the so called musical performances of
the Urania, during scholastic lectures, and
in programmes given under the title of
" cinematograms of the Urania ".

On February 4, 1 92 1 , through the efforts of
Dr. Lamberg — then leading physician at the
Freiwilligen Rettungsgesellschaft (Voluntary
Life saving association) the first projection
of a big instructional film was given. The
showing of the picture occupied all the even-
ing. The picture which was called Wunder
des schneeshuhs (Marvels of the Snow Shoe)
became celebrated throughout the world
from that time to now. The Urania, which is
in the forefront of all Europe in the prepara-
tion of educational and instructive films, has
taken great pains in the production of its
instructional pictures. Films on all lands,
on all the peoples of the earth, travel and

exploration pictures, films on astronomy and
natural history have been prepared by the
Urania. The association has acquired great
fame in Vienna and also in all Austria,
thanks to the publicity obtained through
the method of loaning out its pictures. The
regularity of the productions and the excel-
lence of the loan and grant organization of the
Urania has also been appreciated abroad.
There are today 64 clubs associated with the
Urania in the Austrian Confederation, and the
merit of this is chiefly due to the film.

The conception which the modern man
has of the world — which until recently
constituted an unknown plastic concept —
has been formed by the instructional motion
picture. Foreign lands and peoples are no
longer mere words for us. Through the
wonder of the motion picture, we have been
able on occasion to spend an hour or so in
foreign countries among their peoples.
This direct knowledge of all parts of the
world and its countries and peoples, its
various forms of civilization and its cultures
learnt through the film — and the sound film
has still further increased our cognitions and
delights the public still more than the silent
picture — offers us a new classification of
ourselves, our country and people which are
in relations with the conception we have of
the whole world. The great mission of
the instructive film consists principally in
the power to let us know men and things,
which tends towards understanding and
peace between nations.

An examination of the film activity of the
Urania shows a long series of successes.
Among the most important films we may
recall Savage Africa. Shackletoris South
Pole Expedition. The Ascent of Mount
Everest, Nanuk the Esquimo, Biene Maja,
The Miracle of Flowers, Around the World,
America, the Land of Illimitable Possibilities,
Chang, World Melody (Melodie Welt), The
Last Paradise, The Wild Eagle's Nest.

On June 8, 1928, that is about 15 months
after the inception of the sound film, the
Urania projected the first talking film in
Austria (Trier gon).

262

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

The new invention was exhibited at the
Urania in the autumn of 1928, and during
the spring of 1929, in all the cities of the
Austrian confederation, by means of travell-
ing sound films apparatus. More than 2000
Austrians frequent daily the projections of
the Urania, both in Vienna and other cities
of the confederation, that is to say, about
three-quarters of a million persons in a year.

The Viennese Association for the Education
of the People (Volksbildungsverein) is in its
47th year of existence. When it was founded
in the winter of 1887 out of a love of the
people and a belief in the possibility of
educating the working classes neglected by
all to a greater spiritual elevation and libera-
tion, approval and interest were on a very
wide and enthusiastic scale for the new idea.
On the other hand, there were persons in
high places, and among them men of superior
culture and humanitarian views, and with
a knowledge of public life, who, basing their
beliefs on the accredited opinions of those
times, and imagining that they knew ' the
people ", openly maintained that the scheme
of educating the people could not hope to
succeed. This was supposed to be because the
people is satisfied with the conditions in
which it finds itself, and in view of the brief
period of leisure which it enjoys, has no other
desire that to hear the popular music of the
day, or at the most, to read some novel picked
off a bookstall.

These criteria have been changed, and
the concept of " education of adults " cannot
be ignored in the life of the Austrian people

The state which once almost supported the
burden of educating the people has with
the passage of time become the promoter of
such education, and we ought to reckon it a
great victory that the concept " elevation
and education of the people " has been adopt-
ed into the official language of all the gover-
ment departments.

The theatre for doctrinal pictures, founded
in Vienna in 1924 in a building belonging to
the Superior Popular Schools, is one of the
outstanding installations. The first projec-
tions of the most important instructional

films took place there. Among these pic-
tures may be mentioned : The Great White
Silence, With the Zeppelin Across the Atlan-
tic, Java, The Secrets of the Sea, Krassin,
Turksib, etc.

As a result of the development of the sound
film, the first experiments with this new
means took place in 1928. In 1929, a
modern building was installed with the latest
sound film plant. In 1932, there were 397
projections for adults and 60 for children.
The attendance figures in 1932 had risen
to 1 00,000. Under the pressure of the pres-
ent circumstances, the executive committee
has extended its activity considerably in
order to do something for the unemployed
in the way of entertainment, having assumed
the task of mitigating their unhappy lot by
means of teaching and spiritual elevation.

The Association for Educating the People
has had a scholastic cinema for nine years,
and weekly projections for young school
children are given. The preparation of the
programmes is carried out in agreement with
representatives of about 40 schools, which
are near the scholastic cinema. All this costs
much v/ork and considerable money and the
latter is hard to come by nowadays — but it
has to be got together in the interests of the
working classes since the fervour put into the
campaign of educating the people is one of
the most ardent aspirations of Austria.

Side by side with these organizations, there
are also those associations which have the
whole world as their field of activity. These
too have included the film in their education-
al programme, according to well defined
criteria.

While the use of motion pictures showed a
steady advance until quite recently — espec-
ially the use of sub-standard film — but the
economic crisis has slowed down the increase
somewhat. All these organizations count
on their box office returns to pay their way,
for their expenses are considerable.

The Centre for Educational Work of the
Social Democratic Party, with a marked
reduction in the use of its plant has produced
1029 films. These pictures formed 487 pro-

THE CINEMA FOR DOCUMENTING THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

263

grammes, of which 207 were the party's own,
and 822 were by others, that is, lent pictures.
There were: 114 propaganda films, 282
recreational pictures, 62 didactic films, 236
nature films, 239 comedies, 42 technical and
trade films, 36 sport pictures and 15 fables.
The organizers of the projections were :
cinema exhibitors, 436, party organizations,
189 ; young socialist women workers, 83 ;
operatives' staffs 38; young operatives, 31,
Chambers of Work, 36; Friends of Children,
59 ; Alpine Associations, 4 ; sport associations,
54 ; various, 54. The number of sub-stan-
dard films lent shows a diminution, though
an insignificant one, which can even be inter-
preted as a triumph of the reduced size pic-
ture in the educational field.

TheFilminCoIlec- From 16 to 23 Octo-
tive Education, ber, 1932 the scholastic
congress of Jugend und Film (Youth and Film)
took place in Vienna. It was organized by the
Austrian Youth Union, and it stressed the
great importance of the film as an aid to
education. A symposium held with an issue
of 15,000 questionnaires will shortly furnish
us with some illuminating returns of the
educational influence of the recreational film.

The Film for Phys- The Vienna Sick Re-

ical Education }ief fund, the greatest

and in the Per- publJc utJHty instku_

sonal Hygiene of .- r .i i • i •

. mi. tion or the kind in

the Working . , . .

~, Austria, has issued

Classes. '

the following infor-
mation:

The fact that the animated picture produces
a stronger effect and a more lasting impression
on, the spectator — a fact of essential impor-
tance in demonstrative film lectures — than
talks accompanying lantern slides or wall
pictures, induced the Sick Insurance Institute
of Vienna in 1930 to make especial use of the
film and more particularly reduced size
film in its cultural and hygiene work.

This change was facilitated by the projec-
tion machine trade, which was only then able
to place reduced format projectors on the

market that worked in a faultless manner, and
without strong illuminants, and were adapted
for both large screens or for small ones, for
audiences of from 50 to 200 persons.

Two considerations of equal importance
seem to us to arise from the foregoing : thar
the representation of the so called " good
films" is a useful and quite convincing means
of propaganda for spreading knowledge and
instructions regarding the health of the
working classes, and that the sub-standard
film is always the ideal type owing to its small
weight, its non-inflammable character, and
the possibility of transporting it anywhere.
Besides this, its price is proportionately low,
and this is a point in its favour, because it
is possible to obtain several copies of sub-
standard size film for the price of one copy
of normal film.

It must regretfully be admitted that it
was, in a way, rather difficult to find pictures
which mirrored the thought and life of the
people of Vienna and the Austrian provinces,
because the German production — this is
said with all due respect for German film
technique — did not correspond to the condit-
ions already referred to, and on the other
hand, it was not possible to go ahead with
the manufacture of pictures on one s own
account in view of financial reasons. In
spite of this, it was possible, through arran-
gements come to with the State Commission
for Physical Education of the people of Berlin,
and with other producing houses, to prepare
a programme of social hygiene pictures which
was completed the next year with special
propaganda films against accidents made by
the Austrian Central Bureau for Preventing
accidents. This due in part to the interest
taken by the Sickness Insurance Institute
which favoured propaganda for the prevention
of accidents, carried out both in the streets
and in the homes. This was especially the
case because according to the Austrian law,
the Institute was obliged to supply all medical
assistance and provide a place of cure for all
victims of accidents, the results of which last
less the 28 days, and except in the case of
accidents during work four-fifths of the total

264

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

accidents require a period of cure of less than
28 days for their cure.

All factory staffs, cultural associations and
existing organizations of whatsoever political
tendency, all the workmen and women wor-
kers insured with the Institute, and also the
associations of the parents of pupils in the
popular and high schools of Vienna were
informed by circular of the intention of offer-
ing a series of explanations on social hy-
giene by means of reduced size film projec-
tions. After a few weeks, it was possible to
realize from the number of inquiries and the
offer of lectures, the great importance of
health propaganda for the proletariat.

The Institute issued some statistics of its
work from the 1 st January 1 93 1 to the end of
June 1933, that is, for two and a half years.
It had a real success which was recognized as
merited by all the other Austrian insurance
institutes for illness, and it encouraged them
to undertake simdar social hygiene propagan-
da work on identical lines. Both the reports
of the institutes on their work and our own
endeavours have allowed, it to be clearly seen
that the way chosen by the Workmen's
Sickness Insurance Institute of Vienna to
organize health propaganda with the aid of
institutions run by working classes is the
right one, and that it is only by following
this way that we may hope to attain our ends.
It is only with the assistance of the workmen's
organizations and those of the employee class
that is it possible to interest the manual and
clerical worker and their families in questions
of hygiene so as to obtain with the improved
health of the people a contribution towards
the welfare of the population.

During these two years and a half, hygiene
and accident prevention pictures were projec-
ted by 337 different organizations before
41,929 persons. The pictures were accom-
panied by some words of introduction and
by explanations. If the number is not
higher, the fact is due to the economic crisis
and the shortage of money available at
regular intervals. It is to be hoped that
in the future it will be possible to succeed
with improved conditions in the country, to

find larger means than those available today
for educational and peoples' health purposes.
The object we must keep in view is the
instruction in hygiene by means of the mo-
tion picture, beginning with children and
continuing up to the end of the individual's
life. The advantages are : fewer sicknesses
an increased power of resistance to disease
and the health of the people.

The Film as Pro- Unfortunately we have
paganda for the too few nlms 0f tnJs
Choice of a Trade kJnd M the same>

there is a report issued
by another bureau which shows their utility
in high schools. In rural districts, six films
are circulating. They were a gift of the
ministry of Agriculture and Forests.

These pictures are : forage cultivation,
cereals cultivation, beetroots, vines, raising
live-stock and the milk industry. According
to prevailing opinions, the instructive film
dealing with trades and crafts is most effica-
cious when accompanied by a lecture and the
projection of lantern slides.

The Film in Work- For propaganda of any

men's Clubs and 0f the above mentioned

Associations for categories, the film is

educational tour- chJefly used b Austrja

ist, political and c • .

. ror tourist purposes.

moral propagan- ^ ^ ^ ^

where to the obliga-
tory regulation introduced in 1933, whereby
all cinemas must show the Austrian weekly
film review for patriotic political and moral
education of the people.

The Filmf or Tour- It is evident that the
ist Propaganda. nlm constitutes the most
modern form of propaganda tourist purposes.
It allows us to reproduce fully and in the
most effective way the beauties of landscapes,
and awakens in us the desire to live again
by actually seeing the places and persons,
what we have witnessed on the screen.

Owing to its movement, the tourist motion
picture produces a much more lasting effect
than the sight of a simple immoveable land-

THE CINEMA FOR DOCUMENTING THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

265

scape which tends to become uniform, unless
clouds or a storm introduce movement into
the picture.

Winter sports films have enjoyed the
greatest success, and their propaganda effect
has been enormous. In this connection, we
recall the pictures by Trenker, Franck and
Schneider. Unfortunately, in this sphere
the producer has and not seized his op-
portunities. Apart from a couple of Alpine
scene pictures, nothing much has been
done in this field.

The educational effect of good films which
reproduce interesting Alpine scenes and nat-
ural science could be more efficacious if the
producers took more pains over their work.
The film should show us all the small details
and contribute to the spread of a knowledge
of nature, which is an absolute necessity
for tourists.

This is why the film must be recognized as
the best aid for advertising the beauties of the
Alps and mountain sports. Doubtless an
abyss divides theory from reality in this field
of activity, since the output of such pictures is
in the hands of persons who have no interest
in the instructive film, and have not the
requisite degree of culture necessary to un-
derstand its meaning.

The Distribution of There are at present

Educational Films ;n Austria about 890

in Cinema Halls, ^l.l.v^,,, -a, „•„,„„
exhibitors with cinemas

of which, however, only one-fourth give

daily show. The authorization to project

pictures is subordinate to the granting of

a licence. Although 270 halls run on licences
which are not their own, but belong to asso-
ciations (communities, catholic organization
popular education institutes, workmen's
dwellings bureaux, philanthropic associations,
education board, scholastic committees, athlet-
ic societies, etc.) the compilation of the pro-
gramme in the cinemas is left in the hands
of the exhibitor or proprietor of the hall.
The influence of the owner of the licence,
which is necessary and possible, is lacking.

This state of things could be notably
improved if the owner of the licence were held
responsible for the running of the cinema.
It would be still further improved if the
granting of licences to associations and insti-
tutions was made dependent on an obligation
to carry some educational work in their halls.

The Union of the cinema theatres of
Vienna has made its views on the subject
known in the following terms :

In order to assist the progress and spread
of educational films, we are quite willing
to show pictures dealing with crafts
and trades, and if it so desired, we are
benevolently disposed to use our influence
in this way among members of the Union.
The essential condition for us to take up this
attitude is that all educational efforts in
industrial cinemas should be valued and ap-
preciated like those in schools or a scholastic
cinema. This means that every projection
of an educational picture by a cinema exhibit-
or should be exempt from the cinema tax
just as are all projections of films by any insti-
tute working for the education of the people.

4 — Ice tngl.

THF CINEMA IN THE LIFE OF PEOPLES

INDIA AND THE CINEMA WORLD

By
A. Mukoyi

of the Indian Bureau of Calcutta.

THE cinema is rapidly becoming the chosen
and effective medium of this century for
the expression and synthesis of art and science.
Its use for entertainment purposes will con-
tinue and develop, but it is now seen to be a
potent medium for the enrichment of life,
and for education in its many aspects.

The film is an essentially modern expres-
sion, and one of the best contemporary in-
struments for the dissemination of ideas by
virtue of its popular appeal. But it is de-
pendent for its future on the way in which
those ideas turn out, and upon the will and
policy of those who command it. The
cinema is a formative agent of modern civil-
ization in the results of which its future is
contained. It is no longer necessary to
emphasize the commercial importance of
the film industry ; it is indeed an enormous
power and at the moment in spite of the
slump, films are a tremendous industry in the
world.

In India, like many other imports from the
West, films were introduced, and in, the
course of years, the film industry grew up on
a commercial basis. Though of recent
growth and still in its infancy, the cinema
has come to stay, and its development is
being keenly watched by all lovers of art
in this land.

Films and the Indian The film audiences of
Public. India were for so long

and are still being fed with Hollywood pictu-
res, that Hollywood has succesfully created a
taste among the Indians, as it has done

throughout the world. If we look into any
of the box offices of any local cinema, we find
the pictures that rule the exhibitor, are
those of adventure and sex. Adventure
includes crime and war, and must mean their
glorification. (How many of our people
went to see " All Quiet On The Western
Front " with an intellectual as well as emo-
tional appeal ?).

The great mass of India's middle class
cinema-goers (it is mainly the English speak-
ing middle class that contains the bulk of
them) like to look at pictures of rich foreign-
ers with nothing to do, and get some vicar-
ious satisfaction from them. America has
been shrewd enough to realize this and to
produce pictures pleasing to their foreign
clientele. Then there is the deplorably pre-
sented propaganda, triumphantly telling
the world, how funny some folk find the
religious beliefs of the inhabitants of India,
China and other non-Cristian countries.

In a land full of troubles and difficulties,
with poverty famine, flood and unemploy-
ment existing on a scale never before encoun-
tered, Hollywood hands us sickly romances
in settings bearing no relation to the life
of the great mass of people.

Revolt Against Holly- Signs are not want-
wood, ing that a considerable
section of the filmgoing public in other coun-
tries has realized the extent of the deplora-
ble moral and intellectual degradation that
these popular sex stuff films have caused to
the people and children who are in the habit

THE CINEMA FOR DOCUMENTING THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

267

of absorbing undesirable notions subcon-
sciously.

The aesthetic, cultural, and scientific side
of filmwork has long been neglected by the
commercial exploiters of the cinema, who have
debauched public taste to an extent almost
beyond remedy. To create an audience for
artistic and intelligent films the world to-day
needs hundreds of Pabsts, Eisenstiens, and
Pudowkines to undo the wrongs of the popu-
lar producers. The success of Pabst s
Kameradschaft, or Mddchen in Uniform,
films which we could not see in India, marked
the end of the supremacy of American pro-
ductions in Europe. In Kameradschaft,
Pabst has individualized his characters whilst
keeping them impersonal. The film is full
of symbolism and required intelligence to
understand it. Mddchen in Uniform is the
first film of the first German woman director
of any importance, Leon tine Sagan. There
is no man in this film, no real love story nor
anything seductive. It is a film dealing
with something negative, a neurosis, and by its
unique direction and novel acting it held the
winning number of votes in Germany. Thus
we see the birth of a new school of thought
in Europe demanding artistic and intelligent
films bearing some relation with the actual
life of a people.

Who will make a drama out of the work of
millions of men and women in India of
different types and classes engaged in our
growing industrial cities, or in villages ?

We forget that what the modern world
wants is a cinema of achievments and not of
contemplations.

But it will not be so easy to make such films.
It will call for special writing of stories and
greater talents than are now employed in the
studios. In the Indian film world there is
but a handful of persons who can create in
terms of the motion picture. There are yet
too few people who are film conscious. We
have no film technicians, on training school for
cinematography, and there is no place where
the history of the cinema may be studied.

At the moment, no Indian film has
been made round any idea except on some
mythological story, which is as old as India's
mountains. The productions of this kind
of films will never make a great industry ; we
shall never be able to compete with any
foreign film until we produce, using ideas and
not the narrative as a basis for construction.

Idea and not the story is the material of
film-making, and the country with the best
ideas, and the greatest courage in expressing
them will always command the screens of
the world.

Where do we Stand Many of the pictures
in India? shown in India in our

cinemas during these years not only failed to
be entertaining, but were definitely boring.
They were neither sincere nor had any techn-
ical qualities. The films produced from our
studios in India have failed to justify their
existence as a medium of expression. When
the world is looking for an answer to its
demand for a soul even from its entertain-
ments, we in India are content with a picture
of a story from the epic. Has it anything to
touch reality ? Do we find the practical
urgencies which are throbbing in every heart
of the people in any of the films ? Do we not
want to see on the screen those men and
women who have been with us through one
of the worst periods of Indian history ?

India wants Produ- A brief inspection of
cers* recent Indian films will

show what a state of ignorance prevails in the
minds of the producers.

They lack the genius of the European
producers. There is no speed in the move-
ments of their productions. They have not
even that dynamic gusto, which we can
see in the most ordinary American films.
They have neither the richness nor the reck-
lesness ; in a word they are lifeless. The
players are made up as dolls and filled with
no enthusiasm of youth. They do not act,
they do not express, they do not feel, and
do not live. The man behind the picture,
the hand of the producer is nowhere to be
found in our films. It is the producer
elsewhere who is in command of his material,

268

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

using every inch of the film to express and
build up his belief. And we look out in vain
for his personality in our pictures. There is
no reason why we should not make films like
the Americans, no reason but the scarcity
of real producers among our midst. Why
should other nations have a monopoly of
all the glory and why should we be gasping
for other people's romances while there is all
the possibility of seeing the vital aspects
of our national life on the screen ?

Kow to create a That task is one for
Public. tne nlm directors, but

our cinemas can do much by intelligent selec-
tion of new films from abroad. Do we know
how many films never reach our screens ?
And how many of the films we see in our cine-
mas can be accepted as real, as having meaning
and purpose. Murder of Karamazov, Kamer-
adschaft, Mddchen In Uniform, The Last
Laugh, No Man's Land, The Street Scene,
A Nous la Liberte, Le million, Down our
Street, Atlantide, Alone, The Dead House,
Road To Glory, may unfortunately never
reach our public, but such films would have
made our people thinkfact we would not hesi-
tate to say that out of two hundred films which
we saw during the past three or four years,
we can only name ten or twelve which at
all impressed us by their sincerity or tech-
nical qualities.

Instead of looking to America for her 100 %
talking and dancing films, let our cinemas show
the outstanding excellence of photography,
technique, and direction of the Germans,
Italians, French, and Russians. There is a
body known as the Board of Censors whose
work is supposed to deal with the political,
sex and moral side of pictures, but so far its
activities have been limited to banning a few
unknown films and spoiling by clumsy cuts
wellknown films such as Metropolis or Notre
Dame. Whilst allowing freely a monoto-

nously regular exhibition of luxury, bravado
and fantastic adventure, it has indirectly
helped a violation of our moral code.

We know that censors cannot help this
situation ; they have no positive educational
programme to act as a criterion for them.

Motion pictures audiences must be con-
sciously trained to know good pictures as a
boy must be trained in a knowledge of the
classics. A well rounded programme for
the improvement of the film can properly
begin with the determination of the positive
criteria by which pictures are to be meas-
ured.

Scientists are beginning to tell us that they
have useful information for society, if society
will only accept it. Ethics should certainly
have something to say about our future screen
policy. So should psychology, biology, politi-
cal science, sociology, and economics, as well
as every other study with social implications.
What is the probable effect of the picture
on the opinions of the people who see it in
relation to religion, capitalism, government
and morality ? Will it assist in opening their
minds to new ideas ? Answers to these
questions will demonstrate clearly the need
for a conscious plan which will insist on the
intelligent use of films as a socializing factor.

Assuming, then, that science has reached
the point where it can assist in establishing
adequate criteria of conduct which are work-
able from a film producer's point of view, how
can we effect a sufficient change in popular
attitude to make itself felt in our studios ?

The schools and colleges are naturally
the first agencies to which we should turn.

Civic assiciations, governmental agencies,
women's clubs and philanthropic foundations
can be of great service in this direction.
Such effective forces can be made to outwe-
igh any harmful influence of the films, and in
the future result in vastly improving the
production of films.

THE CINEMA IN THE LIFE OF PEOPLES

THE FILM AS AN AUXILIARY MEANS
FOR FORMING NATIONAL SENTIMENT

BY

Prof. Adolf Htibl,

or Vienna.

Suggestive Qualities T^HE compelling

of the Film. 1 force wnich

the film can exercise, on human thought
trough two powerful means of approach —
sight and hearing — demonstrates that the
motion picture is an instrument of exceptional
importance and efficacy to influence the
masses of the people.

In the ordinary way, in a darkened hall,
which is insulated from all outside distrac-
tions, the spectator witnessing a projection
with many other persons united in a similar
communion of spirit, perceives and feels
image and sound and the various phases
of the film at the same instant in which
all the other spectators are impressed, and
reacts to common sensations at the precise
tnstant as the men and women sitting near
him. His reactions effect his neighbours just
in the same way as he is subject to the influence
of theirs. The whole hall of a cinema is like
a huge sounding-board by means of which
one person s reactions, scarcely perceptible in
themselves, become on being released won-
derfully increased in volume by the pheno-
menon of community of feeling. The in-
fluence of the vicinity reaction at the cinema
can well be illustrated by this fact which has
been noted by shrewd observers, and proves
the effect of several persons sitting together
and being subjected under special conditions
to the same impressions at precisely the same
moment. The fact in question is that,
according, to the statements of persons who

have had occasion to study the phenomenon,
no one has ever heard anyone in the front
row of a cinema hall laugh out aloud, even
at the most comical moments of the picture,
even when the rest of the hall is shrieking with
laughter. The psychological explanation of
this fact is that that the man in the front row
has no one in front of him, but only beside him
He is on the margin of the community. He
is not right in the mass, and is therefore large-
ly exempt from the laws of mass reactions.
The same thing is true in all manifestations ;
the person on the outside cannot properly
participate in any general manifestation.

The compelling effect of the film — just
because it is a form of spiritual resonance, the
general effect of which on men is continually
increasing — cannot be compared in any way
to the fascinating effect of any other medium.
The book is addressed to the individual ;
there is no resonance. Wirless programmes
are listened to in private homes, and the
knowledge that countless other persons are
listening to the same thing at the same time
does not do much to increase the effect.
A lecture approaches the fascinating effect of
the motion picture, but even when it is accom-
panied by lantern slides, the spectators'
attention ir only held to a minimum degree
by the sight of the fixed inages. Fatigue is
felt a few seconds after the picure has been on
cloth. The attraction of the theatre is more
like that of the film, but does not equal it in
intensity. The appeal of the theatre is

270

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

necessarily based on the word or on song
(opera) or on the stage effect (reviews, etc.).
It does not therefore act acoustically and
optically on the spectator in same degree
with the same force and at the same time.
There is therefore lacking to it the rhythm
which attracts. There is not the constant
change between the near and the distant
which is so fascinating in the motion picture.
There are no close-ups to be followed by
long shots or by pictures taken at special
angles which form one of the attractions of
the film. While in the case of the theatre,
the spectator's distance from the stage is
always the same, in heightened moments the
cinema can reduce this distance to almost
nothing.

The National Film This fascinating effect
in Austria. Qf ^e m0tj0n picture

shows us how, despite all objections, the
motion picture is an important and precious
auxiliary in forming national sentiment and
patriotism. I have indicated here the var-
ious possibilities for its use which have been
noted in Austria during the last ten years.
There is no attempt to make a complete
demonstration of the case, but it is also true
that it would be easy to multiply the cases
given without difficulty.

(a) Use of the film in trade extension schools,
in summer colonies and hospitals for the educa-
tion of young persons who have completed their
studies.

Trade extension schools are provided
with cinema apparatus for film projection.
The film illustrates as a rule the best known
crafts and trades so that the young people
can, by this means, form an idea of their
future surroundings when at work. Until
they have actually chosen their trade or
craft in vocational guidance schools, the
motion picture gives the young people a
chance to learn various crafts and trades, and
helps their final decision. With the assis-
tance of projectors of the kind refered to,
high schools and trade extension courses
can — and indeed often do — increase the

students' knowledge of their own country
by showing geographical pictures, illustrat-
ing the home land. Sport films are often
shown in trade extension and vocational
guidance schools. Such pictures teach the
adolescents not to neglet the care and
hardening of their bodies. Pictures showing
the flights of some national flying hero
such as the Austrian Kronfeld or any other
national person in the forefront act is a
form of national propaganda.

A large number of films are shown in the
summer colonies in Austria, and with great
success. In winter sports colonies, pictures
illustrating winter sports are frequently pro-
jected so that the young people can get a
taste for skating and ski-ing if they are not
already devotees, or can have an opportunity
to study the technique and finer points of
such sports.

Didactic or didactic-recreational films are
always shown in the sanatoria and hospitals
for consumptives at Grimmenstein, Streng-
berg and Horgas-Enzendorf . These pictures
have a useful effect in helping the cure since
they provide a satisfaction for that desire for
diversion which is increased by the mono-
tonous life of such establishments. A sick
person in good spirits is more favourably
disposed to cure than an invalid in bad spirits.

(b) Films to Increase Knowledge of one's
Own Country. — For some time now in
Austria it has been obligatory on cinemas to
project a weekly picture inculcating national
sentiment and patriotism among the people.
The pictures do not only contain government
news and information for the people, but set
out to illustrate important events and facts
regarding Austria. The number of subjects
touched upon in these films is very large.
These weekly reels include views of Austrian
beauty spots, folklore pictures, government
enterprises, arts and crafts exhibitions, social
and economic initiatives, the work of scien-
tific institutes, sports, fine arts and other
aspects of the life of the people.

Events in the domain of international
cooperation are also included, such as pic-
tures of the sessions of the League of Na-

THE CINEMA FOR DOCUMENTING THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

271

tions and so on. The weekly national news-
reel is tending to become in this way an instru-
ment of the greatest importance. Apart from
the national news-reels, various film producers
have made some patriotic films for exhibition
in the schools and in clubs and also in public
cinemas. The oldest pictures of this kind
go back to the productions of the Austrian
Urania. This association produced pictures
on the Salzkammergut, on the Stynan Erzberg,
a picture on Hall in the Tyrol. These films
have been projected under the auspices of
the Vienna Urania and the Urania clubs in
the provinces of Austria. The Austrian
Radio Society the Ravag has repeatedly
made use of the motion picture, shoving for
instance its own technical establishments and
also landscape views of Austria for the infor-
mation and pleasure of the population.

A particular instance of this was the big
picture Radio-Wien produced in collabo-
ration with the Urania of Vienna and the
sound film Austria.

(c) The film as an auxiliary means for histor-
ical, artistic and scientific documentation of all
events having an ethnological or folklore charac-
ter.— The Austrian national weekly news-reel
must be mentioned again in connection with
this form of film activity. The reel has assum-
ed the task of making pictures of events of
an exceptional character so as to prevent their
being forgotten. The Urania clubs which
we have already referred to have the same
object in view. The Urania of Vienna pos-
sesses today a historical film of the Prater of
Vienna (1910) which deals with popular
traditions and is of considerable value.
Another picture records the carnival races
in the Krakau plain ; the Graz Urania has a
picture on popular customs in Styria (Sam-
sonumzug and Reifentanz). It should also be
mentioned that the teaching faculty has
produced some pictures among which we
may mention a tourist and landscape film
dealing with popular traditions in Burgen-
land and a sub-standard on the life of the
Austrian mountain folk.

The Austrian Bureau for luminous pic-
tures and films (Ministry of Public Instruc-

tion) has undertaken the work of gathering
together films of this type. The pictures are
chosen ones, often produced in an occasional
way by private firms over a space of years.
They are preserved from destruction, and
kept in the Austrian State archive for lantern
slides and films. This bureau also preserves
some notable Austrian films, including
reproductions of old films formerly kept in the
then existing cinema bureau. In addition
to the before mentioned bureau, there is the
film repository of the Vienna Urania and
that belonging to Austrian Cinegraphic
Scholastic Union. It is hoped that the most
notable pictures in the national news-reel will
be preserved in a similar way in the repository
of the film Bureau connected with the Minis-
try of Public Instruction.

It would appear that the collection of sound
films for the preservation of languages and
dialects, forms of expression and pronuncia-
tions necessary for comparative ethnological
studies has not yet been begun as was definitely
planned.

A documentary collection of gramophone
discs does, however, esist. It is hoped that
the idea of collecting and storing in a method-
ical way sound films of a linguistic character
according to a well defined plan will be
carried into practical effect in Austria before
long.

(d) The Film for Tourist Propaganda. — A
number of tourist and movement of foreign-
ers films have been produced in Austria
by various competent producers. Among
them may be mentioned the weekly Austrian
review produced by the Patriotic Sound
Film Society.

The direction of the Austrian Automobile
Postal Services has shown a large number
of tourist pictures not only in Austria, but
also abroad. In addition to these, the local
governments of the various federated provin-
ces such as the Voralberg and Styria have
issued tourist propaganda films. There still
remains much more to be done in this field
of activity, but it is probable that the author-
ities will make an energetic move in the
matter.

272

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

Conclusions. The instances quoted

(a to d) can easily be multiplied, as was point-
ed out in the beginning of this note. It is
not possible to treat the subject fully here.
We have only attempted to give a few exam-
ples of the principal effects of the use of
the motion picture as an aid in developing
national sentiment and patriotism.

There is in Austria a firm convinction that
the sound film is an excellent means for
inculcating patriotic sentiments and increas-
ing a people's self-esteem.

It is to be hoped that all the forces operat-
ing in this domain may shortly be united,

whether private or government. The Nat-
ional Society for the collection of sound
films — as a film-producing society — has a
vast field of activity to cover. The Ministry
of Public Instruction which has overcome the
initial difficulties by establishing its bureau
for luminous pictures and films, thus creat-
ing an instrument for collecting and preserv-
ing worth-while pictures would seem to be
the guiding hand to direct the union of all
efforts along these lines, without in any way
lessening the opportunities of individual and
autonomous effort especially the efforts of
industrious private producers.

THE CHILDREN OF THE WORLD

By Sir Evelyn Wrench. (Founder of three world movements, the Overseas League (confined to
British subjects), the English-Speaking Union (confined to Americans and British), and the All Peoples'
Association (APA) whose membership is open to all nations).

Many great congresses have met in the Eternal
City, but surely none fraught with greater possibili-
ties than the International Congress of Educational
and Industrial Cinematography, held in Rome
this month. Since the early days of the cinema
and the talking film, I have thought that we have
hardly begun to understand the wonderful instru-
ment for uniting the coming generation in the bonds
of friendship, which has been placed in our hands.

For thirty years my work has been primarly devo-
ted to the cause of promoting understanding among
nations. I have accepted the theory that we must
work through nationalism to internationalism. The
individual must be a good citizen of his town before
he can be a good patriot of his country, he must be a
good citizen of his country before he can give loyal
allegiance to Europe and the World. The same
doctrine is true of the young, they should love their
contries as well as the greater units of Europe and
the World. To my mind the task on which all
who are working for world unity must concentrate
is that in each case we must try to instil the right
kind of loyalty. We shall never get lasting peace
in the world until we disencumber our minds of
wrong thinking.

In lecturing on the subject of international rela-
tions, I frequently use a simple diagram to illustrate
the way in which our various loyalties should dove-
tail into one anothr.

The real problem before us is to incite and devel-

op in the youth the right kind of loyalties. We
want him :

(A) to love his family, but not to hate other
families ;

(B) to be proud of his school or university, but
not to hate other seats of learning ;

(C) to love his town or district, but not to hate
neighbouring towns or districts. In the Middle
Ages, Perugia hated and fought with Assisi, in my
country England with Scotland ; but we have got
past that stage in our evolution ;

(D) to love his country, but not to hate neigh-
bouring countries ;

(E) to love his race, but not to hate other races ;

THE CINEMA FOR DOCUMENTING THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

273

(F) to love his continent but not to hate other
continents. No Europe versus America or versus
Asia theories must be permitted.

In the cinema, both in the silent and talking film,
we possess a wonderful instrument of unity if we
use it properly. Could not the present gathering
at Rome draw up a syllabus which we could all use ?
If His Excellency " II Duce would give a talk in
simple words to children of other nations on why
we should be friends, which Signor Mussolini could
do in French, English and German, then we might
get " talkies " from other world leaders and establish
an exchange library of films. In my youth I was
intensely interested in the welfare of the British
Empire. If I could have seen on the screen and
heard the words of men like Sir Wildrid Laurier
(French Canadian). President Kruger and Cecil
Rhodes (South Africans) Richard Seddon (New
Zealander) and Alfred Deakin (Australian) I would
never have forgotten such landmarks in my life.

I would advocate for circulation in Europe a
series of films such as " Why European Boys and
Girls should be Friends ' , " We are all Europeans ,
" What other Countries can teach us ", " Why War
is stupid ", and " Human Nature does change ".
All these films would have to be carefully prepared
by experts in film-producing and by child psycholo-
gists.

Another very important problem in the world
today is what is going to be the relations of the
white and coloured races during the next 100 years.
Is " the rising tide of colour " going to make a clash
between East and West inevitable? Surely the
cinema might play a decisive role in preventing a

racial war if we carefully prepared a series of talking
films for children emphasizing our common human-
ity. Alas, many of the commercial films today do
incalculable harm in stirring up race-hatred. I
understand that in Brussels an All Childrens Associa-
tion is being established. I commend this work
to them.

Quite apart from the sphere of international rela-
tions, the cinema might play, and is increasingly
playing, a vital role in inculcating a sense of civic
duty in the young. Carefully prepared and inter-
esting films urging the importance of the preserva-
tion of wild life, inculcating kindness to animals
and the necessity for keeping our streets and public
parks clean and appealing to the young not to scatter
litter — these are but a few of the suggestions which
will occur.

We live in an age of integration. On the conti-
nent of Europe we have witnessed the growing inter-
nal unity of Italy and of Germany.'- During the past
half-century strong forces have been at work unify-
ing the far-flung British Commonwealth.

The next step for us Europeans — is to work for
an economically united Europe, a Europe from
which this nightmare of tariff walls and restrictions
to trade will be removed. We need to instil into
the minds of the children of all our countries that in
addition to their local loyalty, they are Europeans.
That Europe has a splendid past, that we should
be proud of our heritage. We must create a Euro-
pean ethos, and as Europeans, and as an example to
the rest of the world, we shall start by taking a
pledge to carry out in our lives the Christian precept
" Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself ".

THE CINEMA IN THE LIFE OF PEOPLES

THE CINEMA AND THE PROTECTION OF YOUTH

BY

Egizio De Luca.

THE protection of young people is a nec-
essary corollary to their education, and
thus constitutes one of the most serious prob-
lems of modern society. Its importance is
the greater in that it involves all the vital
interests of the nation, since the strength of
a collective body resides in the strength of
its individual members. This accounts for
the fact that there derives from modern so-
cial doctrines a current of opinion which
tends to place national education in the fore-
front of Government programmes.

This tendency is most marked in countries
in which society has undergone a transforma-
tion in consequence of new ideologies, as in
the Communist U. S. S. R., in Fascist Italy,
in Nazi Germany.

In order to ensure the stability and con-
tinuance of the regimes which they have
instituted, the Heads of those States have
done all they could to educate youth in ac-
cordance with the principles which they
considered best. This, however, is not the
problem that concerns us here. What we
would stress is the essential importance of
every method designed to facilitate the task
of the State in the matter of national edu-
cation.

Without depreciating the value of books,
the chief means employed hitherto, it may
be admitted that they are proving less and
less effective in influencing the present gene-
ration, which is continually subjected to the
ever-growing strain of the bustle of modern
life, with its complete absence of opportunity
for steady, intensive reading. The cinema,

on the other hand, an almost unexplored
world, offers in this direction an unlimited
field of action and a guarantee of sure suc-
cess. There is no reason, therefore, for not
taking advantage of it. Indeed, it might
be said without exaggeration that the ci-
nema alone can enlarge and improve upon
the results obtained by the systems hitherto
employed.

Once the means has been found, it remains
to determine the solution offered by rational
development over a wide range. The best
way to do so is to turn our attention to the
various spheres of cinematographic activity
and to indicate the policy to be followed in
each particular case.

It might thus be possible to define each
sphere of activity by reference to the spe-
cific purposes to be achieved. This would
give us, first and foremost, the propaganda
cinema and the recreative cinema. The
former would provide a means of protecting
young people from all the morbid influences
prejudicial to their physical and intellectual
development ; the latter would offer them a
healthy form of amusement.

But it is not possible to discuss the problem
of the protection of youth without denounc-
ing the harm that the cinema of to-day has
done to the minds of adolescents. This
might appear to imply the denunciation of
the cinema as a serious danger, which would
seem to be a contradiction of our premises.
The cinema, as it now is, is not intended
for children or adolescents, and it thus be-
comes essential to reorganize it intelligently,

THE CINEMA FOR DOCUMENTING THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

275

so that its dubious or dangerous influence
may be prevented from reaching the minds
of the very young.

This raises a second problem, which is
not very difficult to solve, and its solution
will be the more readily arrived at by pass-
ing in review the various forms that the
cinema has introduced or encouraged up to
the present day.

Here we find ourselves, in the first place,
at variance with one class of religious educa-
tionists, who consider that forbidding vis-
its to the cinema is the only way to ensure
tangible results. But beyond all doubt so
uncompromising an attitude is bound to be
still more dangerous to the young. If boys,
whose knowledge of the world is thus limited
to what is ideal, pure, and best in it (method
of religious education), suddenly find them-
selves in contact with life as it is, with all
its aspects of perversity, hypocrisy, and im-
purity, they will realize that they have been
given an exceedingly one-sided education.
Then, being free to do as they please, and
moved by curiosity, they will allow them-
selves any and every form of amusement.
Youths from 15 to 19 years of age — that is,
when they are going through a decisive period
in the formation of character — will be ex-
posed to the gravest dangers.

One group of educationists place all their
hopes in energetic parental action. But,
though some parents take the greatest in-
terest in their children's education from every
point of view, countless others not merely
pay no attention whatsoever to it, but them-
selves blindly take their children to every
kind of entertainment, thinking only of
their own amusement.

Since, then, it is impossible to count upon
parents, who have fallen in more or less
with post-war slackness, and since, on the
other hand, it is impossible to prohibit the
cinema absolutely, the only solution is to
organize special performances for the young.

Such a task is a very difficult one, for
these special shows demand a deep know-
ledge of the psychology of youth. It must
not be forgotten how powerful the sense of

contradiction and the fascination of the
unknown are in young people. Accordingly,
taking these characteristics as a basis, the
aim must be to leave young people as far
as possible in ignorance of the purpose of
these performances. This is an indispensa-
ble precaution, without which any attempt
to achieve the object in view would not
merely fail, but would produce a diametri-
cally opposite effect. It is important, there-
fore, not to arouse the lively imaginations
of young people , for, with their natural re-
pulsion for everything that looks educational,
they would promptly draw the most extra-
vagant conclusions, probably very wide of
the mark.

Before considering the influence of the cin-
ema in Egypt, it may be useful to note
briefly the essential characteristics of Egyp-
tian youth — a method which will enable us,
moreover, to examine more easily the sys-
tems that should be followed and the pur-
pose to be achieved in our work of protect-
ing young people by means of the cinema.

Any attempt to educate youth can succeed
in Egypt only on condition that it is more or
less identified with the characteristics of
the Egyptian people, not only because Egyp-
tian youth is different from any other Wes-
tern youth, but also because it is conspic-
uously heterogeneous.

In order really to understand the tempera-
ment of Egyptian youth, some attempt must
be made to classify it in categories ; this is
not difficult, since, as just noted, the element
of cohesion is lacking. The Egyptian popu-
lation can thus be divided up into three
separate groups, and considered accordingly :
intellectual youth, the poorer classes in the
big towns, and the element which predomin-
ates in Egypt, namely, the fellahin.

In the big towns, of which there are few,
contact with Europeans has contributed very
largely to the progress of civilization and the
introduction of modern customs. Thus the
majority of young people have realized the

276

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

essential and indispensable advantages of
education.

The truth of this statement may be proved
by reference to the statistics of scholastic
institutions, the figures for which are steadily
increasing. Moreover, the attendance of
students at the university and higher educa-
tional establishments has also increased con-
siderably, and indeed exceeds Egypt's re-
quirements. Further, the Egyptian Gov-
ernment, which attaches importance to the
future of youth, systematically sends to Eu-
rope scholastic missions, consisting of the
best pupils, to enable them to perfect their
studies. On their return, these youths —
whether deliberately or not — will inevitably
introduce Western customs in their systems
of life, and thus propagate European ideas
and habits in their immediate surroundings.

The intellectual youth thus differs hardly
at all from Western youth, except in a few
expressions of life that could easily be as-
similated.

Egyptian youth, for example, cannot be
accused of not caring for art, but is open to
the charge of doing little to cultivate it.
In fact, except in university circles, there is
no centre in which art is honoured, and, more-
over, the students' taste does not seem to lie
particularly in the direction of literature,
music, painting, sculpture, or the like.

Notwithstanding this fact, the Govern-
ment's activities in this sphere are very
marked, as witness its attention to all matters
relating to art. Realizing the importance
of museums as means of artistic propaganda,
it has not shirked the expenditure necessi-
tated by the extension of the Cairo Museum,
which houses all the masterpieces of ancient
art, or by the creation of new museums.
But the attendance at these institutions is
unfortunately very low, and they seem, as
one important local daily paper has pointed
out, to have been built purely for the benefit
of tourists.

The position as regards sport is very much
the same, and only during the last few
years has there been any movement in the
matter ; even so, the athletic organizations

are lacking in activity and initiative, the de-
fect being most marked in the scholastic
institutions, where sport is relegated to quite
a secondary place.

One defect that may be noted in Egyptian
intellectual youth is the lack of interest in
foreign countries, though much might be
gained by assimilating the best that can be
derived from such forms of culture.

Let us now consider the youth of the lower
classes in the big cities, an interesting and a
picturesque category from many points of
view. These young people's ignorance,
their customs, and their habits of life, show
on how much lower a plane of civilization
they still are. Consisting as they do, for
the most part, of illiterates, with little desire
to acquire even the most elementary know-
ledge, their intellectual level leaves much to
be desired. They live, moreover, in crowd-
ed and often unhealthy areas, in which the
high rate of mortality reveals the completest
ignorance of the most elementary principles
of hygiene, so that their physical development
is always in danger. Parents do not seem
to trouble very much about the moral educa-
tion of their children, who are exposed from
the tenderest age to the perils of the street.
All this has a very lowering effect on the
morals of the young people, who, stimulated
by the climate, indulge in all sorts of sensual
pleasures.

Lack of education has also made these
young people simple and credulous, so that
enthusiasms and sentiments are very rapidly
stirred, a state of affairs which predisposes
them to fall victims to the worst influences.

In the provinces, the dominant element is
the fellah — for it must not be forgotten that
Egypt is an essentially agricultural country.
The young fellahin live in the poorest sur-
roundings, where the ancestral mode of life
has hardly changed since the distant times
of the Pharaohs, and they are at an even less
advanced stage of civilization than their com-
patriots in the towns. The Government

THE CINEMA FOR DOCUMENTING THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

277

does its best to inculcate the principles of
education and hygiene, but is hampered in
its efforts by the laziness of the natives, who
attach very little importance to what is
taught them.

In their eyes, the younger generation is
nothing but a collection of hands to till the
soil, and they therefore do their best to beget
as many children as possible, so as to keep
up their numbers. A wretched state of
affairs, accentuated by infant mortality,
which decimates children at a tender age,
owing to disregard of the most elementary
principles of hygiene. To realize this, one
need only glance inside the native dwellings.
The sight which meets one's eyes is a sad
one — members of the same family huddle
together in a single room, without ventila-
tion, to rest after their daily labours, often
sharing the quarters with their domestic
animals. In addition, the extreme poverty
which now reigns among the fellahin
has further increased the danger to which
Egyptian youth is exposed.

Some indication has been given of the
weak points in the character of Egyptian
youth, but it may perhaps be possible to de-
termine in the light of those very defects
what kinds of films are suitable for the pro-
tection of these young people.

First and foremost, public attention should
be directed to films which make a deep im-
pression on the minds of young people, such
as films dealing with the underworld, or the
adventures of cowboys, gangsters, or thieves.

Films of this type, shown to persons with
some critical sense will do no harm ; but if
shown to a public consisting almost exclusive-
ly of young illiterates, such as are found
■ in the lower classes in the big Egyptian
towns, they will have a dangerous success.
And what is the consequence ?

These young people, fascinated by such
films, and gifted, moreover, with a highly-
developed sense of imitation, seek to copy
the actors' exploits as far as possible. It

might be claimed that the danger is not ser-
ious, as the majority of films end with the
discomfiture of the more reprehensible char-
acters, and there is thus no incentive to the
crowd to imitate them. But one thing that
is forgotten is the abundance of ingenious and
original means employed to outwit the re-
presentatives of the law until the very end
of the film. These means are just what is
most tempting to young people who are
ignorant of the most elementary rules of
morality, and who may even imagine that
they are more cunning than the characters
who have paid the penalty simply because
they committed mistakes which the spectators
could correct.

There is no doubt whatsoever as to what
the effects of such a state of mind may be,
and statistics reflect this quite clearly, for
the number of murders committed accord-
ing to cinema methods appears to be on the
increase.

What can we think, after this, of films in
which the action is so conceived that the
spectator is involuntarily tempted, almost
against his will, to defend against society
individuals who have placed themselves
outside the law?

And this is not all. How can we not
protest against films which may cause un-
limited evil by appealing simultaneously
to the young of all classes ? Films which
represent life under an unreal, meretricious,
and flashy aspect, and unquestionably in-
flame the ready imaginations of boys and
girls.

Light love-affairs, which always turn out
successfully in the cinema, give young peo-
ple wrong ideas and encourage them to fol-
low them, but reality is very different, and
the inevitable consequence is the break-up
of the family, which already, under the in-
fluence of modern life, finds it difficult to
remain united and keep together.

The deplorable effects of the cinema as it
now is are doing much to counteract the
efforts made on every side to produce a
healthy younger generation. What is
wanted, therefore, is more adequate protec-

278

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

tion, more intensive propaganda, with a view
to persuading directors of studios to produce
films of a less dangerous character.

Let us now consider the active aspect of
the cinema and the means that might be ex-
ploited to protect Egyptian youth from any-
thing calculated to endanger its develop-
ment.

The first essential is the installation of
a cinema-hall with the proper technical
equipment in every school.

In addition to the educational films that
can be shown there, it will be necessary to
show others inculcating upon the pupils
the importance of their spiritual as well as
their physical welfare. Moreover, films
should be produced with the idea of making
young people understand their responsibili-
ties towards society in order to prepare them
to derive full benefit from whatever may be
shown them, warning them, for example,
against all false and hypocritical theories
which have a particular fascination on the
surface, but whose real purpose is disorder
and anarchy.

Realizing their own personality, young
people will understand the importance of
sport better by reference to their own phy-
sical development and its repercussions on
the greatness of their own country. They
will be induced to engage in it more fre-
quently by the use of methods which the
cinema alone can bring within the scope of all.

Similarly, the cinema alone can reveal the
tragedies ensuing from disordered living and
the abuse of pleasure. Films of this kind
require great delicacy of treatment and much
tact, and, even when they are shown to
youths over 17 years of age, should be kept
as far as possible on scientific lines.

The cinema affords the readiest means of
disseminating the benefits of hygiene and
education among the lower classes of Egyp-
tian society. For this purpose, various inno-
vations will be necessary. The Govern-
ment, for example, should open cinema-halls
in the thickly-populated quarters of the
towns, and show films for educational
and hygienic purposes. In order to attract

the crowd, the shows should be free, and
should alternate with recreational films. The
Arab's natural curiosity in regard to every-
thing new would suffice in itself to ensure the
success of such a venture. This is not the
difficulty — it is not enough to attract the
crowd : they must be convinced of the truth
and value of what is shown to them, and
films are therefore required, which will
have the effect of persuading the spectator
to adopt hygienic measures or habits of
living to which he has not previously been
accustomed.

For years the Egyptian Government has
been carrying on an unremitting campaign
against drug-traffickers and addicts. Its
efforts have for some time past been crowned
with success, but they would have been
far more effective and rapid had it been
possible to inspire in Egyptians a horror
of such drugs. For these cases, the cinema
offers an excellent medium, for no better
means exists of representing the effects of
hashish, cocaine, etc. The abolition of these
evils would be the greatest blessing for the
nation, since the damage that they cause,
both physical and moral, is undoubtedly
sapping the energy of the race.

The Government's activities should not
be confined to the towns, but should extend
to the country districts, and for this purpose
travelling cinemas, carefully equipped, might
be of the greatest value to the peasant popu-
lation. In addition to agricultural films
that have already proved successful in Eu-
rope, educational films might be shown, a
method calculated to produce the best re-
sults, in that it would raise the fellahin from
their present condition of ignorance. The
task is indeed a difficult one, since, in addition
to the specific information that would have
to be given, it is essential to break down the
prejudices of which the peasant's mind is
full. In any case, it would be a great vic-
tory in itself if he could be rid of this kind
of suspicion, which prevents his acquiring
a higher civilization. Characteristic evid-
ence of their state of mind is to be found in
the smallest act of the fellahin. They prefer.

THE CINEMA FOR DOCUMENTING THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

279

for instance, to be treated by quacks rather
than to trust themselves to qualified doctors.
The Government does what it can, but finds
it difficult to overcome the fellah s obstinacy.
Speeches, lectures, advice, produce no result.
The cinema certainly offers a better guaran-
tee of success, since it conveys by visual means
all that is apprehended through words.

This is a brief outline of the benefits
that youth might derive from a means of
instruction so expressive as the film.

The task of the cinema is equally import-
ant from the recreational standpoint because
it is called upon not only to amuse young
people, but also to remove them from the
harmful influences to which they may be
exposed. This is everywhere necessary,
since there is no doubt that in order to tram
young people satisfactorily it is not enough
to bring them up as carefully as possible —
they must also be protected against anything
that might harm them morally and physi-
cally.

Hence every effort should be made to
attract young people to the recreational
cinema — which is not a difficult matter,
provided it meets their tastes and desires.

A film with a scenario suited to the age of
the spectators is bound to be a success.
Consequently, the needs of children from 6
to 12 should not be overlooked, because,
if we wish young people to grow up with
sound morals we must begin their training
at a very early age.

There is no doubt that at the present time
the public that is most dissatisfied with the
cinema is the juvenile public. Except for a
few comic films and animated cartoons, there
is practically nothing to interest young people.
The harm that may be caused by this state
of affairs will be readily perceived, because,
for lack of anything better, young people
are induced to attend every kind of perfor-
mance, where their morals may be perverted
and their future endangered.

Yet it would be perfectly simple to find a
remedy for this evil, the extent of which has
so far been only dimly discerned. All that
need be done is to increase the number of

comic films and to produce others based on
juvenile literature. No one can complain
of any lack of subjects ; for Perrault's fairy-
tales and all the wonderful stories which the
childish imagination finds so absorbing pro-
vide an inexhaustible source from which
scenarios can be drawn.

Films of this kind would receive a warm
welcome from juvenile audiences of every
nationality, for if there any class of people in
the world who understand each other per-
fectly, it is the young.

The popularity of the performances would
doubtless be increased considerably if the
parts in these films were taken by juvenile
actors. The latter have been employed on
the stage for a long time past with ever in-
creasing success, and we might instance the
popularity of marionettes — the Teatro dei
Piccoli — which crowds flock to see whenever
performances are given in Paris. Moreover,
all the suggestions put forward in regard to
the cinema might be helpful to anyone de-
sirous of engaging in child welfare work in
general.

We will now deal with educational films
intended for adolescents. The production
of such films is a much more delicate task,
success being less certain than in the former
case, since young people over 15 imagine
that they are already grown up, and therefore
think they can do anything they like.

Nevertheless, success need not be despaired
of, because it is always possible to show them
on the screen things that will interest them
and that they cannot find elsewhere. For
instance, young people have a passionate
love of adventure, and a magnificent series
of scenarios could be adapted from the in-
numerable adventure-stories which are part
of the literature of every country. The
swashbuckling romances of Alexandre
Dumas represent a type of literature which
has attracted young people in all parts of the
world, and there is no reason why such stories,
the enormous popularity of which has al-
ready been proved, should not be drawn
upon.

Moreover, in order to make a performance

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THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

of this kind more attractive, topical events
in all parts of the world, of interest to young
people, all the latest sporting news, and,
in short, everything regarded as suitable for
the young, could be shown. The type of
performance should be varied, so as to sat-
isfy not only the young people's imagination
but also their emotions.

The recreational film should be based
on the foregoing principles. In order to
make sure of its success, and to prevent
young people from attending performances
of any other kind, cinemas should be opened
in all educational centres. This is the best
means of protecting young people, because
the films would come under the direct con-
trol of the teachers, though their scope need
not, of course, be confined to school life.

Several ventures of this kind have been
made in Egypt, but have not met with com-
plete success, owing to the lack of sufficient
films. All the cinema managers, however
strong their desire to provide suitable per-

formances for young people, have seen their
efforts frustrated on this account. The
future of the juvenile cinema is in the hands
of the producers, and everyone whose aim
it is to protect young people should urge
them to do their duty in this respect. It is
a duty in which none should fail.

We see, therefore, that numerous excellent
opportunities are open to the cinema in the
educational field. The film is one of the most
suggestive means of instruction, becaiose it can
present the most abstract subjects to the spec-
tator's eye in the clearest possible manner.
In addition to its great popularity, the emo-
tion which it everywhere arouses mah.es it the
most powerful means of expression that has
ever been employed. It would therefore be
a matter for infinite regret if the opportunities
outlined above were to be let slip, especially
in view of the fact that little or no opposition
would be encountered in carrying out the
schemes.

CINEMA AND PROTECTION OF INFANCY

(Summary Report of the Cinema and Broadcasting Commission of the International Women's Council
By Laura Dreyfus-Barney.

The protection of infancy is happily a matter of
great concern for the world at the present moment,
and efforts are being made on all sides to protect
young children from the dangers which surround
them so that they may develop physically and
morally. In the following rapid report we shall
limit ourselves to selecting some examples here and
there to illustrate the manner in which the cinema
influences youth.

Hygiene in Cinema Halls. — The cinema today
forms part of the life of children. We may ask
ourselves what effect it has on their health.

Physically, children will benefit from the mea-
sures which have been taken regarding the hygiene
of cinema halls. Great improvements have been
made both in those edifices built specially for mo-
tion picture projections, and in those transformed
for that purpose. What is not satisfactory yet is
the hygiene in the small halls in the provinces, and
«specially in the villages, and often enough in the

rooms where scholastic films are shown. Sometimes
it is the class-room which is transformed into a cin-
ema hall, or the choice may fall upon any room or
building, such as halls in the mayor's office, in
barns, or unoccupied dwellings. Great efforts
have been made, however, in this department, and
in Denmark, for instance, we may say that almost
all possible measures are taken both for the proper
construction and maintenance of cinema halls. In
interesting reports which have been brought to
our notice, Australia, the United States, France,
Italy, India, Greece, Switzerland and Sweden can
show improveed conditions in their motion picture
halls as regards general hygiene, aeration, and in-
spection.

Precautions against Fire. — It is well known
that there is a great risk from films catching fire,
which makes it necessary for scholastic pictures
always to be made of non-inflammable film. This
type of film is used in many countries, but the dan-

THE CINEMA FOR DOCUMENTING THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

281

ger of fire still exists if the halls are not properly
protected in other respects, or if films which are
not strictly scholastic are shown. It is to be hoped
that further improvements will be made in non-in-
flammable film, which is still too costly, somewhat
fragile, and not always clear. If this improvement
were secured, it would facilitate its universal use.
In France the use of non-inflammable film is oblig-
atory in all schools under the authority of the Min-
istry of Public Instruction, and in all evening courses
and institutions subventioned by the ministry.

Care of Eyesight. — The motion picture has an
influence on children's sight. It appears from en-
quiries made that about 25 % of children complain
of eye strain after seeing a film. The girls are more
subject to this form of fatigue than the boys, and
the children who frequent technical schools more
than those attending secondary schools.

In order to provide a remedy for this grave draw-
back, care must be taken to avoid the use of worn
out or damaged pictures, while a careful watch
should be kept on the running-off of the film
from the reel so that it is smooth and regular,
while the printed sub-titles ought to be clear and
distinct. Seats close up to the screen ought not
to be occupied by children.

The darkness of the halls is certainly harmful
to children from the psychological point of view.
The question has been discussed in several countries.
In Belgium, the Cinema Commission has made some
experiments as a result of which partial lighting
has been instituted in two Brussels cinemas without
any detriment to the visibility of the picture.
Experiments are being made to install a system of
diffused lighting, known as tamisd ; which allows
perfect visibility of the picture in a half-lit hall.
In some cinemas, the boxes have been abolished.
Details of this have been supplied by our colleague
Mme Janvier of the Belgian Women's Council in
a very interesting report presented by her at Stock-
holm in June 1933 on the occasion of the meeting
of the Women's International Council.

Similar experiments have been tried in Scot-
land, Films have been projected in halls where
children could take notes, and where the teacher,
thanks to a special arrangement, was able to stop
the film for several minutes at the most important
places.

A French engineer, M. Grozet has invented a
screen which allows pictures to be shown in daylight.

Sleep. — The question of the effect of the mo-
tion picture on children's sleep and therefore on
their nervous system has been considered.

A most interesting inquiry has been organized
on this point by the Payne Fund with the object
of determining if the child who frequents the pic-
tures a good deal suffers in any way in his health
and sleep as compared with children who visit cin-
emas rarely, or not at all.

The inquiry was carried out among thousands
of young boys and girls and on very small children
in a dozen towns in the United States by Dr. Sa-
muel Renshaw, Professor of Experimental Psycho-
logy at Ohio State University with the aid of his
assistant Vernon L. Miller. A Home fitted out at
Columbus, Ohio by the Ohio State Bureau of Ju-
venile Research has permitted these two scientists
to make some most careful and detailed studies.
Thanks to the installation of a " hyponograph ",
attached to the beds of ten little boys and ten little
girls, the children's movements were registered
and transcribed on a kind of seismograph. For
three hundred nights Dr. Renshaw 's assistants
watched the machines installed at the bedsides and
were able to observe that apparatuses registering
movements were inactive, or almost so, during the
periods of fifteen nights when the children had not
visited the cinema. When the same children were
sent to the motion pictures, the apparatuses register-
ed 26 % more agitation among the boys and 1 4 %
more among the girls, and it was observed that the
agitation was strongest during the early part of the
night, that is, when, ordinarily, sleep is soundest
and most restoring.

It was also noted that ordinary amusements for
the children did not cause the agitation remarked
after visits to the pictures. Children who were
taken for rides in automobiles even late at night in
the town slept soundly.

Dr. Renshaw was not able to determine with any
degree of precision the effect of horrific films, the
effect being different according to the child or young
persons, and often manifesting itself in unforseen
ways, but his conclusion regarding the effect of the
cinema on sleep is that children ought not to fre-
quent motion pictures too much, and ought only
to see films suited to their mentality.

Moreover, it is universally recognized by persons
who are interested in health and hygiene that the
abuse of motion pictures is prejudicial to children
and young persons. To remain shut up for hours
on end in the dark is not good for young people,
who require open air and sport to attain a healthy
development.

Let us say a word about child actors who, for-
tunately, are not numerous in the films. Their
work is regulated in different countries by different

5 — h. Intl.

282

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

special laws and regulations, or by the ordinary
legislation on minors. We must take every care
to see that these laws and regulations are observed
and faithfully carried out.

Moral Protection. — The question of the moral
effect of the cinema on children has often been
discussed and treated. The influence of cinema
projections on young persons and on the masses
is recognized by everyone since such projections
form a part of our social life like other forms of
amusement, if indeed they do not occupy the first
place among popular entertainments. Often enough
alas ! the motion picture has attracted young people
away from the quiet delights of peaceful, domestic
life.

As a result of various symposia and inquiries, it
has been possible to determine with considerable
exactness the role played by the motion picture in
the life of young people.

The International Institute of Educational Cine-
matography of the League of Nations organized a
symposium among the children of different coun-
tries to learn : when and how young people frequent
the cinema ?

According to the returns of this symposium, in
Italy, children's taste in films improves as they
increase in age ; boys go to the pictures more often
than girls, the children of intellectual workers more
frequently then those of manual workers ; working
class children prefer evening projections and those
given on holidays ; young people prefer to visit the
moving pictures during the week, while very young
children like to go on Sundays and holidays. In
the small centres, it is chiefly the boys who attend
the cinemas in the evenings, while in the towns and
cities it is the girls. In working class centres, child-
ren are more frequently accompanied by their pa-
rents than in professional circles.

As a result of a questionnaire placed before
21,280 children of the elementary schools in Eng-
land, the following statistics were arrived at. All
children like cow-boy pictures, especially the young-
er children. War films and films of adventure are
appreciated by boys of from 8 to 14. Girls do not
not like war films. Detective and gangster pic-
tures are very popular among boys, while comedies,
and farces are not much liked by children of from
11 to 14. There is not much appreciation for do-
cumentary films among children. Sentimental
and love stories please girls of from 11 to 14, but
the boys do not like them.

The replies were given orally, and the examiners
think that there was a certain amount of pretence

and human respect to be discounted in them. What
is remarkable is that the moral element does not
seem to make any effect on the children, who imi-
tate in their games the things they have witnessed
on the screen.

Another inquiry made on a small scale is worth
noticing. It was undertaken by the director of a
school for backward children, and the medium of
self-revelation used was drawing. The children
were allowed to draw freely every day. On Fri-
days, 75 % of the drawings reflected the visit to
the moving pictures made by the children on the
day before (the children were taken by their par-
ents to the pictures every Thursday). Among
the drawings and the accompanying comment, it
was observed that war films did not produce the
results in children which might have been expected.
Despite the fear of death and the sight or suffering
the children in general appeared to have reasoned
this way : " This is fine : people are fighting ,
or " It is splendid to watch men firing guns, One
sees who is the stronger ".

Bandit, gangster and cow-boys pictures were
much appreciated, and had a bad influence on these
young boys. " They're fighting, that's fun ; they re
shooting off revolvers ; fine ! "

The importance of the cinema in children's lives
has been the inspiration of numerous efforts towards
the preparation of special recreational films for
young people such as have long been in request.
Films of this kind have been made in the United
States, France, Great-Britain, Italy, Greece, Swed-
en, etc. Argentine possesses picture houses spec-
ially constructed for children, and prizes are offer-
ed for the best films for young people. There have
been a number of admirable attempts along these
lines in various parts of the world. Thus we have
seen matinees and evening performances for child-
ren only, Thursday and Saturday matinees for
children, week-end pictures for children, special
halls catering to young people, and family shows
which have obtained considerable success.

The Committee for the Protection of Children
attached to the League of Nations has always taken
the cinema irto great consideration and has urged
the preparation of programmes of mixed variety
turns and films. During the ninth session of the
Committee in March 1933, the question of recrea-
tional, medical, hygienic and folklore films was de-
bated and Monsieur Lumiere's suggestion that
animated cartoons should be used in preparing
children's films was regarded as particularly in-
teresting.

With regard to the effect of the cinema of differ-

THE CINEMA FOR DOCUMENTING THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

283

ent mentalities, it has been pointed out that in the
Orient, in certain regions of Central America, and
the Southern States of the United States, pictures
showing superficial aspects of luxury lives consti-
tute a regular poison for young people. On the
other hand, a complaint comes from Australia that
on the Thursday matinees when children form 80 %
of the audience, too many triangular love story
films are projected.

The International Cinema Congress which the
I. I. E. C. has organized will certainly help to de-
fine the role of the film in the formation of children's
and young peoples characters, and the means to
employ for an efficacious use of the motion picture
in this connection.

Censorship. — The task of cinema censorship
is of the greatest importance for the protection of
children. It provides a safeguard for the chief
principles.

The Rome Cinema Institute is preparing a
work which will allow us to grasp the present state
of the censorship, and we hope that it will also place
in due relief the position occupied at the present
time by women on censorship commissions, as
well as the position she ought to occupy. The
Rome conference of the Women's International
Council of October 1931 pointed out that women
were not sufficiently represented on these commis-
sions.

The desirability of an international understand-
ing on the principles of censorship and their applica-
tion is voiced on many sides. As things stand at
present, each country has its own legislation and
regulations. In most countries an official censor-
ship of two kinds is in force. Some films are neither
stated to be suitable or unsuitable for children.
Other states do not admit children of less than six
into cinemas from hygienic motives. Others again
only admit them, unless accompanied, at ages vary-
ing from 13 to 18.

In countries where there is no official censorship,
the control is carried out by powerful private or-
ganizations as, for instance in the United States of
America where agreement on the matter is arrived
at through work of committees composed of women
and men and representatives of the film producers.

Taken as a whole, however, the cinema censor-
ship is often inadequate or ineffective. This is why
women ought to make an effort to extend their
influence in this domain.

The Film and Children. — We must not omit
to mention in bringing this note to an end a whole

cinema programme of films dealing with childhood
and youth which shows how much public attention
has been turned in this direction.

Among numerous films, we will mention a few :
a series by the LUCE Institute in Italy illustrates
the care of a child from its birth until the time of
its admission to a technical or trade school.

" L'Eveil de la Preparation chez les tout petits
is a film on very young children by Dr. Harold
Hessel of the University of Yale. " The Future
Mother " and " Two Methods of Nursing Children
by Jean Benoit-Levy are interesting French films
on these subjects.

In England, the National Baby Week Council
and the National Safety First Association on clean-
liness, sight preservation, measures for avoiding
diphtheria are all pictures which were projected
during various Health Weeks. These pictures were
all projected in all the Leeds cinemas during the
Health Week organized there in October 1932.

There is another side of the question which we
have not the space to examine properly. This is
a matter which is well dealt with in certain German
films : maternity and illegitimate births. The Ger-
man film Motherhood has been shown in the college
of Madrid as part of an anti-abortion propaganda
campaign.

Another side of the question is touched on by
the review Securitas, of Milan, and deals with the
accidents to which children are liable. The ques-
tion of the projection of pictures in crowded and
restricted conditions such as toy shops public gar-
dens etc is examined. It would be interesting
to make women acquainted with efforts of this
kind.

All countries are concerning themselves today
with these important questions affecting the pro-
tection and safety of children and young people.
In order to establish an effective collaboration,
would it not be advisable to centralize more and
more the results of various experiments and efforts ?
Thus we could have a centralized .knowledge of
films to choose or reject, official or private efforts
worthy of being pointed out, suggestion and obser-
vations of all kinds. In this matter, the proposals
and ideas set forth in the recommendations adopted
by the commission for cinema and broadcasting
of the International Women's Council would be
more rapidly given practical effect. The motion
voted at that conference held in Rome in October
1931 under the auspices of the 1. 1. E. C. ran as
follows :

" The conference demands that seats placed too
near to the screen and therefore constituting a real

284

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

danger for children's eyesight should be forbidden
for children, and that the lighting should be suffi-
cient during the projections to permit of some sur-
veillance. The conference demands that the Na-
tional Councils should take action as soon as pos-
sible to regulate the employment of young persons
in cinema studios and to prevent the life and safety
or the actors being endangered.

Seeing that the majority of countries have
found it necessary to adopt a censorship of two
kinds, it is desirable to impress on the other
countries that they institute either a pre-view cen-
sorship or one of a character to allow films to be
refused licenses if undesirable.

" The conference hopes that qualified and com-
petent women will have seats on the censorship
commissions.

The conference is of the opinion that the cen-
sorship should be extended to all advertising mat-

ter titles and variety turns interspersed among
moving pictures.

" The cinema exercises a great influence on indi-
viduals and especially on children, and the confer-
ence notes with satisfaction that several govern-
ments are giving more and more attention to this
question of the cinema, a fact likely to assist in
the formation of a public opinion which is calcu-
lated to make itself felt on individuals, families and
on society generally.

" The conference insists that an effort be made
throughout the world to secure the prohibition of
all kinds of detective films inciting to cruelty crime
or immorality, as well as everything which is likely
to harm the cause of civilization and good under-
standing between peoples.

The conference makes a strong appeal to publish-
ers, producers and exhibitors to keep a high stand-
ard for their films.

THE CINEMA IN THE LIFE OF PEOPLES

THE DOCUMENTARY VALUE OF THE CINEMA

BY

Luis Gomez Mesa,

Member of the Spanish Committee of the I. I.C. E.

BEFORE analyzing this subject in its var-
ious aspects, let us look at it from
a general point of view.

As a basic principle, it may be asserted
that all good films are documentary. From
the time of its invention by the brothers
Lumiere, the cinema has had documentary
aims.

Rather than the definition " moving
photographs ", we think this more suitable :
photographic documents, simple and con-
vincing by their persuasive and diffusive
character.

The films seen in Paris on December 28.
1 895 — the first appearance in the world of
this new and extraordinary type of spectacle
— were living documents that required
nothing but a visual effort. For example, the
arrival of a train at Lyons, the departure of
a steamer from the port of Marseilles. . . .
In 1 895, these things caused genuine astonish-
ment. There was, it is true an annoying
strain to the eye sight, but no-one noticed
it. All attention was engaged with the fact
that the photographs on the simple white
sheet, were, in all their movements and
authenticity, real persons and things.

The simple white sheet was in time perfect-
ed by science — The flickering of the pic-
tures was eliminated.

As the years passed, the progress increased.
From a contemplative spectacle, exclusively
visual, the cinema became aural.

At the end of 1 928, the microphone, regis-
ter of voices and sounds, and the camera,
true reflector of images, were on the way to
work in perfect unison.

The addition of speaking, sound and musi-
cal accompaniment has greatly improved the
film.

After its union with the microphone, the
cinema was no longer the art of photography
i n movement, with the necessity of printed
explanations in the form of sub-titles. The
film now spoke with its own words. The
cinema has thus naturally gained a greater
power of representing actual documentary
sights and sounds.

If the world is incidentally for the cinema,
the cinema is of the world of life, reality and
actuality, which are continually renewing
themselves. Without the cinema, the world
would continue to exist. It would not stop
its movement for a second. The cinema, on
the other hand could not exist if it did not
reflect the life of the world. It is its natural
function to serve the world entirely, fully
and without partiality or deception.

In no aspect of the cinema are these qual-
ities more defined than in the documentary
film.

Unfortunately, these objects are not often
reached in a satisfactory manner and docu-
mentary films often present an untrue picture
of life, either for commercial reasons of gain
or from necessity or ignorance.

Cinema and Geo-
graphic Documen-
tation.

It is precisely in geo-
graphic " documen-
taries " that the inac-
curacies we have mentioned most often occur.
The term geography must here be inter-
preted in its fullest meaning.

The geographical film is one which describ-

286

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

es the physical characteristics of a people,
the land these people inhabit, the climate and
the racial characteristics, habits and costumes
of the population.

National films are geographical unless they
are lacking in traditions and reality.

The French panoramic films of art and
nature are, besides being artistic and propa-
gandist, also geographical.

So is the German film for the same reasons,
and so indeed are all the others from the
American to the Italian, the Russian, the
English and the Spanish right down to the
smallest and most insignificant examples.

All films are geographical when they are
made in the country and draw their vitality
from the territory and landscape of the place
where taken. Not so, when they are studio-
made, and attempts are carried out to imitate
the characteristics and peculiarities of na-
ture. In this case, the truth is made to lose
its value willy-nilly. Films purporting to
have been made in Spain will betray their
foreign studio origin through a number of
particulars of tone, colour and detail. If
art can hope to, and sometimes does, show
itself superior to reality it cannot do the same
thing with nature.

The marvellous landscape of Ronda in the
province of Malaga — we refer to Spain
because it is the country we know best —
with its deep chasm crossed by bridges,
one Roman, one Moorish and the third made
of great superimposed arches is not to be
copied or reproduced. The same may be
said of Cuenca, the enchanted city cut out
of the rock, and the same for majestic Monst-
serrat near Barcelona, and for Pajares or
Covadonga in Asturias, or the magic orchards
of Valencia, unique in fertility and beauty, or
the vast impressive plain of Castille with its
fields of grain swaying in the breeze at
harvest-time, a plain burnt by the sun and
broken up by living wounds from the plough
at sowing time : these and many other places
favoured by nature.

What scenographer, expert as he may be,
can hope to reproduce such natural scenes ?
He can copy them, but never equal them.

It is only by mean of poetry, literature and
perhaps painting — stylistic creators of sensi-
bility and temperament — and not photo-
graphic reality, that man is permitted to
conquer nature, improving her aspects in
suggestive forms. Art can recreate nature after
having lived in contemplation of it. Only
art can correct and improve nature with
fantasy and spirit.

Scenography is a variant of painting that
imitates reality and nature, it is an inferior
kind of painting which may be called " pho-
tographic " on account of its excessive
objectivity. It is useless to want to use
it in cinematography and give it the value
of geographical documentation. It will al-
ways be inefficacious because it is a falsification
Though the man who handles it may be able
and intelligent, it can only be looked upon as
an artifice, or as a well made copy of something
it is better to admire at first hand.

The imitative talent of the decorators of
the cinema studios breaks down in the case
of films that propose to be really documentary.
We must in these cases reproduce what is the
work of nature and not the work of man.

The use of tricks and mystifications in films
of Polar or African travel and exploration
damages the authentic value of such expedi-
tions, rendering them mere artifices. There
is a deliberate intent to falsify reality in order
to obtain sensational effects, as in the case of
pseudo-scientific romances written by authors
who follow the most extravagant flights of
their fancy. From films of this kind we
learn nothing. Their role is merely to
entertain and divert us. They do not suc-
ceed in instructing us or increasing our cul-
ture. They are outside the domain of the
documentary film and form an exception.

Geographical documentation in the cinema
has nothing to do at any time with artifice or
studio tricks. It is, on the contrary, a
reflex of reality.

The sole method for obtaining geograph-
ical " documentaries " is to transport camera
and microphone to the places it is desired to
reproduce.

In spite of the numbers of volcanoes,

THE CINEMA FOR DOCUMENTING THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

287

rivers, cascades, lakes, hills, and plains in the
five continents which have been shown on the
cinema screens of the world in constant
succession in a stream of documentary films,
nature is always ready to be generous to those
who approach her with the object of making
known the story of her loveliness.

The subjects and sites of geographic
documentary pictures cannot be said to be
exhausted, nor do they lose their effect if
repeated. They can always appear new if
presented in an artistic nanner and in cultur-
al and recreational forms. All depends on
the film director.

Every country ought to take advantage of
the documentary cinema for the propaganda
of its life and natural beauties, without hav-
ing recourse to simulation and artifice to
illustrate its geography and natural life.

Cinema and Geo- Besides the necessity of
graphy. keeping strictly to geo-

graphical truths, it is also logical to try not
to falsify the particular characteristics of
landscapes and country scenes which one
seeks to illustrate. If we respect the features
and peculiarities of all the races of Europe in
our geographical " documentaries ", we shall
be doing a genuine ethnographical work.

No document is superior to the cinema for
showing the varieties of race, but it is neces-
sary that every national film be a faithful
reflection of the country it purports to illus-
trate.

When we have to deal with popularizations
of exotic travel pictures such as Nanuk,
Moanoa and Taboo, extreme and intelligent
care is required in order to obtain sincere
works of ethnographical content. Otherwise
we shall obtain the usual " fakes " of " typ-
ical " Orientals or Europeans disguised as
natives of the Orient — all naturally without
the least " documentary " value.

Cinema and Folk With the development
Lore, of the sound and talk-

ing film, music — which had been an element
apart, isolated from the motion picture —
took its place on the margin of the film

on the sound track. In the old days, when
we were witnessing a scene of dances or
singing which required a musical comment,
the orchestra was generally silent, just when
it was most needed. There is no chance of
this today ; sound and image are allied in a
perfect synchronization and are manifested
contemporaneously.

How useful all this is in the presentation of
folk lore films it would be foolish to ignore.
The cinema represents the best propaganda
means of the folk lore of a country that we
have.

The Cinema and the When we have admit-

Documentation of te£ the worth 0f the

the Life of other cinema from the point

Nations. e • r l- 1

ot view or geographical

documentation, giving us a more vivid know-
ledge of the territory, inhabitants and phy-
sical characteristics of a country as com-
pared with other countries, there is another
aspect of the subject to be considered.

The point requires careful consideration
becasue it is a delicate one.

We refer to the cinema used as a document-
ing means, but not in the national sphere.
When the producers of a country produce
films on the customs and manners of other
nations without a proper knowledge of them,
and without visiting and studying them pro-
perly, making their pictures from fantasy and
imagination, though the intentions may be
good, it will be difficult to obtain results that
are not full of errors.

When it has been decided to make a film
on a certain country, it is necessary to go to
that country and work in collaboration with
the inhabitants. It will not do to work in the
studio where it may be easy to imitate —
from desert scenes to representations of
flora and marine fauna lent by some acquar-
ium — because such attempts though permis-
ible in a commercial sense, are out of place
when it comes to offending the prestige and
good sense of a nation by deforming the facts
of its physical and geographical life. There
have been only too many cases lately of
diplomatic protests caused by films con-

288

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

sidered by some nation as offensive to its
dignity and false to life.

If the cinema is national, it is not likely
to contain documentary errors, because it is
reproducing truth and nature more or less
improved by art. The question becomes
different when we come to consider good
international documentary pictures.

Can this fact be modified and changed ?

Rather than alterations and cuts as the
results of diplomatic protests, it would be
better to see that no reason for such protests
was given. Pressure and persuasion should
be brought to bear on the producing firms to
make them take the necessary care when they
are making pictures in foreign surroundings,
even if the pictures do not intend to present
a strictly ethnographical character.

In this way, besides showing a complete
understanding of the expression cinema and
documentation of the life of other peoples,
protests and complaints from other nations

would be avoided, and these nations would
take an interest in pictures which truthfully
illustrated their life.

Cinema and Peace. Looking at the cinema
as a living document, which is necessary for a
better reciprocal understanding between the
nations, we should ask those engaged in
producing films of this kind never to forget
the possibilities of such pictures for spreading
ideas of peace.

The cinema must always remain a means
of diffusing the typical characteristics of
all countries in a form of art and truth, both
in the case of national and international films.
Art and Truth.

These are the essential aspects of the mo-
tion picture, that is : a faithful, direct, precise
reflection of reality and nature, improved and
refined by the spiritual qualities of grace and
beauty.

THE CINEMA IN THE LIFE OF PEOPLES

MUSIC AND FILM

BY

Dr. Kurt London.

THE music used for accompanying films
has always been a criterion of the grade
of advancement of the cinema. If we look
into its evolution, we shall be considering a
question not of interest to music only, but
one which closely concerns the motion pic-
ture. Music has been and is still today —
especially for the sound film — an essential
element of the cinema spectacle, but this
has not always been properly understood,
and indeed only too often has it been neg-
lected.

The Origins of Music- The origin of music-
al Accompaniment. a\ accompaniment
has nothing very extraordinary about it. The
earliest forms of accompaniment arose from
the necessity of smothering the deafening rattle
that was taking place in absolute darkness.
When SKLADONOWSKY and Messter in Ger-
many, the brothers LuMIERE in France and Edi-
son in the United States gave their first public
projections, the film did not enjoy that con-
sideration which it has today. In the early
days, cinema shows were given in second-
rate halls with comfort and fittings as primi-
tive as the pictures themselves. At this
epoch, the musical accompaniment was in-
troduced, not in consideration of artistic
demands but to make the show more accept-
able to the public. The great thing was
to drown the horrible noise of the machinery
which crackled like a machine gun. At that
time, no insulating wall material had been
thought of to damp the noise ; there were
no projection cabins, and the operator and
the public were in the same room. The

task of the music was to suffocate a disagree-
able noise with a less disagreeable one.

The result was that recourse was had to
musical instruments which produced very
loud sounds, such as pianos or piano-organs,
There is no doubt that if we examine the
motives which operated for the choice of
certain types and examples of music, we
shall find what came to be later on, the psy-
chological reasons leading to traces of an
aesthetic criterion in musical accompaniment.
It is not without interest to note that the
fondness for mechanical music which char-
acterized the early days of the motion pic-
ture is to be seen today in another form.

In the earliest period then, we had mech-
anical music accompaniments. It was
only later, when the cinema began to find
itself, that real blood and flesh musicians were
introduced in the shape of pianists. When
the pianist had talent, he abandoned himself
to fantasies and improvisations, but, gen-
erally speaking, the music had still no con-
nection with the picture.

One day a pianist had the idea of using
for the musical accompaniment of a film
on the life of a criminal a hit motiv in the
form of an air then very popular in Germany :
Man steigt nach. This was perhaps a
decisive day in the history of cinema music,
which has continued since then to become
more and more sure of its task of comment-
ing the film action with a more studied rhyth-
mic sense and a greater appreciation of the
psychology of the picture.

The artistic movement which arose from
this idea increased in proportion to the im-

290

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

proved conditions of the cinema halls and
their growing standard of luxury and com-
fort. Orchestras replaced pianists. Then
came the notion of special musical adapta-
tions for films. This was done, for the first
time in Germany shortly after the conclusion
of the World War, for a film on Wagner, and
for the first edition of The Student of Prague.
The merit of this notion belongs to an
Italian, Dr. Giuseppe Becce, than working
in Berlin. He understood all the advantages
that could be derived from the system. It
was he who built up the first film libraries
or cinetheques, though the word had a dif-
ferent meaning then to that given it now.
Similar cirtetheques were later on established
in all countries, opening up new prospects
for cinema music.

In Becce s use of the term, the cinetheque
was a collection of musical excerpts lasting
from two to three minutes and capable, owing
to their great variety, of being adapted to all
kinds of sentiments and situations. Cata-
loguing them in given groups permitted an
orchestra director to get together rapidly
all the requisite musical pieces for his ac-
companiment. Naturally, these adaptations
required considerable musical taste and cul-
ture. This is why some of the good musical
commentaries of this period were even consid-
ered as regular works of art, though they
were nothing but able compilations.

Owing to reasons of a financial rather than
a technical nature, very few original scores
were written for silent pictures. In any
case, compilations of the kind referred to
had certainly the merit of doing honour to
good music and of spreading a taste for class-
ical music among frequenters of films.

Sound Films. When the sound film

appeared, the musical world imagined that
the motion picture would need it still more.
It did not forsee the progress and develop-
ments in the mechanical reproduction of
music. When it perceived what had hap-
pened, thousands of musicians were already
walking the streets. Sound film music
really required only a limited number of

musicians, and the registered music attach-
ed to the pictures went round the world Jn
limitless copies. Besides clearing the musi-
cians out of the motion picture halls, the
sound film was accused of causing the crisis
in the theatre. The sound film output of-
fered, moreover, limited opportunities to the
musicians.

We can distinguish three periods in the
history of the sound film. In the first per-
iod, care was taken to reproduce all poss-
ible and imaginable sounds. Every door
had to be heard closing, each step of a person
was made to resound. Then came the period
when speech predominated to the point of
tiring the public. Then came the chanson,
the theme song and melody which swept
over the cinema world like an epidemic.
There were commercial reasons for this, for
the public which did not yet understand what
the real spirit of the sound film was, wel-
comed the song as an agreeable novelty.

What resulted was that the song very soon
destroyed in a systematic way the story of
every film. Drama became melodrama ;
comedy a mixture of songs and dances.
The song ended by making a bastard thing
of the sound film, which was offered as a
new form of art. The most carefully writ-
ten scenarios were hacked to pieces to make
room for songs, and the inflation of the song
brought it about that one was no longer able,
from the artistic point of view, to distinguish
what musical accompaniment for films ought
to be. There were some exceptions to this
in films such as Rene Clair's Sous les Toits
de Paris or Friedrich Hollander's Einbrecher,
where some attempt was made to prevent
music and songs from interfering with the
dramatic action.

During the reign of the chanson, or theme
song, the real individual worth of some mo-
tion pictures was destroyed. A very friv-
olous conception of art dominated, and it
was sought to produce only pictures likely to
attract the generality of the public in every
country. This period is now in decline ;
the opportunism of the producers having
damaged them. They have to surrender

THE CINEMA FOR DOCUMENTING THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

291

before the evidence ; a film without a personal
character is condemned to fadure for the
simple reason that, artistically speaking,
the lack of character reveals itself as a lack
of style.

The Future of the No nation has dared
Musical Film. ^0 ma\^e experiments

in film music in such a way as to prepare
the path for the musical motion picture.
The attempts of Hindermith, Milhaud and
Dessau made at Baden Baden in 1929 on the
occasion of the ceremonies in connection
with the origin of chamber music have al-
most been forgotten. In France, the few
advanced school films of this type produced
have not made their way from the circle of
local life. If we look at the balance sheet
of four years of sound film work, we shall
find that very few of the motives used from
the cinema musical compositions of Rathaus,
Dessau, Zeller, Eisler, Milhaud and Becce
have lived. It is the oppresive and destruc-
tive character of the song which has blocked
the way for the musical film.

What are the possibilities for the future ?
We must remember that the general economic
crisis has only influenced the cinema crisis
in a relative way. The cinema crisis is a
matter of film subjects or stories.

In all countries, good films still enjoy
success, and the spectator, even if in restricted
financial circumstances, goes to the pictures
when he is sure of finding a good film. It
is an error to assert that the public only likes
banalities. Now that we are mentioning
the question of stories for films, it will be

opportune to consider the matter of the mu-
sical score.

This aspect of the cinema is revealed to us
in a different light today. Nowadays we
have imposed the forms of the prose drama
on the theatrical motion picture, and the
music required is only occasional music,
musique de scene with no connection, general-
ly, with the action of the piece. It is only
rarely that we find melodic and rhythmic
motives springing from the action and con-
nected with it as in the attempts of Rene
Clair.

The sound film ought, on the contrary,
to be quite distinct from the theatre in the
matter of utilizing sounds. As we have it
today, it is too poor in music. Producers
ought to think of this matter and, with the
aid of the composers, seek for methods and
ways to enrich sound film with new rhythms.

The decadence of cinema music is not
only deplorable from the artistic point of
view, but also from the psychological. The
film ought not to be an inflated thing, the
spiritual poverty of which is hidden under
pretences of art. We must not forget that
the collapse of film music may lead to an
irremediable collapse in the spiritual value
of the film.

Cinema music is one of the chief concerns
of those who want to make of the motion
picture a real popular art. This is a fact
which should not be forgotten when we
come to that necessary revision and reorgani-
zation of the world production which is im-
posed by the pressure of economic necess-
ities.

THE CINEMA IN THE LIFE OF PEOPLES

CINEMA AND MUSIC

BY

Alfredo Miralles,

Cinema Critic op the " A.B.C. " of Madrid.

FOR those of us who, without being old, are
no longer very young, the words at the
head of this article have the power to send
our memories back over a number of years.
Let us close our eyes and live again the happy
years of youth and we shall see a picture of the
early days of the cinema. We shall see pass
before our eyes the various stages of its brief
and triumphal existence, and in a rapid succes-
sion of inages, we shall be able to appreciate
its early defects, the improvements made, its
recreative possibilities, its industrial impor-
tance, and its vast possibilities as a means for
spreading culture. It is on this last point
and on one particular detail of it that we
propose to fix our attention ; musical cul-
ture.

When films only lasted a few minutes, and
the cinema was merely a marvellous new
invention for the world, no one thought of it
in any other light, but when it fell into
the hands of business men who made a
Iheatrical show of it, the necessity of some
other element to complete it was felt. It was
called the silent art, and so it was in truth.
Only the action, the movement were percept-
ible to the public, and since not all the actors
were sufficiently expressive, nor all the spec-
tators endowed with the necessary faculties
of understanding, many parts of many pictur-
es remained incomprehensible. Commenta-
tors first of all came to remedy this state of
things, and they in turn were substituted by
sub-titles, and printed running comment.
Neither were sufficient for the projection.

What was lacking was sound and a formula
was found, the musical accompaniment. To
begin with, a piano was used. Under the
rectangle of the screen, an electric lamp
threw a yellowish glare on the five lines of the
musical page. While the silver screen
reproduced a beautiful landscape or, our eyes
contemplated a boat on the sea, or the various
phases of an idyll under the moon, which
as a matter of fact, was a sun on a dark blue
background, a nostalgic melody touched our
sensibilities much more intensely than the
most eloquent of dialogues, a melody in waltz
time, which sometimes seemed as if it would
never end, because, when the notes of the
written music ceased, the pianist's hands im-
provised a fresh theme that was the expression
of his feelings and was never to be repeated
perhaps. The musician's agile fingers drew
notes from the ivory keyboard which seemed
to show its white teeth in a cynical smile.
Time passed. Exhibitors began to improve
the entertainment and since, apart from the
varying quality of the films, nothing could
be done with the projection cabin, attention
was turned to the music. Sextets came into
use, and later even more numerous groups
of musicians. In a word, the musical side
began to be taken more seriously. Ordinary
programmes, put together anyhow, no longer
sufficed. A selection of musical motives
adapted to the film and its events was demand-
ed and prepared. At that time, whole
scores were not played, but disconnected
pieces, chosen for each different scene or sit-

THE CINEMA FOR DOCUMENTING THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

293

uation according to instructions from the
exhibitor or cinema owner who had seen the
picture a number of times. Then came
mechanical music, the big mechanical orche-
stra, the horrible mechanical organ and the
human voice singing behind the screen a
song which one of the leading characters
in the piece might be supposed to be singing
at a given moment. Attempts were made,
sometimes most successfully, to link the
cinema with the gramophone. Then the
sound film came into being, and later the
hundred percent talkie which arose from a
desire to popularize the invention at once.
Experience soon showed that the spoken word
in the cinema has not the same meaning as in
the theatre. In the latter case, its value is
absolute, since it is a means of expression.
Together with the cinema apparatus on the
other hand, the means of expression of
which is the image or picture, it has
only a relative value, which is purely pho-
netic. It is one more sound among other
sounds, which provide a background for the
action, and as such should be used with cau-
tion and great artistic sense. The exhibitors,
convinced of this by means of a series of suc-
cesses and tailures, which opened the way
to a just appreciation of the proper policy
to follow for the future, took a middle road,
that happy average way which often brings
fortune and success, as it did in this case.
Music today has such an importance for the
cinema that it is not enough to adapt music
for it. Today special scores are written for
films and, the loud speaker gives us pieces of
classical music or music hall airs. There is
something for all tastes.

There are two kinds of theatres ; one which
requires the aid of music ; another which has
no need of it because its appeal lies in the
dialogue. This is not the case with motion
picture. In the film, in spite of all the con-
cessions we may make to the word, there are
always moments when the appeal of the or-
chestra or the piano, or the gramophone or
the radio cannot be dispensed with. This mus-
ical intervention is required to illustrate a sil-
ent landscape view ; to give character to a cer-

tain setting or scene or a dialogue. Even
admitting that it is not necessary, music never
disturbs. This is because cinema and music
have a common denominator : rhythm, without
which neither good or even mediocre films or
melodies could exist. After the radio, the
cinema, from the point of view of sound, has
contributed to increase the passion for music,
and to form a basis of musical culture among
the masses, even if only a modest one. There
must always be a rather high percentage of
persons ignorant of music among the masses,
owing to the lack of opportunity to hear and
understand the charm of Euterpe.

The public crowds to a cinema hall with the
idea of seeing a film. It is directed to that
particular place through press publicity, or its
own predeliction for a certain artist or artists.
Sometimes it is a passage in the film which
allows the spectator to hear a fine piece of
music, on other occasions, it is something
added to supplement the main item in the
programme some " short " which provides a
musical novelty. Bit by bit, and insensibly,
music is becoming more popular among the
public. It often happens that we see people
humming or whistling a motive without
knowing from what opera or musical score it
is taken. The cinema has taught them pieces
from Chopin, Mozart and Liszt, insinuating
them into their ears without their own know-
ledge almost ; the pictured image on the
screen taking away that aridity which pure
music has for the neophyte.

We have gone further than this : we have
come to the production of films which are
commonly called musical novelties. Thus
the symphonies of Beethoven, the preludes of
Wagner are given, not as backgrounds for a
scene reconstructing episodes from the life
of a celebrated composer, or to provide
subjects, but as regular spectacles and shows
in themselves. It is the orchestra on the
screen, nothing else.

A moment's silence, the conductors^ baton
is raised. Then the sounds from the loud
speaker insinuate themselves among the
listeners, and the orchestra is playing. The
profane listener comes gradually to accustom

294

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

himself to the sounds of musical instruments
which he did not know : the deep sound of the
bassoon, the laments of the violoncello, the
solemn music of the trumpets, the strident
tones of the trombones, the nasal sound of the
clarinets, the grave voice of the double bass,
the pastoral sweetness of the oboe, the warb-
ling of the flutes. . . and above all this mar-
vellous ensemble the thrilling notes of the
violins which sing triumphantly or whisper
softly when muted.

The success of films of this kind is encou-
raging for those who prepare and produce
them. Any subject is good for the public :
the thing is to choose the most suitable means
of communication. For the diffusion of
musical culture, the facts have unquestionably
demonstrated that there is no better system

than the cinema, which teaches while enter-
taining.

In Spanish cinemas, — and no doubt the
same thing happens in the cinemas of other
countries — the programmes are generally
divided into two parts. In the second part,
the most important film on the programme
is given. The first part of the show is
made up of « shorts », news-reels, animate
cartoons, documentaries, etc. In the name
of good taste, and for the sake of a greater
refinement and sensibility among the masses,
I should like to suggest that among these
pictures a place should be found for films
which can carry to the farthest corners of
the earth fragments of good music, which is
not only a pleasure for the senses, but a
spiritual nutriment for the elect.

TECHNICAL FILM PROBLEMS

TECHNICAL PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

BY

Dr. Ernest Rust,

Zurich.

THE universal diffusion of educational
films is impeded not merely by pedagogie
and organizing difficulties, but also by a num-
ber of technical obstacles. Whether the film
is suitable and effective for teaching purposes
depends largely on satisfactory technical
conditions, and also on accurate and metho-
dical production, accompanied by such or-
ganization as will ensure that the film is pro-
perly used and properly supplied. Techni-
cal questions arise in connection both with
the film and with the projection machinery,
both with the screen and with the darken-
ing of the hall.

The Film. Matters of special

technical importance in connection with the
film are the material on which the image is
printed, the dimensions, the system of per-
foration, and the perfection of the photo-
graphic image.

(a) Material. — The modern film is made
either of celluloid (cellulose nitrate with
camphor : nitrate film), or of acetyl cellulose
(cellulose acetate : acetate film), or of cello-
phane (cellulose : ozaphane film). These
different materials resemble one another
inasmuch as they can readily be converted
into thin, pliable ribbons, trasparent as
glass ; but there are fundamental differences
in make up.

The nitrate film possesses a greater degree
of resistance to pull, and retains its flexibility
longer. It is, however, highly inflammable,

burning with a powerful flame, and as soon
as it is heated to a given temperature, even if
no air is admitted, it decomposes, giving off
poisonous gases (nitrogen dioxide, hydrocya-
nic acid) and evil-smelling vapours which,
when mixed with air, are liable to produce a
violent explosion. Notwithstanding these
bad qualities, the nitrate film, on account of
its resistance and flexibility, is used almost
exclusively as the material for normal 35 mm.
films.

The acetate film actually begins to decom-
pose with the formation of bubbles on the sur-
face, and liquifies at approximately the same
temperature as the nitrate film, but without
giving off any particularly poisonous gases.
It neither ignites nor burns easily. Held
horizontally and lit with a match, it generally
goes out of its own accord. Hence this kind
of film is less dangerous in case of fire than
a light cotton fabric. On the other hand, it is
less resistent to strain than the nitrate film,
and it hardens if kept in a dry place. For
these reasons, it cannot long resist the pull
of the normal projection machinery, and as
in addition, it is more expensive, it has not
yet been possible, for economic reasons, to
substitute this film for the nitrate in the case
of normal dimensions. As a reduced size
film, and so subjected to less mechanical
strain, it lasts as long as a normal film lasts
with normal machinery. Since the producers
of sub-standard films have under taken to
use only safety films, that is to say, materials

296

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

which are not easily inflammable or combusti-
ble, most small-sized films are now printed on
acetyl cellulose emulsion.

The ozaphane film has only lately been
introduced for practical use. This also is a
safety film. It may be roughly described as a
kind of transparent cotton, possessing sub-
stantially the qualities of that fabric. It pro-
vides an extremely fine ribbon, about 0.07 mm.
thick, but sufficiently solid and lasting. In
the ozaphane film the image is not printed on
a layer of gelatine and silver bromide Smeared
on the film ; the image, without any silver
grains, is actually inside the layer of cellulose.
In the cellophane ribbon, impregnated with
a diazo composition, sensitive to light, the
image, after copying, is developed with the
aid of a substance that fixes the colouring
matter. It costs very little to produce rib-
bons for ozaphane pictures, if they are made
in large quantities. As the film is very thin,
considerable lengths can be rolled up in a
small space. If the projection is to be perfect,
the machines in use to day require an alteration
in the projection aperture. So far, however,
too few experiments have been made in re-
gard to the perfecting of pictures on ozaphane
films (control of shading) and their perma-
nence, for them to be recommended for school
purposes, seeing that it is not the business of
the school to serve as a field of experiment
in this direction.

Owing to the chemical nature of the nitrate
film, normal films have to be projected with
special safety precautions against fire, which
means that the projection machinery has
to be housed in a fire-proof box, or that only
projection machines with proportionately
moderated beams of light can be employed
(see " Projection Machines "). The reduced
size film, which is manufactured as a safety
film, is not subject to these restrictions, and
can therefore be used without special precau-
tion on school premises. In Germany, spec-
ial detailed regulations have been issued for
the examination of safety films. A safety
film, after proper washing, should not, when
exposed to the dry air, ignite at a temperature
of less than 300 C, and a strip of such film

16 mm. wide and 30 cm. long should not take
less than 45 seconds to burn in a horizontal
position ; a similar strip less than 0.08 mm
thick should not take less than 30 seconds.

At this Congress it should be definitely
ascertained what countries have accepted
the above definition of safety film, which
has already been agreed upon by the Eighth
International Congress on Scientific and
Applied Photography, with the recommen-
dation that it be speedily put into effect.

It would be desirable to find out how this
can best be done, and at the same time to
arrange for the collection of all exclusively
technical definitions relating to the produc-
tion of reduced size for schools.

Size. — Whereas normal film is subject
to international regulations, and hitherto has
generally been employed only with a field
measuring 18 by 24 mm., there are some four
types of reduced size film in use : the half-
normal, 1 7.5 mm. vide (Pathe-Rural, with a
field measuring 8CE18 mm.), the Koda
16-mm. size (field 7.6 10.5 mm.), the Pa-
the-Baby 9.5 mm. size (a film of small di-
mensions with a field measuring 6.5 8.5
mm.), and the Kodak 8 mm. size (field
3.5 5 mm.).

The smaller the dimensions, that is to
say, the less the width of the field, the small-
er is the quantity of film required for the
entire production, and consequently the low-
er is the cost. For home performances, at
which only a few people are present, sitting
close to a small screen, excellent projections
can be obtained even with films of the small-
est dimensions ; but in educational perfor-
mances, where size, luminosity, and clear-
ness are specific requirements, the dimensions
of the film cannot fall below certain limits.
For a average school hall, the images should
be 1 .5 metres wide and the illumination of
the screen should be at least 35 international
light-units (40 Hefner Lux). The perfec-
tion of the image should be such as to show
up clearly the minutest details of the subject.

Getting the image the right size depends
primarily on the fineness of the grain of the
emulsion and on the intensity of the beam

TECHNICAL FILM PROBLEMS

297

of rays that can be directed through the field
without risk of domage to the film.

Such progress has been made in recent
years, both in the technique of projecting
reduced size films and in regard to incandes-
cent lamps, objectives for projection, the
proper direction of the luminous beam from
the projector and cooling by fans, that it is
now possible to direct through a 9.5 field a
beam sufficient to meet the aforesaid requi-
rements. Greater difficulties are presented
by the fineness of the grain of the photogra-
phic emulsion and the reproduction of de-
tails. It is difficult to foresee whether any
practical progress will be made in connec-
tion with the fineness of the grain in the
relatively near future. Bauer and Imhof (1)
have recently given a satisfactory de-
monstration of the possibility of securing
negatives with an extremely fine-grained
emulsion. For various technical and econ-
omic reasons, which we need not discuss
here, there is still a long way to go before
this process can be practically employed
in regard to film negatives and the produc-
tion of positives ; and there is therefore not
the remotest prospect of obtaining, in any
reasonably near future, layers of finer grain
than we now possess.

The density of the emulsion, which, in
projecting a film, produces the disagreable
effect of spotting, is proportionate to the
extent to which the photograph is magnified
on the screen, and to the distance between the
screen and the spectators. This aspect of the
perfection of the images which provides a
basis for the choice of the format is obtained
by a suitable development, and depends
on the density of the grain of the emulsion
and other and various other factors. For
reduced size film, the subject is considerably
diminished in size. Consequently, the mi-
nute details are brought so close together that,
owing to the limited capacity of development,
they cannot be separated again, even after
several enlargements. The smaller the di-

mensions, the more easily are the details lost.
Unfortunately, no experiment worthy of
mention has been made in the direction of
correcting the phenomenon of spotting and
restoring to the details their proper value, and
therefore we are bound to judge by practical
results. The use of the reduced 16 mm.
film in school instruction has shown that,
provided the photograph is well executed
from the technical standpoint, the details
are adequately reproduced and that, even for
spectators only 3 metres away from the screen
speckling is still kept within supportable
limits (with an image 1 .5 metres wide). If a
machine is available for projecting with a
strong light, and if the nearest spectator can
be not less than 4 metres from the screen,
even the small-sized film produces a good
image 2 metres wide, adequately visible to
an audience of 100 persons (1).

If, however, the technical properties of
the image are unsatisfactory (confused image,
heavy strating, close graining, due to the fact
the film has been slightly effected by light or
has been over-developed), the 16 mm. size
quickly falls to its minimum efficiency.

For school use, therefore, we cannot re-
commend any size with a field smaller than
7.5 X 10.5 mm. (dimensions of the projec-
tion aperture 7.2 X 9.6 mm.). Satisfactory
results have indeed been obtained in schools
with 9.5 mm. films ; but on closer examina-
tion it has always been found that specially
favourable conditions were present in those
particular cases ; either the films were unu-
sually perfect (2), or the subject required no
special accentuation of details, or it consisted
entirely of foreground or isolated parts of
the entire subject.

(1) Cf. Bauer : La tecnica del cinema, 1933, page
291, and Imhof, ibid., 1933, p. 762.

(1) For technically satisfactory films, with not too
dense grain it is also possible to improve the size of
the size of the images ; with thicker films it is pos-
sible to work with a double-winged shutter (see
" Projector "), thus gaining in intensity of light, as
frequently been demonstrated at experimental
projections. For unusual projections the lamp can
be made stronger. We cannot here discuss , however,
questions that do not normally arise in schools.

(2) E. g., the films of Dr. Scheminski of
Vienna, projected with improved machinery.

Ice. Ing.

298

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

In projecting the film, account was taken
primarily of the dimensions, and not of edu-
cational requirements. This does not apply
only to foregrounds and individual parts of
the whole. Another objection to excessively
small dimensions is that any damage to the
film, whether in development or in use, and
any grain of dust that may have got between
the layers of emulsion in the prints bulks much
larger in projection than it would in the case
of films of larger dimensions.

From what has been said above, it is clear
that the 1 7.5 mm. size is more satisfactory
for educational purposes than the 1 6 mm.
If the decision as to the size of the film had
rested with the school, it would have chosen
the larger size.

Since, however, the majority of the more
competent producers of reduced size films,
and also the printing establishments and
exigent amateur cinematographists, have
pronounced in favour of the 1 6 mm. film,
and since numerous experiments with revers-
ible films, or simply with films converted
from the normal to the reduced size, have
shown that the 16 mm. film is adequate for
all grades of education, it has necessarily been
accepted as the school film. It is only a wide
use of films which can lead to gradual reduc-
tion in their cost.

To make it possible to use any of the re-
duced sizes as desired in a school, projection
machines have been constructed which can
deal with all the different sizes, provided cer-
tain of their component parts are changed.
These machines, however, are merely a
makeshift, because, owing to their light
capacity, they are properly adapted to only
one size, and this could be avoided only by
choosing very complicated and expensive
machines.

Perforation. — The object of perforation
is to allow the film to be unwound by means
of sprocket wheels the teeth of which inter-
lock and rapidly run off a strip of film. The
devices for unwinding the reels of film put
perforation under a considerable strain. If
the lower edge of the perforations is damaged,

the picture is no longer steady. If the damage
is very serious, the film can no longer run
regularly through the projection machine.
The perforations may be either at the sides
if the film or in the middle, between the
pictures. Lateral perforations may be either
on both sides or on one. A double perfora-
tion naturally tends to make the film last
longer, and a two-sided pull is more regular
than a one-sided pull. In consequence of
these factors, the normal-sized 35 mm. film is
perforated on both sides, and on every side
of each picture there are four holes to receive
teeth, in the form of a Maltese cross. The
16 mm. film is also perforated on both sides,
but has only one hole on each side of each
picture, corresponding to the tooth on the
sprocket-wheel. The half-normal-sized film
has the same perforation as the normal film,
but on one side only. 16 mm. sound-films
are also perforated on one side only, in order
to leave room for the sound-track on the other
side.

This, of course, reduces the life of the
perforation. The 9.5 mm. film receives a
perforation in the centre, between the pic-
tures. Consequently the width of the pic-
tures has to be reduced by the diameter of the
perforation.

In the case of small-sized school films, the
perforation should be on both sides, so that
the film can be kept longer in use.

Perfection of the The main requirements
Image. 0f an educational film

are connected with the perfection of the
image, because anything that is to be exhib-
ited for instructional purpose must be
absolutely clear and sufficiently luminous,
and the tones must shade perfectly into one
another. The first precautions to comply
with these requirements must be taken at the
time of shooting the film. Above all, there
must be sufficient light. The light come
from the proper direction and must be very
carefully graduated. Outdoor pictures, taken
by daylight, should only be shot in the right
position relative to the sun, and in good
weather ; for other pictures — especially

TECHNICAL FILM PROBLEMS

299

interiors — there must be no attempt to
economize on artificial light. The lighting
and luminosity must be strictly adjusted to
the subject, because the light must be con-
centrated on the essential features.

Needless to say, the principles of lumin-
osity differ somewhat according to whether
the picture is artistic, or scientific, or educa-
tional. In most cases, however, these con-
ditions are not observed by competent cinema
operators. A scientific or educational film
can be satisfactorily made only by someone
who is not merely a master of film technique
but also thorougly understands the subject
that is to be filmed.

When, in taking a scientific film, it is impos-
sible for material reasons to observe all the
principles of film technique, the picture can
be appreciably improved by suitable deve-
lopment and accurate printing. In the pro-
cess of reproduction, the tones must be shade
with the utmost care up to the main part of
the subject. Sharp copies are to be avoided,
because the object is not to obtain pictorial
tones, but to reproduce the whole subject
and its component parts as correctly as pos-
sible.

On the other hand, faint copies lose the
more minute details and show up plastic
defects. When sharp normal-sized negatives
are reduced to smaller dimensions, the films
obtained by optical printing are too hard,
owing to Cailler's effect. If the negative
cannot be illuminated with a very strong
diffused light, it is better to print from the
original negative a soft first positive, and
then to reduce that positive to a small-sized
negative, properly shaded, from which it will
finally be possible to reproduce perfect
copies. Unfortunately, establishments which
print reduced size films are still limited by
the small requirements of the majority of
amateur film-producers, who are satisfied
with mediocre results.

For educational purposes, however, such
products must be rejected as inadequate (1).

(1) The pedagogic aspect of the formation of the
film, which has given rise to so much criticism,
does not form part of our present subject.

Summary. From the foregoing

statement the following deductions may be
made : —

(1) Normal sized film readily gives
large, clear, and excellent pictures, but,
owing to the inflammability of the material
of which it is made, serious precautions
have to be taken against fire. These films
are also very expensive owing to their very
large field of image, and require large pro-
jection machines, which are also costly and
not easily moved except in the case of port-
able machines, which give a weak light. As
reduced size films are nowadays so common,
the normal-sized film is necessary, for educa-
tional purposes, only in the larger halls and
for bigger audiences.

(2) The sub-standard film of 16 mm
fully meets teaching and educational require-
ments, where the audience is not too big,
provided that the fineness of the emulsion
and the perfection of the pictures are up to
average standard. With still smaller sizes
the same object may be achieved, but only
in definitely favourable conditions. At
present, therefore, the introduction of such
films for school purposes is not to be re-
commended.

Reduced size film must be printed on a
substance which will not ignite and does
not burn easily ; and, except in the case
sound-films, it should be perforated at both
edges.

The Projector. The projector must

be fitted up differently for the normal film
and sub-standard film.

The machinery for normal sizes is nowadays
much less frequently considered for school
use, except for showing in large halls or
cinema halls. The normal projection mach-
inery for large and small cinemas and for
travelling cinemas has now reached such a
high stage of perfection, and has to be cap-
able of serving so many different purposes,
that no further special features can be de-
manded from it for educational purposes,
except that it should be able to work at the
rate of sixteen pictures per second, and be

O Ice ingl.

300

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

supplied with a three-winged shutter. Pro-
jectors are constructed today for sound-films,
which have a regular frequency of twenty-
four images a second. The silent film was,
and still is, best taken at the rate of sixteen
pictures per second, and must therefore be
shown at the same frequency in order to
avoid misrepresenting, through excessive
rapidity, the rate at which the subject moves.
This is of the highest importance in school
work. To meet the requirements stated,
the two-winged shutter must be interchan-
geable with a three-winged shutter, and the
motor must be fitted with a regulating device.
When the normal projection machinery has
to be used in a school hall without special
safety arrangements, the intensity of the
heat, and therefore the strength of the
beam of light, must be reduced so that the
nitrate film, which is completely blackened
and fixed in the projection aperture, does
not ignite in the space of an hour. Whilst
the projection of normal-sized instructional
films in large halls does not differ essentially
from projections in cinema-theatres, the
projection of reduced size films for education-
al purposes, in school halls, is very different.
In schools, on the other hand, attention
must be directed partly to circumstances
different from those connected with the
showing of reduced size films at home. For
this reason, many forms of machinery for
reduced size films which are manufactured
for home cinemas cannot be used as they
stand for school purposes.

The following are the requirements for
projection machinery for reduced size films
suitable for use in a school hall.

The school machine, which is intended for
class instruction and will therefore be bought
in large numbers by schools, must be as
cheap as possible. Further, and more par-
ticularly for educational and hygienic rea-
sons, the machine must be superior to those
used for home cinemas. It can be obtained
at a moderate price only by sacrificing every-
thing that is unnecessary, both in the instal-
lation and in the equipment. The follow-
ing requirements have been ascertained from

the examination of 125 different projection
machines for sub-standard films, after care-
ful technical study and many experimentsin
the educational field.

(1) The machine must be as simple as pos-
sible but accurate and durable, and must not
include anything that is unnecessary (see
15 and 16).

Reason : — (a) A piece of apparatus that
is simly and accurately constructed is
unlikely to suffer damage, and works si-
lently ; (b) the school must be able to count
on making a considerable use of the machine,
(c) the price must be as low as possible.

(2) The machine must work as silently as
possible.

Reason : — Teacher and pupils must be
able to speak so as to understand one another
during the lesson.

(3) The machine must be easy to carry and
possibly provided with handles.

Reason : — The machine will frequently
have to be carried from one room to another,
up and down stairs, without being taken to
pieces.

(4) The beam of light which falls on the
image during the movement of the three-
winged shutter must give at least 56 interna-
tional light-units (= 66 Helfner Lux). This
gives a light-intensity of 35 international
units (= 40 Helfner Lux), with an image
1 .5 metres wide this width being taken as the
rule for a school hall. When circumstances
make it possible to install an aluminium
screen (silver screen), the beam of light may
be reduced by half.

Reason : — On a white surface and in
well-darkened surroundings, the beam of
light produced gives a sufficiently clear image
with a film of normal density. The beam may
even be sufficient with a somewhat thicker
film and with somewhat defective darkening.
In such cases, an endeavour must be made
to obtain a more powerful beam.

A beam of 75 international light-units
(= 85 Helfner Lux) gives a luminous re-
production of images about 2 metres in
width. It also makes darker films luminous
on a smaller screen. Projectors with lumin-

TECHNICAL FILM PROBLEMS

301

osity below 56 international Lumen (light
units) can only be used in small halls owing
to the special characteristics of the alumi-
nium screen.

(5) The dispersion of the light at the edges
of the screen, by comparison with the centre,
must not exceed 25 %.

Reason : — With a greater dispersion, an
image on the screen is noticeably darker at
the edges ; in darker pictures the details
at the sides are less brought out.

(6) The lens must give a strong light (re-
lative aperture 1-1.9 up to 1-1.4). It must
give pictures that are clear and not coloured
at the edges.

Reason : — (a) A great intensity of light
gives too strong a beam, but with a relative
aperture of 1-1,4 the clearness in depth of
the less becomes so faint that in a not com-
pletely smooth film a slight blur is inevitable
Blurring and colouration of edges spoils the
clear effect of the picture very considerably

(7) The shutter must work three times for
every change of image.

Reason : — For moving pictures, the
educational film must move at the same rate
as that at which the pictures were taken, i. e.
1 6 images per second. Since, to obtain com-
plete absence of flicker, at least 48 changes
of light are necessary, the shutter must close
at least three times each second. This can
be effected either by means of a three-winged
shutter or by means of a single-winged shutter
turning three times per second. For sound-
films with 24 images per second, a two-wing-
ed shutter suffices. A shutter in which the
two and three wings are interchangeable is
to be recommended. As the number of
light-changes is also reduced with a diminu-
tion in the luminosity of the images, it is
possible with a two-winged shutter to pro-
ject very dark films with good results. With
a better light, even the dark parts are better
illuminated in this way.

(8) The feed and winding reels must be
easily accessible. There must not be any
traction-pivots for winding the reels, nor
any protective shield.

Reason : — Easy access facilitates the

placing of the film in position. Traction-
pivots and protective shields do not work
rapidly as organs for pressure and thrust.
Spring-pivots do not leave both hands free
for placing the film in position. Protection
shields even if raised, make it more difficult
to place the film in position.

(9) The apparatus for moving the film
must be such as will preserve it well, allow
of free running, and prevent buckling. There
should be a sprocket on each side.

Reason : — (a) The image must be quite
steady ; (b) sprockets on one side only engage
too violently in the perforations. Sprockets
on both sides will allow of good working
even if the perforations on one side of the
film are damaged.

(10) The projection aperture must be
7.21 X 9.65 mm. in size (1), with a maximum
deviation of -^ 0.1 mm.

Reason : — The effective light of the film
is 7.5 X 10.5 mm. A greater restriction
of the field of effective light at the sides is
advisable, because the film may oscillate
a little in places while being drawn through.
Vertically, only the wrinkling of the film need
be considered, since the force with which it
is pulled through keeps it exactly in position.

(11) The gate or aperture for the film
must be capable of being opened wide. This
makes it possible to follow the film through
for a greater distance. Guides for the film
above and below the projection aperture are
advisable (e. g. pivots placed laterally). These
should operate even when the gate is open.

Reason : — (a) A wide opening of the gate
makes it easier to place the film rapidly in
position and to clean both the groove through
which the film runs and the projection aper-
ture ; (b) if it can be followed through for a
considerable distance, the film's passage
without difficulty can be ensured ; (c) a
lateral guide, even when the gate is open,
prevents the film from being caught up in
the gateway.

(12) Means of rectifying the path of the
belt of images must be within reach.

(I) Used in Germany and the United States.

302

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

Reason : — When normal-sized films are
reduced to small size, slight displacements
of the belt of images frequently occur. In
the small-sized film camera, too, the belt of
images is not always equidistant from the
perforations.

(13) The Reel must be capable of taking
1 20 metres of film, and must have a diameter
of 1 78 mm. The core must have a diameter
of 44-45 mm. The shaft-hole should be
square, with a side of 8 mm. The reel must
not rock on its shaft. Mechanism for fac-
ilitating the rapid hooking-up of the be-
ginning of the film is desirable.

Reason : — (a) It is not necessary to show
more than 120 metres of sub-standard film
in a school lesson ; (b) the diameter of the
core should not be too small so that the film
may not be damaged by too tight winding ;
(c) the hole in the shaft should be so ar-
ranged that it can be adapted to all machines.
A reel that rocks makes irritating noise
throughout the showing of the film.

(14) The use of a universal motor is ad-
visable. Its speed should be easily regulated
either by resistance-box or by a friction-brake

Reason : — (a) The apparatus must be
capable of being connected up either with
continuous or with alternating current ;
(b) if the regulating mechanism acts too ra-
pidly, it is difficult to make the film run at
exactly the right speed.

(15) Apparatus for stopping the motion of
the film is not advisable.

Reason : — With light of the strength re-
quired nowadays, a fixed image cannot in
practice be kept at a temperature low enough
to prevent permanent damage to the film.
Even a slight deterioration of the film pro-
duces blurring of the images in subsequent
projections. Moreover, small-sized fixed
film is not so good as the normal slide.
All images representing subjects in rapid
motion lack clearness in the film. (Pictures
that can be very rapidly taken, with an in-
stantaneous exposure, should be shown as
fixed images).

(16) A reversing lever is unnecessary.
Reason : — The time taken in running a

film back is wasted for teaching purposes.
An educational film should be so produced
that its contents can be taken in by the pu-
pils without repetition of individual scenes.
If, however, a partial re-winding should
happen to be necessary, this can be more
rapidly done by means of a normal winder
(cf. 19).

(17) The resistances of the current for the
light and for the motor — to the extent re-
quired at the normal tension of the machine
— should be contained in the machine it-
self. Supplementary resistances, for other
tensions, should be so arranged as not to in-
terfere with the handling of the machine.
It is desirable that the resistances should not
become overheated, and that they should
be protected so that outsiders cannot touch
them.

Reason : — The machine, in working
order, should form a single unit, and should
be easy to carry from one place to another.

(18) The projector should be provided
with an apparatus for measuring energy.
A small amperometer, showing the normal
strength of the current for the lamps, is
sufficient. It should be lighted up to some
extent.

Reason : — The lamp must always be
supplied with normal current, so that neither
the light nor the life of the lamp is reduced.

(19) The projector carrier, should be
fitted with a device for rewinding the film.

Reason : — The film must be rapidly
wound on the spot, without the need of a
second machine.

(20). The machine should have oiling'
points, not too numerous, but easily seen and
clearly marked.

Reason : — If there are too many oiling-
points, or if they are not marked clearly
enough, it is easier to overlook some of them.

(21). The diffused light which comes from
the source of light should, as far as possible,
be shut out.

Reason : — Any unnecessary lighting or
the projection-room lessens the clearness of
details, particularly when the light of the
machine itself is not very strong.

TECHNICAL FILM PROBLEMS

303

(22) With every school machine there
should be a press for sticking films together.

Reason : — Broken joins must be repaired
immediately after a film has been shown.

The Screen. The screen must re-

flect as much light as possible. It should
therefore be impenetrable to light, and
white if possible. It should be absolutely
smooth, so that there are no shadows and
no deformation of the images. For small
screens, a sheet of paper (not cardboard) is
enough, provided it is sufficiently white and
strong and may easily be stretched on a frame.

There are also paper screens that can be
rolled up, but they are easily damaged and
creased. Cloth screens that can be rolled
up must be coated with baryta white (per-
manent white) or zinc white, so that they
are a good white and become impenetrable
by light.

Screens made of untreated cloth, which
are put up for improvised cinema-shows,
allow a great deal of light to pass through
and the luminosity of the projection which
is already comparatively weak in light, is
thus reduced. A very smooth plaster wall
makes an excellent screen and its refractive
capacity can be still further increased by a
layer of baryta white. For this purpose,
it may be brushed over with water-colours
or opaque oil-colours.

The two types of screen the reflecting one
wirth a metallic coating of aluminium pow-
der known as the " silver screen " and the
pearly screen with very small fragments of
glass, (giving results similar to those obtained
with the former), which are both most com-
monly used for home cinemas with an appa-
ratus giving weak light, are not as a rule
suitable for use in school halls, They do
indeed greatly strengthen the refraction of
the light in a direction perpendicular to the
projection-surface, but they diffuse so little
at the sides, and at so acute an angle, that they
can be considered only for long and narrow
rooms. These screens disperse the light in
vavying degrees according to their position
It is easy to ascertain experimentally the maxi-

mum angle at which, like a white screen,
they are capable of diffusing the light with
sufficient intensity. This is done by project-
ing the beam of light on the screen with the
projection aperture empty. At the same
time, a large sheet of white paper is placed
over the aperture. Then, by moving side
ways a point is reached at which the luminosity
is equally strong on the screen and on the
sheet of paper. On moving still further to
the side, the screen appears darker than the
sheet of paper.

Members of the audience sitting some
distance away at the side see, when a picture
is projected, an image which is darker than
if a white screen with uniform diffusion had
been used. The luminous effect of metal
screens is that it reflects greater quantities of
light. Screens which reflect too intensely
show a bright spot in the centre ; this is the
reflected image of the projection-objective.

The screen must be protected from dust and
dirt ; if it should become dirty, it must be
re-coated. A screen that has been recently
coated is capable of reflecting 90 % of the
light thrown on it. Experiments made with
dusty or dirty screens have shown only 50 %
reflection. In such cases it is not surpris-
ing that projection machines working with a
minimum strength of light produce image
which are insufficiently bright.

Installations for Dar- The projection hall
kening Rooms. g^y be as dark as

possible. Diffused light, falling on the screen
from any direction, spoils the projection
seriously, because it reduces the contrasts,
and consequently a large part of the detail
of the picture is not seen. Even an intense
strengthening of the beam of light may fail to
compensate for the loss of contrasts. (1) In
the showing of small sized films, more parti-
cularly, with maximum-sized images combin-
ed with minimum strength of light, all
diffused light must be carefully shut out.

(1) Cf. experiments by Th. VoGT: Bildwart,
1932, pp. 8 et seq. . ^ y M ^ a M M ^ .

304

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

The total darkening of large school-rooms,
with their big windows, is, unfortunately, very
expensive, particularly it has to be done
with equipment supplied at a later date. Since
the showing of slides and films can nowa-
days be so effectively employed as an aid to
teaching, attention should be given, in the
plans for any school building, to the possibi-
lity of darkening the various class rooms
even if the present teaching staff make no
specific request.

It is not enough to have one hall that can be
darkened, or one special projection-room, in
each school, or even on each floor of the build-
ing, for projections of pictures and films serve
their full educational purpose only when they
take place during the lesson, at the moment
when the teaching has reached the appro-
priate stage.

The best way of darkening rooms is to
use curtains of black cotton material, thickly
woven and impervious to light. These are
placed on a roller overhead and run down
between deep grooves at the sides.

Special attention must also, however, be
given to the shutting-out of light both above
and below. The cheapest method, in most
cases, is to use light-proof curtains, which
can be drawn by means of cords at both sides
of the window. They must be well nailed
down on one side, so that the light does not
pass through, and should fall somewhat
lower than the window-sill if possible, right
down to the floor. They should be so made
that they can be drawn one over the other
and completely, or almost completely, cover
the window-space.

In some cases, large frames covered with
cloth or with a thick layer of light-proof

material have proved sufficient when they
can be placed over the window-spaces after
the windows have been well darkened by
means of suitable equipment.

Curtains, hangings, and frames can be
quickly handled by the pupils themselves,
if the work has been property allotted among
those sitting near. The curtains may, of
course, be raised and lowered by mechanical
means, where these are available.

If, on account of the expense, it is not pos-
sible to instal equipment for darkening the
rooms in a new school building, the builder,
in constructing and fitting the window-
frames should bear in mind the possibility
of equipment being supplied later. Steps
should be taken to ensure that these re-
quirements are observed in the building of
schools, especially as they entail no extra
expense.

A detailed report should be submitted to
the Congress on problems connected wtth
the darkening of rooms and the solutions
wihch have been found specially good or
specially easy and economical.

The foregoing statement gives a summary
view of the chief technical problems connected
with the educational cinema.

It should be discussed at the Congress,
where the various requirements set forth
should be considered.

Since, because of the small space available,
some of these requirements have had to be
dealt with very briefly, an attempt should be
made to go into them more fully, and the
Congress should, in particular, consider
experience gained in any direction, so that
the discussion may lead to wellweighed
decisions and recommendations.

TECHNICAL FILM PROBLEMS

RECENT PROGRESS IN REVERSIBLE FILM
AND AMATEUR CINEMATOGRAPHERS

By
Professor Rodolfo Namias.

THE sub-standard film continues to encoun-
ter general favour, and enjoys new
methods of application. This is due to
the introduction of perfect cameras for 9,5
mm and 8mm film, and also to the im-
mense advances made in emulsions from
the point of view of their sensitiveness and
chromatic quality, granulation and reversi-
bility.

Progress in Making Until a few years ago,
Sensitive Emulsions. tne manufacture of ul-
tra-sensitive emulsions of gelatine bromides
was carried out by mixing a solution of gela-
tine containing bromide of potassium and a
small quantity of iodide of potassium with an
ammoniacal solution of nitrate of silver.

With a process of prolonged heating at a
certain temperature, the so called maturation
process set in. The grains of iodide and
bromide of silver increase in size with a
corresponding increase in sensitiveness. The
maturation process under these conditions
has a limit due to the necessity of not increas-
ing the granularity of the emulsion and the
undesirability of forming a veiled surface.

On the other hand, there were factors tend-
ing to render the degree of sensitiveness
inconstant. This, in fact, depended on the
quality of the gelatine used.

It was only through the discovery made by
Dr Shephard of the allyl-thiourea substance
which renders gelatine active that it was pos-
sible to do away with the inconstant ratio
due to the variations in the various types of
gelatine.

Even choosing the most active kind of
gelatine, or rendering it active with sulphu-
rous solutions (traces of hyposulphite act in
this this way), we should not have produced
emulsions having the sensitiveness and grain
of those of today if others methods of procur-
ing the phenomenon of maturation had not
been discovered that do not increase the size
of the grain.

The end has been attained by washing the
emulsion to eliminate the ammonia and solu-
ble salts, and then subjecting it to fusion with
very small quanities of bromide of potassium,
then prolonging the drying for several hours.

The effect of this treatment on the rapidity
of the film is extraordinary, while the effect
on the granulous texture of the emulsion
is almost nill.

In this way manufacturers have arrived at
producing emulsions with enormous sensiti-
veness which, if they do reach the hyperboli-
cal figures used in certain commercial proces-
ses, mean that the rapidity of cinema nega-
tives is practically five times greater than it
was a few years ago.

Despite this, the grain is finer rather than
courser, as compared to the grain of the old
emulsions.

The Special Require- In sub-standard film,
ments of Rever- an(J especially in 9,5
sible Film. and 8 mm film( the

grain must be as fine as possible, even if it
is at the expense of the sensitiveness, so as to
allow of projections on a large screen, and
also because a good inversion of the negative

306

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

on to a positive results all the finer in prop-
ortion to the fineness of the grain of the
emulsion.

It has been stated (1) that in inversion the
results obtained are not even approximately
the same as the results from a direct picture
and that, moreover, there is the distinct dis-
advantage of the too limited latitude of ex-
posure.

The writer's experience — and I may men-
tion that I was the first to study and intro-
duce the inversion process of photographic
images on gelatine and silver bromide (Pho-
tographic Congress of Florence 1899) does
not bear out these criticisms.

Indeed, it may be believed that the inver-
sion process with the types of film we possess
today will give better pictures than those
obtained by printing, because we shall have
the effect of two granularities which do not
coincide, that of the negative and that of the
positive.

Inversion of Film not In this case, we must
Requiring a Second use a film witn a very
Exposure. thJn emulsion and ;t ;s

necessary to establish with exactness the
exposure time, for there is not much latitude.

Today with photo-electric cell posometers
(Metraphot, Photoskop and others) it is easy
to avoid exposure errors.

The Pathe Baby 9,5 mm film is the most
suitable for inversion purposes without a
second exposure, and it is the only type that
the amateur can handle by himself.

I dealt with the chemistry of this method
in a series of articles published in the review
// Progresso Fotografico, which were after-
wards reprinted in a special chapter of my
Encyclopedic Manual of Photography, (9th
edition 1934).

As I have shown what is required is a de-
veloper which works in depth (the paraphen-
ilendyamina bath recommended by Pathe
works well) but after the inversion we must
use a strengthening process which acts with

(1) Dr. Imhof of Basle in the ((International
Review of Ed. Cinematography8, November 1933.

great regularity independently of the action
of the light. I have shown that hydrosul-
phite of soda, the general reducer indicated by
the Pathe firm, which is useful owing to the
fact that it favours the formation of blackened
silver, has grave disadvantages owing to its
instability and its capacity to turn in some
degree into hyposulphite of soda.

A fortifier which has the greatest regula-
rity consists of a weak solution of sulphide of
soda, which turns the images brown through
the formation of sulphide of silver.

The action of this blackening bath should
be prolonged until the image gains a proper
density. The excess of unblackened bromide
of silver can be eliminated with a solution of
hyposulphite. The operation implies a test
for density.

The sulphide of silver image can be
converted again into a dark image by means
of a bath with acidulated permanganate of
sodium and a second total development in
full light.

The black image appears more transparent
and more brilliant for projection. This
method which I have barely outlined has
been used by several amateurs anxious to
have the satisfaction of doing the operation
themselves, thus also of cutting expenses.
It is the only safe method if one wants to
do without the second exposure.

Inversion of Film The film intended for
and Development a second exposure after
after a Second Ex- the inversion and be_

' fore the second devel-

opment does not require a very thin coating
of emulsion, Indeed, it is better if the coating
is of a certain thickness because this allows
a very considerable latitude in the matter of
exposure, while with the help of the second
exposure it is possible, within fairly wide
limits, to correct under or over-exposure.

The difficulty is in obtaining this second
exposure in a certain and regular manner and
for the right time.

Methods for carying out this operation
oneself have been suggested. The frame
on which the inverted film is wound and

TECHNICAL FILM PROBLEMS

307

protected from the light is placed in a box,
in which it is subjected on all sides to the
light of several lamps.

Afler the exposure, the development is car-
ried out to that degree necessary for dark-
ening the silver bromide that creates the
image, eliminating the excess afterwards
with hyposulphite.

Besides being complicated, this method has
two serious disadvantages.

(1) It is very difficult to obtain a uniform
exposure of the film in every part. (2) It is
possible to correct errors of exposure which
affect the entire film, but not errors which
are only partial and limited to a section
of the picture-making.

The problem of how to handle inverted
film has, we may say, been solved, by means
of the second exposure regulated automati-
cally according to the opaqueness.

It is by means of the photo-electric cell
that we can measure such opaqueness and
regulate the intensity of the illuminant. It
can be seen that in this fashion we can correct
even considerable errors in exposure because
if the residual image after the inversion is
exaggerated, the lighting will be automatically
limited to a portion of the stratum necessary
to give the requisite intensity in subsequent
development.

Experiments with Wi- I des ired to observe the
dely varying Expo- possibilities for correc-
sures carried out don whkh g mm fiJm

on 8 mm film and a i j

. „ _, oners when exposed

automatically De- , ,

. , under greatly varying

conditions, with the

second exposure automatically regulated.

I used the Cine Kodak N° 8, which is a
handy and perfect apparatus. The film used
was Kodak super-sensitive panchromatic,
which in the cinema industry is, we may say,
the only film used, since it is the most sensi-
tive to the light of incandescent electric lamps
which form the chief illuminant in studios.

Panchromatic film, intended for sub-
standard cinema cameras using 1 6 mm and
8 mm reels, has probably the same emulsion
as the Kodak industrial film, for the Kodak

people have been able to increase greatly the
ordinary and chromatic sensitiveness of the
film without increasing the grain as compared
with the old type film, indeed diminishing it.
This film, treated with an appropriate bath,
will allow of a development suitable for the
successive inversion.

The automatic machine which Kodaks
have produced for the development and
inversion of 16 and 8 mm films is not known
in its particulars .being in the nature of a
trade secret. .

It is known that after the first development
and inversion, every section of the film is,
so to say, explored in its opacity by means of
a application of the photo-electric cell sensi-
tive to red light. The cell commands the
resistance of the lamp which has to impress
the bromide of silver for the second exposure.

After the second exposure, and the second
development, the excess of bromide of silver
is eliminated by fixing.

Films which a colleague of mine exposed
under varying conditions (one film shows
some interesting episodes of the palio of
Siena) were of necessity handed to the Kodak
firm for development and inversion and
returned ready for projection.

It was a great revelation for me to observe
the perfection of the pictures. Proportion-
ately, as compared with normal theatrical
film, the projected image was larger, and in
detail, modelling, absence of grain, sharpness
and transparency it was such as to make one
think that cinematography with substan-
dard, reversible film is today able to compete
with and in certain cirsumstances to be super-
ior to ordinary normal size theatrical film.

Indeed, when we are dealing with negative
film, we are very far from being able to make
such important corrections in the wrongly
exposed sections of film, and it is inevitable
that we find in the negative images differing
in intensity and contrasts. This disequilib-
rium cannot ever be remedied in the positive
print as it is in the direct automatic control
development of the positive film. Moreover,
as I have already said, the grain of the image
is superior as is also the detail, which is

308

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

often partially lost owing to a lack of cor-
respondence between the opacity and the
contrasts of the negative and the characteris-
tics of the positive emulsion.

Another machine for the automatic devel-
opment of reversible film is in course of
study by the eminent cinema expert Engin-
eer Lobel on behalf of the Pathe Co.

Advisability of En- After the foregoing re-
couraging Recrea- marks, it is obvious that
tional, Documentary |t jg advisabje today to

and Educational j L 1

„. , , encourage and help on

Cinematography by , , ,

r . , the work or cinema

means or special .

Installations for amateurs and indeed of
the Treatment and a11 those who bV work"
Multiplication of ing "with sub-standard
Films. film can obtain a docu-

mentation of events
and natural objects which can both interest
and instruct.

It has been said, and with a certain justice,
that it is the cinema amateur who may be
looked to for the renovation of the motion
picture. The young cine-amateurs must
provide us with recreational films too which
must be something better than the usual film
adaptations of theatrical pieces.

Without going too far, it may safely be said
that the amateur film can reveal capacities and
possibilities to us which the industrial film
of the big studios will be able to work out,
giving chances to young film directors.

We must not think though that the amateur

can produce negatives to be printed, thus
burdening him with a double expense, while
the cost of inverted positive film is by no
means negligible. It is only after a projection
that one can know if a positive is worth
handling for recreational, documentary or
instructive purposes.

The excellent institution of the Dopolavoro
(Workmen's After- Work Association) has a
great chance nowadays of assisting cinema
work through the technical aid of its Photo-
graphic Society and Cine Club.

It is not my task to make suggestions, but
there is no doubt that by encouraging the
cine-amateur and helping him to produce
pictures cheaply, by forming commissions
to offer awards and judge films, classifying
them for documentary or educational purpo-
ses, we should obtain collections of films that
could be projected in the sections of the
Dopolavoro. Such pictures would provide
recreation and instruction, and also be useful
for propaganda purposes to exalt the works
and institutions of the Fascist regime.

If any film happened to be of exceptional
interest, it could be multiplied through
a negative, or by means of systems such as the
Ozaphane system, which allows of direct
reproduction of positive from positive.

A whole technical and cultural organiza-
tion is implied in this suggestion of mine,
which ought to have the approval of the
I. I. E. C. to whose objects it could make an
effective contribution.

TECHNICAL FILM PROBLEMS

309

NARROW WIDTH MOTION PICTURES

By William M. Gregory, Director Educational Museum, Cleveland, Ohio.

Motion Pictures in the Classroom. — The nar-
row gauge 16m film is the best solution for instruc-
tion by motion picture in the classroom. If the
classroom has a screen and the room can be darkened,
it is suitable for using the narrow gauge motion
picture equipment. An expensive fire booth, a
licensed operator and an expensive projector are
not required. The narrow width motion picture is
the greatest advancement in visual instruction in
recent years.

The narrow gauge films are made for instruction
in the classroom. If the teacher wishes to give city
pupils ideas of country life, the film presents vividly
activities of farm life. The cow, the horse, the pig
and the other farm animals are shown at home on
the farm. They are alive and real to children who
get clear concepts. The picture can be repeated
several times and the class room for the time becomes
a real farm to the pupils.

In showing pupils by the motion picture how
people live and what they do, geography becomes
alive with interest. Rivers, winds, volcanoes, and
other physical environments are brought to children
in a clear and vivid manner. No reason for geo-
graphy teaching to be barren of results, careful educa-
tional tests have shown the film to be stimulating
and worth while.

The pictorial story of Daniel Boone is fascinating
to the history class. To travel with Columbus, or
ride the trail with the pioneer are worthwhile exper-
iences possible with the classroom film. Luther
Burbank at work in his garden is an inspiration to
practical students of nature. The life of a butterfly
from the pupae to the larvae is a story that children
can see and understand. The growth of the flower,
seed and leaf are all shown on the film in a way
that cannot be equalled by text or chart.

The film story of bread from the grain to the
loaf arouses ideas, questions and problems that call
forth effort activity from the pupils. The narrow
gauge motion picture can be used as laboratory
material in many subjects.

The Cost of Narrow Gauge Films. — The low
cost of the film makes it possible to organize a film
library. The narrow gauge film or 16mm is sold
outright to schools for $ 20.00 to $ 35.00 per 400 feet
reel. When the school of the country purchase the

film text in sufficient quantities, the price per reel
will be much lower. In any community, schools can
be supplied in the films from a central library in the
country or in the nearest large city. A central library
of two to three hundred reels is sufficient to supply
many schools. Most of the large cities have working
libraries from which teachers secure reels of film in
the same manner as books are drawn from a library.
This circulating library method of handling films
renders the cost relatively low. The life of the
1 6mm film with ordinary care is about two hundred
showings, or ten cents for each showing up to two
hundred. The 16mm film is non-explosive, is
easily repaired and most of the large film companies
are now producing the 16mm films especially for
school work. It is important that each film can be
accompanied by a teachers' guide and that the guide
be used by teacher and pupils.

Sources for Educational Narrow Width Films.
— The ! 6mm film may be rented or purchased. The
rentals are usually a dollar for each reel. It is more
advisable to organize a central circulating library
of films and purchase those subjects which are
needed in the school service.

The following firms will send catalogues and prices
of narrow gauge films which they produce and dis-
tribute.

The above sources will supply any school with
excellent narrow gauge films. It is advisable to
purchase films only after they have been carefully
screened and shown to teachers who are to use them.
Some narrow gauge films are not properly printed
and defective, hence they should be all carefully
screened before purchase. A committee selected
for this screening purpose will acquaint teachers with
their contents and give some technique as to their use.
A film is of very small educational value if it is simply
shown without any discussion following its screen-
ing by the pupils in the class. The narrow gauge
motion picture fulfills no educational value when it is
simply shown as an entertainment in the school
room.

Mr Gregory, author of the Report on Reduced
Size School film is an expert in the matter of visual
aid teaching.

Since 1922 he has studies — his first article
" Problems concerning the Educational Motion

310

THE CINEMA IN EDUCATION

Picture " appeared in The Moving Picture Age in
January 1922, — the possibilities of using intuitive
aids in didactics and especially the film, both as a
guide for the teacher and as a practical means of
assistance for the pupil.

[His studies in the use of visual aids in the teach-
ing of geography are notable. In one of these,
published by The Ohio State University (Visual
Aids in Geography). Mr Gregory enumerates the
various types of visual material used in teaching
geography (graphs, drawings, stills and motion
pictures) and points out the enormous importance
of the film as a means for rendering the study of
this subject interesting and attractive.

According to Mr Gregory, the principal reasons
for this are the following :

(1) Geography is a picturesque and human
study of certain physical aspects, and therefore the
film proves specially useful here since it can demon-
strate life in movement and in its functions.

(2) The film reproduces geographical influences
in their living development.

(3) Physical phenomena, such as inundations,
eruptions of lava, eclipses, earthquakes, etc., which
are not easily comprehensible to the student's mind,
become alive and easily explained when seen on
the screen.

(4) The composition of maps and their use
becomes easy and accessible in the motion picture,
as was seen during the war, when by means of films
soldiers were taught the meaning of relief
maps.

(5) The motion picture makes maps vivid and
animated. The same thing applies to drawings
and sketches and diagrams.

(6) The geographer can use his own geographical
studies and observations by means of the motion
picture.

In another work Visual Aid in The Class-room,
Mr Gregory sets forth the principle motives which
militate in favour of a wide application of visual aids
in scholastic teaching. The advantages which the
pupil derives from their use are many, and the writer
sums them up in the following decalogue.

Visual aids in the school permit the pupil :

(1) to render abstract ideas more concrete;

(2) to create the necessary link between the
words and the objects which they indicate ;

(3) to render surrounding conditions and idea*
explained, visual ;

(4) to economize the time necessary for the
understanding of facts ;

(5) to induce the pupils to take an interest in
objective things ;

(6) to reduce the time used for excursions ;

(7) to make the conception of problems more
accesible ;

(8) to form ideals ;

(9) to stimulate the imagination ;

(10) to offer the material for a centre of scholas-
tic activity.

The application of visual means in the school
requires however, according to Mr Gregory, a
rational system of organization, a suitable adaptation
for scholastic purposes of the visual material avail-
able. This is without doubt the essential part of
the modern scholastic programme. We must
therefore take account of the necessary expenses for
the purchase of visual material, limiting ourselves
to the acquisition of what is strictly indispensable
according to the curriculum.

The use of visual aids requires constant care, a
perfect knowledge of the material, and a definite
special preparation of the teachers.

This is perhaps the chief problem of visual teach-
ing, " technism which must not be limited to the
mere preparation of the films, though this is impor-
tant enough, and requires the collaboration of ex-
perts, but should look first of all to the educationist.

There is perhaps no need that he should be a
particularly good operator. It is necessary, however
that he should enter into the spirit and the method
of the new system of didactic aids and the contin-
gent scholastic necessities and the particular mentali-
ties of the pupils. He should be able to guess the
right moment to introduce his comments and how
far he must complete the work of the motion picture
with verbal explanations.

" Technism " rather than technique since it is
a question of making one s own film with its content
and form, just as the educationist has to make his
own text-book.

Visual education will not enjoy its full and integ-
ral development unless the educationist knows how
to become a perfect master of comment, which may
perhaps imply as a preliminary that he should become
a direct creator of teaching films or at any rate im-
portant collaborator in their production.

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Editor and Responsible Manager

Rome — « L'Universale » Tipografia Poliglotta.

311

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for Variable Area Process

' PUP-FILM,,

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making Duplicates

312

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If it is

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it's

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314

Production for 1933-34

Films S. L I.

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is a masterpiece acted by ANN DVORAK, CLAIRE DODD, DUDLEY DIGGES. It is a masterpiece
directed by ALLAN CROSLAN and comes from the studios of Warner Bros. First National.

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CULTURAL SECTION

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315

VENICE NINETEENTH BIENNIAL EXHIBITION

MAY 12 TO OCTOBER 12

The Venice Biennial International Exhibition of Art is the greatest and most important
World? Exhibition of Modern Art. Fifteen nations are represented every two years, with shows
in their own pavilions.

ITALY
Belgium - Czechoslovakia - Denmark - France - Germany - Great Britain - Greece -
Holland - Poland - Spain - United States of America - Switzerland - Hungary - U.R.S.S.

THE NINETEENTH BIENNIAL will include the First World Exhibition of Nine-
teenth Century Portraiture. Decorative Art Section.

IN CONNECTION WITH THE VENICE BIENNIAL

First International Theatrical Congress. July 7 ~ 28.

Second International Exhibition of Cinematographic Art. August 1 - 20.

First releases of new films by all the big houses of Europe and America. Pictures in orig-
inal versions and language. The most noted cinema stars will be present. International meeting
of Film Producers.

Third International Musical Festival. September 6-16.

International exhibitions of Classical Dances — Open Air performances by the principal
schools of Europe.

Exceptional Reduction in Railway Fanes ~ Folk-Howe and
Spotting Festivals and Touwneys at Venice and the Dido ~

i*JLEL*#V/.

SUBSCRIBE TO THE

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMA-
TOGRAPHY

AND OBTAIN OTHER SUBSCRIPTIONS

IT IS THE BEST WAY TO
SHOW YOUR INTEREST
IN THE ACTIVITY OF THE

THE INSTITUTION CHARGED BY THE

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

WITH THE DUTY OF STUDYING AND
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SUBSCRIPTION SO GOLD FRANCS OR THE EQUIV-
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Q p F T T A T TARIFF F0R COLLECTIVE SUBSCRIPTIONS
0r^iAL miXirr PUBLIC LIBRARIES, ETC

l:iH:rjiiiM:Ma!]VJii7M«]

MCATIOHAL CIHEHATOdPAPU

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

Monthly Publication

of the INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY (L. of N.)

Rome - 1-a, Via Lazzaro Spallanzani - Rome

YEAR VI.

MAY 1934

N. 5.

CONTENTS

Pat.

International Congress of the Teaching and educational Film 319

G. Cal6 — Cinema and Teaching Methods 353

H. Mahr

J. Haustein

E. Lolhoffel

The Use of the Cinema in the Primary and Secondary

Schools of Vienna 359

C. F. VAN NoRTWICK. . . — Visual Education 362

J. FlLIP — The Use of the Cinema in New Teaching Curricula 366

- The Utilization of the Film in Austrian Middle

Schools 371

— The Reduced Size Sound Film 374

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING BODY

ROCCO Hen. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of State, Professor of Law at the University of
Rome, President.

LUMIERE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.

BROWN J. W., Director of the British Film Institute.

CARTON DE WIART Count Henry, Minister of State, Member of the Child Welfare

Committee of the League of Nations.
FOCILLON Henri, Professor at the University of Paris, Member of the Permanent Committee

of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.
GANGULEE Nagendra Nath, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor of Agriculture and Rural

Economy at the University of Calcutta.
KOZMA Nicolas de, Ministerial Councillor, President-Director of the Hungarian Telegraph

Agency.
LLOPIS Rodolfo, Deputy in the Cortes, ex-General Director of Primary Education at

Madrid.
MISTRAL Gabrielle, Authoress, Ex-Directress of the Lycee for young girls at Santiago.
OPRESCU Georges, Professor at the University of Bucharest, Member of the Permanent

Committeee of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.
ORDYNSKI Ryzzard, President of the Polish Film Producers' Association.
REYNOLD Gonzago de, Professor at the University of Fribourg, Member of the Commission

for Intellectual Cooperation.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,
The President of the International Agricultural Institute,
The Director of the International Labour Office,
The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the I. C. I. C, Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW.
Dr. Luciano de FEO, Editor.

P. Berne de Chavannes, Ernest Holzer,

Giuseppe de Feo, Edward Storer,

Jose Maria GlMENO,

Maria Elena APOLLONIO, Secretary.

THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF TEACHING

AND EDUCATION

FROM April 19 to April 25 there was held in Rome, under the auspices of the I. I. E. C.
the Teaching and Education Congress at which representatives of governments,
corporate bodies, associations and private persons from all parts of the world met to
examine the present position of the cinema in connection with didactics and education,
and to trace out the policy of the future for the motion picture in these fields.

A few figures will suffice to demonstrate the importance of the Rome meetings.
Either officially or semi-officially, 45 nations participated; there were over 700 congressists,
the majority of whom represented national or international institutions which count
their members by the million . There were about 240 written reports sent to the secretary
of the Congress before the sittings began and during the sittings and debates. Five days
of verbal arguments led to the drafting and approval at the final general assembly of the
resolutions which are published in the pages of this review. All this provides a synthesis
of the real importance of the Congress, an importance which was revealed at the inaugural
ceremony, when His Excellency Benito Mussolini opened the meeting with some clear
incisive and expressive remarks in the course of which he pointed out that the motion
picture is one of the most interesting aspects of the present movement for the progress of
civilization. It is an industry, he declared, which employs a capital running into millions
and gives work to millions of persons from artists to walkers-on and supers, and casts on
the screens of the world pictures which are seen by scores of millions of people.

It will be well to summarize in a few lines the antecedents and consequences of the
Rome conference, to examine why and how the congress met in the building of the
I. I.E. C. and to see what conclusions may be drawn from the work accomplished.

The Congress must logically be considered, as Was stated from the beginning in the
programme which the I. I. E. C. issued to explain the agenda, as a direct manifestation
of the Rome Institute's activity and as a necessary consequence of its five years of
work.

The Rome Institute began, as far back as November 1928, to make systematic
and critical research into all that had been attempted in various countries for utilizing the
motion picture for didactic and educational ends. It organized symposia and inquiries in
several countries which were used to gather opinions and contrasting views on points
that were deemed and actually were full of uncertainties. It has founded a review
which has gathered together some magnificent material in the way of documentation,
and scientific research.

From this first purely theoretical and preparatory phase, the next move was the
formation of National Committees of the Educational Cinema in various countries,

320 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

whose work was to act as collaborators of the I.I. E. C. in their own country, and to
help to spread the use of the educational motion picture. The next step was the pre-
paration of a comparative study on World cinema legislation which was destined from the
very beginning to furnish practical results, both with regard to the fiscal treatment ac-
corded to films and the question of the protection of children and young people from
harmful spectacles. Soon after this, there followed the presentation and approval at
Geneva before an international conference, of the Customs Convention. The purpose of
this was to facilitate the free transit across frontiers of films having a genuine international
value for didactic and educational ends. Finally we have the preparation of the Encyclo-
pedia of the Film, a work unique of its kind and a genuine novelty, to which the leading
experts and technicians of the motion picture have contributed. The encyclopedia will
be published shortly.

This is a practical synthesis which shows a realization of the problems that have
everywhere formed the object of study and research, and demonstrates a certainty, drawn
from experience and the work of experts, that the contrasts of opinions and the doubts
encountered in the section of the teaching film, including those of a methodological cha-
racter, have been overcome. We have arrived at definite conclusions, and now rather
than it being a question of harmonizing different tendencies, it is a case of coordinating
minor forms and elements of the whole question.

It is now universally recognized that the motion picture must form an integral part
of teaching; that its value is greater than that of other visual aids, even though there may
be subjects where the use of the lantern slide, models or laboratory experiments are more
useful. This is merely a detail of the application of a principle which is now generally
accepted. It is clear that the double use of text -book and film must harmonize with
scholastic programmes, or rather, vice versa, since it is perhaps more logical that new
curricula and new methods of study should appreciate and follow the value of the motion
picture in the school and conform themselves to its use and wider diffusion. No one dis-
putes the fact that the teacher must not be driven out of the school by the film, and
that the school must not run the danger of being excessively mechanized, while the
teacher must always remain the master of the situation. There is another observation
which arises in connection with the foregoing and has nothing to do with the motion pic-
ture and its utility but concerns didactics. This point is that programmes or curricula
ought to be adapted to the necessities of the various scholastic grades and classes, and that
only such film instruction is useful as is suitable for the mentality, minds and future lives
of the children and young people. Thus, the more difficult forms of study are to be left to
those whose intention it is to undertake regular courses of study and frequent the uni-
versities. On the other hand, the simpler forms of motion picture instruction should be
reserved for the elementary grades, for the sons of agricultural labourers or operatives,
who will, in all probability, not prosecute their studies after a few years at the elemen-
tary school.

The teachers who propose to engage in this work of film didactics ought to be spec-
ialized and they should be encouraged to make a full use of the cinema, lantern slides and
all aids in general for the advancement of culture and a knowledge of life.

To go back to the Congress, there has never been any doubt that the motion picture
can be used in the best possible way for technical and trade teaching as well as for spread-

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ROME 32T

ing agricultural notions . It has always been a case of coming down to details and partic-
ulars, of establishing the method to be followed to obtain the best results from the film.
The problem assumed a different aspect when the strict limits of teaching Were left
behind and one entered into the sphere of psychology and therefore of physiology and
the applications of the motion picture to science.

In the case of both of these departments, we have to face a hypothesis which is dif-
ferent from the didactic question. We have to consider the possible psychological and
physiological damage that the cinema may cause to the minds and spirits of the youngest
spectators. What damage and harm do we refer to in the case of the scholastic film ?
Since it is clear that proper didactic and cultural films can only in very exceptional cases,
that is, in the case of sick children, be the cause of harm, it results that the problem here
is entirely one of detail, of systems of production and projection, of adapting the projec-
tion to the pupils and the general surroundings. Thus it is not possible to lay
down once and for all certain definite rules, but a great deal must inevitably be left in this
question to the prudent judgment and intelligence of the teacher himself.

Therefore, the psychological and phsyiological harm must be looked for in another
section. That is, in the domain of the theatrical or spectacular picture. This is not of
immediate interest to teaching, but only to education in general and the principles of
safeguarding our young people which require state action.

In the matter of scientific teaching, apart from the undoubted utility of the motion
picture for didactics and popularizing principles and scientific research, where it is used
in laboratories under the direct command and direction of the teachers, we have to
face another problem, which is that of the kind of film to project. Kind can refer to the
production and the projection. In the matter of creation, we must never forget that the
film intended for primary school children must always be perfectly simple, clear and
elementary, and we may say, in a sense, of a standardized demonstrative nature.

In the case of scientific pictures, the producer is no longer bound by the limitations
which come from having to address his film to unformed and virgin minds and intelligen-
ces. He has full liberty of language and expression. He can give his comment an
individual style, as if it were a conference and not only a lesson. Thus, while the teach-
ing film for the lower grades only requires a collaboration between expert technician and
teacher, so that strict adherence to the curriculum and the documentary truth are respect-
ed according to the best technical canons, the scientific picture can reveal to us the individ-
uality and personality of its creator. Teacher and expert join together and give,
consequently, a characteristic touch to each picture in which the technician also to some
lesser extent contributes.

In connection with the kind of film, it is clear that we must graduate projections
according to the possibilities and capacities of the spectator. There are episodes
of horror, disgust and terror which are useful for the scientist for purposes of study,
but which are often enough dangerous for young people. Still, as we have already said,
the solution of the problem is a simple one. It is, in the long run, all a question of
method, common sense and good taste. There is no need to lay down laws and regulations
here, but once the principle has been established, we must settle each case on its own
merits.

The I. I. E. C, in devoting much of its activity to the scientific film, is seeking to

322 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

carry out in connection therewith one of its most important tasks, which is the preparation,
with the aid of technical commissions all over the world, of a medical-surgical
encyclopedia which will be the first of its kind for the use of students and teachers in
medicine and surgery.

The teaching world would seem, therefore, apart from some questions of method
to have overcome the difficult period in the utilization of the motion picture. It has,
at any rate, overcome the theoretical difficulties. It becomes therefore a good moment
for the interested parties to abandon theory for practice, to place their plans of work in
alignment with contingent necessities, and to make sure that the application of principles
is made in conformity with what had been foreseen.

There is one section where the motion picture can develop without practically any
limitations, and where the study of the whole subject is still in a rudimentary state. This
is the department of technique and education in general.

A study of film technique will help us to find the best motion picture cameras and
projectors for families, schools, public bodies, associations, travelling propaganda and
public cinemas. Types of apparatus, formats of film, the question of non-inflammability
and inflammability, systems for reducing the danger from fire in cinemas (halls, schools,
cabins) the respective didactic and educational value of the silent and talking film ; the
coloured film ; the slow motion and accelerated running off of films, micro-cinematography ;
X-ray cinematography, types of screens, etc., are all subjects which demand our attention.
The list is endless. In order to facilitate the interchange of films, the institution of
cinema repositories and distribution centres for films, it will be necessary to examine, as
the Congress proposed, the creation of a standard type of reduced size film, which does
not exclude the possibility of continuing to use normal 35 mm films for scientific and
high cultural pictures. Such films can afterwards be reduced to a smaller format without
losing anything of their luminous quality. Indeed, the reduction may even improve it.
If the Congress, in fact, engaged in lengthy and lively debates on the various forms
of dynamic methodology, and if it approved a large number of important resolutions
in this field of activity, from which it clearly results, as we have already said, that if the
decisions arrived at do not alter the situation much, and tend only rather to improve and
consolidate it, it is clear that in certain fields, such as those covered by the second and
third section there was and is, on the contrary, much to be done.

We have referred to the question of technique. The doubts and anxieties of the
Congress which, as a rule, can be perceived from the tenor of the resolutions, appear
more than once in the debates and motions put forward :

— criterion of the historic, scientific and general documentary truth of the film
not only to secure a national but also an international spread of the motion picture espec-
ially as a means of leading to a better understanding between nations ;

— typical characteristics of the popular film ;

— psychological and physiological effects of theatrical projections on the crowd,
and particularly on children and young persons ;

— propaganda value of news-reels for international ends and the advisability of
examining the establishment of news-reels of an international character composed of items
supplied by different countries and the best means for circulating such rapidly ;

— the question of the cinema press. Its rapid growth imposes responsibilities.

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ROME 323

It is therefore to be hoped that it may be able to direct the spectators' minds towards
loftier ideals rather than encourage bad taste and doubtful expressions and ideas ;

— the formation of national committees along the lines of those already existing,
in all those countries where such do not exist, in order to arrive at the formation of a
vast network of local centres connected with the Rome Institute ;

— the characteristics of international catalogues which must necessarily follow the
the ratification and putting into effect of the Geneva Customs convention ;

— intensification and coordination in the establishment of cinema archives or
repositories, film museums of a national character for fixing the criteria for making collec-
tions of the local production, and to act as liaison organs for the future formation of cinema
archives ; museums and repositories of an international character ;

— the protection of young persons, and therefore the preparation of suitable
legislation for this purpose, and of international conventions which, without touching the
difficult question of censorship, would consider the case of young persons and the motion
picture ;

— the necessity of providing a form of censorship to be exercised not only on the
film, but on variety spectacles and on the advertising and publicity portions of projections ;

— in order to safeguard the position of young people, to consider the possi-
bility and practical nature of preparing for them special programmes of a cultural nature
for one projection ; such pictures to have also a recreational side to them so that the chil-
dren do not feel the lack of the ordinary theatrical picture which they are accustomed
to see ;

— to consider the difficult questions of blind-booking or block-booking to see
what the effect of this system is, and to consider the possibility of finding out through an
international inquiry what form of film distribution may be arrived at to avoid the disad-
vantages inherent in the method referred to ;

— to examine the question of the different effect and value of films on peoples of
different race, mentality and culture.

All these points and many others besides were debated, without touching the ques-
tion of the numerous types of film for the various departments of education and the
necessity of examining the popular picture from the artistic, musical and aesthetic points
of view, etc.

It is therefore clear that if the teaching film has found its proper path, which we must
improve and keep in order, there remains still much to be done for the educational film
and the question of an international distribution and circulation of pictures of this nature.
There is work here to be faced immediately.

All this requires a change in our attitude. We must face the necessity of considering
fresh problems and of not running the risk of becoming stale and mechanized, repeating
things said a great number of times already, even though in different words. Otherwise
we shall risk becoming monotonous and pedantic. We must seek new paths for the
development of the motion picture, paths that no one so far has cared to seek out.

The Rome Congress has given the excellent results which were to be hoped for. Perhaps
it has even done more that was expected. This shows its usefulness from every point of
view, in studying the various problems of the hour. It has also allowed us to gather
together a valuable mass of documents which will appear gradually in these pages. The

324 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

resolutions of the Congress will stand like a milestone for the future of the cinema, and as
an act of faith and will on the part of all the congressists, to whom we proffer our greetings
and cordial thanks for their calm and profitable collaboration.

The I. I. E. C. believes that it has accomplished its purpose with and through the
Congress. It succeeded in assembling in Rome experts and men of science from all
parts of the world and enabled them to engage in useful and profitable debates. It has
collected with their help a mass of valuable material which is unique. It has indicated,,
through the resolutions that were approved, "a definite policy for the public bodies,
institutes, organizations governments, etc., represented.

It now becomes the task of the governments and bodies themselves to carry into
effect what they deem advisable.

The Rome Institute will always be ready to give its assistance in work, sympathy or
action. If the objects aimed are not reached, it will not be the fault of the I. I. E. C,
which has done its best in encouraging, in willing and in daring.

* * *

The following list shows the composition of the official delegations to the Rome Congress
as they were nominated by the governments interested, and a list of the institutions and asso~
ciations of both a national and international character which sent representatives to the Con-
gress. The names of isolated congressists who took on active part in the Work °f tne Congress
will also be found here. It should further be noted that a number of persons who are not
mentioned in the following list took a regular part as observers in the work of the commissions
and at the general assemblies. There were also present numerous representatives of the
international press, including some special correspondents, who followed the labours of the
Congress with an interest revealed in the numerous echoes which still continue to arrive
at the Institute from all parts.

ARGENTINE
Official Delegation.

Don Felipe Chiappe, Embassy Councillor.

AUSTRIA
Official Delegation.

Dr. Battista, of the Ministry of Instruction.

Institutions and National Bodies and Associations.

Ersten Ost. Sparkasse : Dr. THAUSING.
Volksbildungverein : Dr. VlOLA.

Congressists.

Dr. Juer-Marbach ; Dr. Stigleitner ; Dr. Gesek; Dr. Filip ; Prof. Gregor; Dr. Oesch ;
Drs. Preissecker ; Nichtenhauser ■ Haustein ; Hellschein.

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ROME 325'

BELGIUM
Official Delegation.

M. NYNS, of the Ministry of Public Instruction.

Institutions and National Bodies and Associations.

Caisse Generate d'Epargne et de retraite : Mr. VAN BlLLOEN ; Mr. VAN GRUNDERBAECK.
Solway Sociological Institute : M. GoTTSCHALK.

Congressists.

Madame DECROLY : Miss BuRNIAT Barv ; M. DE VuYST ; the Rev. MlSSON and Canon
Brohee.

BULGARIA
Official Delegation.

His Excellency General VoLKOFF, Minister Plenipotentiary.

CANADA

Institutions and National Bodies and Associations.

Canadian Council for the Protection of the Child and the Family : Miss Whitton ; Miss Hawks.

CHILE
Official Delegation.
Don Richard Barnard.

CHINA
Official Delegation.
Mr. Tchou Yin, Secretary of Legation.

CZECHO-SLOVAKIA
Official Delegation.
Dr. CHALKOWSKY, Diplomat.

Institutes and National Bodies and Associations.

Czechoslovakia Savings Bank •' Mr. Janda ; Dr. Wild.

National Council of Czechoslovakia Women : Madame SEJNOHOVA.

Congressists.
Dr. Pospisil.

COLUMBIA
Official Delegation.

Dr. Santos, Diplomat.

326 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

DENMARK
Official Delegation.

Mr. NlCOLAISEN, Chief of the Censorship Bureau.

Congressists.

Dr. Andersen ; Dr. Richter.

EGYPT
Official Delegation.

Mr. ABDEL KERIM SAFWAT, Diplomat.

Congressists.

Dr. Mathieu ; Dr. de Luca ; Dr. Mosseri.

ENGLAND

Official Delegation.

Mr. Hankin, of the Board of Education, Vice-President of the Cinema Committee of
the League for the Union of Nations.

British Film Institute: Mr. I. W. BROWN.

Institutes and National Bodies and Associations.

Manchester and Salford Savings Bank. •' Mr. EVANS.

Savings Bank of Glasgow : Mr. Henderson.

British Film Institute : Mr. J. W. Brown ; Mr. D. Waley.

Federation of British Industries : Miss LoCKETT.

Savings Bank Ass. Trustee : Sir C. Portal.

Educational Cinema Firms : Miss LoCKETT, Gaumont British ; Mr. Cabirol, Pathescope Ltd.

ETHIOPIA
Official Delegation.

Mr. Ghevre Yesus, Diplomat.

FINLAND
Official Delegation.

Mr. Artti, Minister Plenipotentiary.

Institutions and National Bodies and Associations.

The Helsinski Savings Bank •' Mr. Nyman ; Mr. Stigzelius.

FRANCE

Official Delegation.

M. DE DAMPIERRE, Minister Plenipotentiary ;

M. DE PANAFIEU, of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ;

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ROME 327

M. Masse, ex-Minister for Agriculture ;

M. BARRIER, of the Ministry of National Education ;

M. LEBRUN, of the Ministry of National Education ;

Dr. CAVAILLON, of the Public Health Ministry ;

M. VlBOREL, of the Public Health Ministry ;

M. Delac, President of the French Syndical Chamber of Cinematography ; President

of the French National Committee of the I. I. E. C. ;
Benoit-Levy, Secretary General of the French Committee of the I. I. E. C. ;
M. DEBRIE ;
M. Roux Parassac ;

M. BRENIER, Delegate of the Teachers' League ;
Le Chanoine REYMOND, Director of the Catholic Cinema Committee, Correspondent

Member of the I. I.E. C. ;
CoiSSAC, Correspondent Member of the I. I. C. E.;
CHATAIGNER, of the Professional Association of the Cinema Press ;
M. LAURENT, Director of the Central Bureau of Savings Banks ;
M. Nathan, Executive of Pathe Cinema ;
Prof. LEROUX, of the Paris Faculty of Medecine.

Institutes and National Bodies and Associations.

Committee of French Associations for Education and Peace : Madame DREYFUS-BARNEY.

National Council of Frenchwomen : Madame ZoYA MoTCHANE ; Mile ALCAN.

General Confederation of French Savings Banks : M. Krug ; M. Lebert.

Alsace and Lorraine Savings Banks : M. ScHISSELE.

Paris Savings Bank ■' M. LAMBERT.

National Bureau of Social Hygiene : Dr. LECLAINCHE.

Regional Bureaux of Cine-teaching and the Educational film : M. CoLIN, Nancy; M. DuGUET,

Nancy ; M. Emerit, Lille ; M. Jenger, Nice ; M. VlNCENS, Toulouse ; M. Cauvin,

Lyons ; M. Epardaud, Nice ; M. Raymond, Lyons.
Vernon Girls High School : M. CHARLET.

Federation of Scholastic and Post-Graduate Associations of the Eure : M. HUBERT.
French Syndical Chamber of Cinematography : M. DemaRIA.
Cinema Firms (educational) : M. Marin, Pathe-Rural ; Mme. DuLAC, Actualites Gaumont.

Congressists.

Mme OsTIER ; Rev. Caffarel ; M. Lecomte ; Mile PoRTRET ; M. Harle ; Dr. GuiCHARD.

GERMANY
Official Delegation.

Dr. SCHEUERMANN, President of the Reichsfilmkammer ;
Dr. RAETHER, of the Reich Ministry for Propaganda ;
Dr. ZlEROLD, of the Ministry of Public Instruction ;

Dr. DoERING, President of the German Association of Teaching and Cultural Film
Producers.

328 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

Dr. MAURER, Director of the German Association of Teaching and Cultural Film Pro-
ducers.

Institutions and National Bodies and Associations.

Association of German Savings Banks (Deutschen Sparkassen) : Dr. KLEINER ; Dr. HERMANN ;

Dr. HETZER.
Landesfilmstelle Nordost : Herr ScHULER ; Herr Meinke ; Herr BELLING ; Herr LANGNER.
Agfa : Dr. Raths ; Dr. Binder ; Dr. Lange ; Dr. Schmidt.
Tobis : Dr. Berge.
Observers : Fraulein LoWENTHAL ; Herr Wenzler ; Dr. CzARNOWSKI ; Dr. ELIAS.

GREECE
Official Delegation.

Mr. DALIETOS, Councillor of Legation.

GUATEMALA
Official Delegation.

Gen. Duran Mollinedo, Diplomat.

HOLLAND

Institutes and National Bodies and Associations.

Hague and Rotterdam Savings Banks : Dr. Van Staveren.

Schoovers Institute : Mr. ScHOOVERS ; Mr. VAN Blinkoem ; Miss Lanen.

Congressists.

Mr. Polak ; Mr. van Nierop ; Dr. Hoeben ; Dr. van Domburg ; Dr. van't Hof ; Dr.
van Wijk.

HUNGARY
Official Delegation.

Baron DE Wlassics, Under-Secretary of State for the Ministry of Cults and Public In-
struction ;
Baron VlLLANl, Legation Councillor ;
Dr. Taubinger, of the Hungarian Film Agency.

Institutes and National Bodies and Associations.

Magyar Holland Kultur Gazdagi : Mr. Stein.

Congressists.

Mr. Freund.

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ROME 329

ITALY
Official Delegation.

His Excellency the Hon. ERCOLE, Minister for National Education.

Presidency of the Council of Ministers : His Excellency Dr. BlANCHETTI ; Dr. BELLAZZI

Ministry for Foreign Affairs ; His Excellency Baron Aloisi, Ambassador ; The Hon.
Bodrero, Senator ; The Hon. Count Ferretti di Castel Ferretto, Deputy ;
the Hon. FERRETTI, Deputy; Dr. BlANCHERI Chi APPORI, Minister Plenipotentiary;
Dr. DE PEPPO, Minister Plenipotentiary ; Dr. SCARPA, Consul.

Ministry of the Interior : Dr. BASILE ; Dr. ZuRLO.

Ministry of National Education ; the Hon. VlSCO, of the University of Rome, Deputy ;
Prof. BoRDONI, of the Rome School of Engineering ; Dr. SANTINI, Director General
of Elementary Instruction ; Dr. PERNA, Inspector of Middle Schools ; Dr. VACCARI,
Inspector.

Ministry for Agriculture and Forests : His Excellency the Hon. MARESCALCHI, Under-Se-
cretary of State ; Dr. Mariani, Director General of Agriculture ; Prof. Marinucci,
Technical Inspector General.

Ministry of the Corporations : the Hon. PlERANTONI, Deputy, President of the Corporation
of the Show Business ; Dr. Anzillotti ; Dr. Santoro ; Dr. de Sanctis ; Dr.
Dente ; Dr. Troise.

Governor of Rome's Bureau : Prof. Padella.RO.

Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro (Workers' After-work Association) : Dr. Beretta, Director
General ; Dr. RoTUNNO, Chief of Artistic Cultural and Popular Education Service.

Opera Maternita ed Infanzia : Prof. Fabbri, President.

Croce Rossa Italiana : Dr. MATALONI.

National Fascist School Association : Prof. Marpicati, Vice-Secretary of Fascist Party ;
the Hon. RlSPOLI, Deputy, Trustee for Middle Schools ; the Hon. MANCINI,
Deputy, Trustee for National Elementary Schools.

General Confederation of Agriculture : Prof. Marozzi, Senator.

Commissariat for Touring : the Hon. Bonardi, Deputy ; Dr. Mariotti ; Dr. Rava ;
Count Pellati ; Dr. Freddi.

National Federation of Agricultural Experts : the Hon. GAETANI DI LAURENZANA, Deputy.

National Fascist Institute of Social Providence : Dr. CLERICI, Vice Director General.

Opera Nazionale Balilla : Dr. Marzolo, Head of the Press Bureau.

National Association of Theatrical Industries : the Hon. PAVOLINI, Deputy ; Prof. Ba-
LELLA ; the Hon. Buronzo, Deputy ; the Hon. Mauro, Deputy ; Prof. Baruchello ;
Engineer ZoLI ; Engineer PALMA ; Engineer COLOMBO, Director of the National
Institute for Prevention of Accidents ; Colonel GoBBI ; Prof. Dettori, President of
the National Association ; Dr. De PIRRO, Secretary General ; Dr. Gaddi.

330 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

National Technical Cinema Committee : Prof. BoRDONI, of the National Research Coun-
cil ; Dr. Russo Senator ; Prof. Pugno Vanoni, of the Superior Institute of En-
gineering of Padua ; Dr. Falco, of the Falco Workships of Turin ; Prof. Todesco,
of the Institute of Physics of the University of Bologna : Prof. Neri, of the
Rome Institute of Engineering ; Engineer CASSINIS ; Engineer BACCHINI.

Representatives of Manufacturers of Motion Picture Apparatus : Engineer CECCHI, Ci-
nemeccanica ; Eng. PlON, Pion Factory ; Eng. PREVOST, Prevost Works ; Eng. Ca-
VAZZONI, Societa Anon. San Giorgio ; Eng. MARTINEZ, Galileo Works ; Engineer
CATENACCI, Marelli Works ; Engineer COLOMBO, Italian Pathe-Baby ; Dr. RlSTORI,
President of the S. I. C. E. D. ; Signor GlANNETTI, of the Microtecnica.

National Fascist Confederation of Professional Men and Artists : His Excellency GlU-
LIANO, Senator ; His Excellency BoDRERO, Senator ; His Excellency Marinetti,
Member of the Italian Academy ; Signor BRAGAGLIA.

Syndicate of Workers in the Theatre and Show Business : Signor MELCHIORRI.

National L. U.C. E. Institute : His Excellency Marquis PAULUCCI DE CALBOLI BARONE,
President ; Consul FoRMENTINI ; Signor Croce ; Signor ScOGLI ; Dr. BARONE ;
Dr. Conti ; Dr. Paolozzi ; Dr. Pucci ; Dr. Leone ; Dr. Rossi ; Dr. Omegna.

Italian National Committee for Intellectual Cooperation : Countess DI RoBILANT, Presi-
dent of the National Council of Italian Women ; Dr. RlGHETTI.

Institutes and National Bodies and Institutions.

National Association of Italian Savings Banks : His Excellency DE CAPITANI d'Arzago, Presi-
dent ; Dr. Battocchio, Councillor ; the Hon. BiANCHl, Deputy, Councillor ; Prof.
Broglia, Senator ; the Hon. Caffarelli, Deputy, Councillor ; Dr. Gabardi, Councillor ;
Dr. Marquis Clavarino, Councillor ; Prof. d'Achiardi, Senator, Councillor ; Dr.
Gasperini, Senator, Councillor ; Engineer Gorla, Councillor ; the Hon. Frignani,
Deputy, Councillor; the Hon. Masetti, Deputy, Councillor; Dr. Nisco, Concillor ;
Dr. Pepi, Councillor ; Dr. Terrizzani, Councillor ; the Hon. Facchinetti, Deputy,
Delegate Councillor of the Credit Institute of Italian Savings Banks ; Dr. NlCOTRA,
General Director of the Agrarian Credit Bank and Savings Bank of the Ministry of
Agriculture and Forestry.

Institute for the Italian Religious and Educational Cinema : Dr. Meneghini, Prince RuFFO
DELLA ScALETTA, President.

Italian Touring Co. : Dr. Oro.

Italian Authors and Publishers Society : the Hon. Alfieri, Deputy, President ; Sr. d'Ambra ;
Dr. DE Stefani ; Dr. Pizzini, Director General.

C. U. C. E. : Rev. Canziani, Director.

Congressists.

His Excellency Credaro; Prof. DI TuLLIO ; Prof. Bernabei; Prof. Cal6; Prof. ALESSANDRI;
Dr. ClAMPITTl ; Sig. Lodato ; Dr. GAETANO ; Sig.ra BocciNI ; Countess Stelluti
Scala ; Prof. Tumminelli ; Dr. Tommasi Crudeli ; Prof. Ascarelli ; Dr. Marchi ;

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ROME 331

Eng. LuzzATTO ; Eng. CASTIGLIONI ; Dr. MlNOZZI ; Prof. Busi ; Prof. CARAVAGLIOS ;
Prof. Castellani ; Dr. Dalmazzo ; Eng. Franchetti ; Count PlETROMARCHI ; Dr. Co-
RAZZIN ; Prof. Gazzoni ; Sig. Vari ; Prof. Lombardi VALLAURI ; Dr. Cortese ; Sig.
Guidazzi ; Prof. Renda ; Count Miari de Cumani ; Prof. Ponzo ; Prof. Guzzanti ;
Prof. Lopez Nunes ; Sig. Ambrosio ; Sig. Appignani ; Prof. Lombardo Radice ; Prof.
Brunelli ; Prof. Dallari ; Consul Poli ; Prof. Marcucci ; Prof. MoNTESSORI ; Count
NoNIS ; Dr. Bocchetti ; Prof. Loughlin ; Dr. Calabresi ; Prof. ToMMASI ; Dr. Man-
FRIN ; Countess BoRROMEO CoDURRI ; Dr. MoDIGLIANI ; Sig.ra PASSERINI PoLLONE ;
Dr. Beduschi Todaro ; Sig. Molfino ; Marchese Afan de Rivera Costaguti ; the Hon.
MECHERI ; Eng. RAFFAELLI ; Dr. MandeL ; Eng. PEDACE ; Prof. Mc-TTINI ; Eng. ZlPOLI ;
Eng. Irdi ; Dr. Gobbi ; Dr. Fassio ; Sig.ra GlARTROSO DE CouRTREN; Dr. ZANOLI ;
Sig. VlOLI ; Dr. Marcellini ; Sig.ra Rosati Valentini ; Prof. Gasca Diaz ; Sig.na
Bassi ; Eng. de Cataldo ; Sig.na Brummel ; Dr. Levi Bianchini ; Prof. Giammarino ;
Sig. Neppi ; Sig. Gerelli ; Eng. Schaefer ; Dr. Cerdelli ; Sig. Herskovitz ; Prof. Zuc-
CHI ; Prof. PlSANl ; Sig.ra Ponzini ; Dr. RossiNI ; Senator Conte Gallenga Stuart ;
Prof. Turano ; Prof. Nuvoli ; Dr. Cristofanelli ; Rev. Perbal ; Sig. Felici ; Sig.
Parish ; Rev. Ferraris ; Dr. Mariani ; Sig. Lualdi ; Rev. Moresco ; Sig.ra Armani ;
Dr. Barzetti ; Sig.na PlGNATTARl ; Prof. Tauro ; Count Zappi Recordati.

LATVIA
Official Delegation.

Dr. SPEKKE, Minister Plenipotentiary.

LITHUANIA

Official Delegation.

His Excellency CARNECKIS, Minister Plenipotentiary.

LUXEMBURG

Congressists.

Mr. Kerschen, Director of the Luxemburg Savings Bank.

MEXICO
Official Delegation.

His Excellency TELLEZ, Minister Plenipotentiary.

NORWAY

Official Delegation

Mr. NlSSEN, Head of Cinema Censorship State Bureau ; Mr. KviBERG, Head of Schol-
astic Film Bureau at Oslo.

PARAGUAY

Official Delegation.

Sign or Bocca, Consul General.

332 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

PERSIA

Official Delegation.

His Excellency SEPHABODY, Minister Plenipotentiary.
Congressists.

Mr. Azizi.

POLAND
Official Delegation.

M. Ordynski, of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ; M. CHROMECKI ; M. KociEMSKl.
Institutes and National Bodies and Associations.

Warsaw Post Office Savings Bank •' M. Rudzinski ; Dr. Gruber.

PORTUGAL
Official Delegation.

His Excellency DE CASTRO, Minister Plenipotentiary ;
M. DE Oliveira Bernardes, Secretary of Legation.

ROUMANIA
Official Delegation.

Prof. Kiritzesco, Director of Superior Education, President of the National Council
of the Educational Cinema.

Congressists.

Miss Atanasiu ; Princess Cantacuzene ; Prof. Isopescu ; Miss Sachelaire.

SPAIN
Official Delegation.

Dr. Martinez Amador, of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ;
Government of Catalonia : M. Carner RlBALTA ; Dr. Diaz Plaja.

Institutes and National Bodies and Associations.

Valencia Scholastic Association : M. Bruno Masip.
Madrid Savings Bank • M. ALCAREZ ; M. SuAREZ.

Congressists.
Senor Trigo Mezquita.

SWEDEN
Institutes and National Bodies and Associations.

Svensk Filmindustri : Miss WetterhoLM.

Congressists.
Prof. Lindbergh.

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ROME 333

SWITZERLAND

Official Delegation.

Dr. IMHOF, of the Basle Chamber of Teaching.

Institutes Bodies and National Associations.

Basle Chamber of Teaching : Herr Gassmann.
Federal Technical School : Dr. RUST.
Swiss Popular Bank, : M. Desert.
Geneva Savings Bank •" M. Fleutet.

Congressists.

Prof. Ferriere ; Prof, de Reynold ; M. Sprenger ; M. Junod ; M. Vigny ; Herr Schwarz ;
Herr Buhler ; Fraulein Schatzmann ; Fraulein LoCHNER ; Fraulein Lubienska ; Mile

FlLLION ; Herr Fritschi.

■*

UNITED STATES

Official Delegation.

Mr. KoON, Educational Bureau of the Dept. of State.

Dr. CHARTERS, of the Bureau of Educational Research of Ohio University ;

Mr. HoBAN, of the Dept. of Public Education, Harrisburg ;

Mr. Mann, of the Museum of National History.

Mr. Milliken, Sec. Motion Pictures Producers and Distribs. of America Inc.

Mr. LlNDSTROM, of the Motion Picture Bureau of the Dept. of Agriculture.

Institutes Public Bodies Associations.

Visual Instruction Service of the University of Hawaii : Miss Vernon.

Congressists.

Mr. Mort ; Mrs. Brennan ; Miss Gannon.

U. R. S. S. (SOVIET REPUBLIC)
Official Delegation.

Mr. FRIDGUT, Secretary of Embassy.

URUGUAY
Official Delegation.

His Execllency Ramon GuERRA, Minister Plenipotentiary.

VENEZUELA
Official Delegation.

Dr. Casas Briceno, Councillor of Legation.

i- ~~ " he ing!.

334 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPJY

YUGOSLAVIA

Institutes, Public Bodies and National Associations.

Yugoslav Savings Bank •' Dr. Racic.
Zagreb Institute of Hygiene : M. BROSSLER.

Congressists.

Engineer Racic.

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTES, BODIES AND ASSOCIATIONS.

League of Nations : M. AvENOL, Secretary General ; Dr. PlLOTTI, Additional Secretary
General ; M. EKSTRAND, Director of Opium Traffic and Social Questions Dept. ;
Prof. BASTIANELLI, of the Section of Hygiene ; Miss HALLSTEIN Kallia ; Dr. Bruc-
COLERI, of the Information Section ; Signor BALDACCHINI, of the Rome Bureau
Prof. CASULLI, of the Rome Bureau ;

International Labour Office : Sig. GALLONE, Chief of Section of General Information.

Organization of Intellectual Cooperation : M. DE MoNTENACH.

International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation : Prof. DE REYNOLD ; Sig. SECRETAN •
M. Henry.

Administrative Council of the I. I. E. C. : Mr. J. W. Brown ; Prof. DE REYNOLD ; M. Or-
DYNSKI.

International University Federation of the L. of N. : Consul POLL

International Institute of Agriculture : M. LouiS-DoP, Vice-President ; Prof. Brizi,
Secretary General ; M. Ray, Chief Technical Service ; Prof. Trinchieri, Executive
Technical Service.

Child Welfare Committee of the League of Nations : Dr. DALMAZZO.

International Commission for Education by means of the Cinema and Radio : Mme Drey-
fus-Barney.

Permanent Committee of the International Savings Institute : Marchese DE CAPITANI
d'Arzago ; the Hon. F. Facchinetti, Deputy ; Dr. Reinhold Hermann,
Senor Trigo Mezquita ; Prof. Ravizza ; Dr. Masia ; Dr. Dutilh ; Mr. Pospisil ;
Mr. Krug ; M. Lebert ; Mr. Lambert ; Mr. Evans ; Dr. van Ogtrop.

Committee of Accord among the Great International Associations : Mme Dreyfus-Bar-
NEY.

Women's International Council : Princess Cantacuzene ; Mme Dreyfus-Barney.

University of International Relations of California : Mme DREYFUS-BARNEY.

American Institute of Cinematography : Mme DREYFUS-BARNEY.

International Commission for Improving Rural Life : Mr. DE Vuyst.

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ROME 335

International Commission for Education at Home; DE VuYST.

Catholic International Cinema Bureau : Canon Brohee.

Congo Catholic Missions : The Rev. MlSSON.

International Missionary Council : Mr. Merle Davis.

International Federation of Women, Professionals and Artists : Prof. CASTELLANI.

International Federation of University Women : Dr. GRASSI.

Universal Alliance for International Friendship among the Churches : The Rev. Fava ;

Mr. Gay.
International Alliance for Women s Suffrage and Civil and Political Action: SignoraAL-

FERAZZI BENEDETTINI.

International Association of University Hospitality : Prof. Dompe.

International Union of Women s Catholic Leagues : Miss Hawks ; Prof. DALMAZZO.

International Federation of Catholic Alumnae : Mrs. BRENNAN ; Miss Gannon.

International Conference of Association of War Veterans and War Wounded Soldiers :
M. Berne de Chavannes.

International Boy Scouts' Association : Major A. Waley.
Catholic Union of International Studies : Prof. DE Reynold.
Y. M.C. A. : Dr. SlBILLE ; Signora SlBILLE.
International Union of Assistance for Children : Dr. GAETANO.

International Union of Associations in favour of the League of Nations : Dr. MlNOZZl.
International Bureau of Secondary Instruction : The Hon. R. RlSPOLI.
International Education Bureau : Fraulein ScHATZMANN.

Jewish Association for the Protection of Girls, Women and Children : Mr. CoHEN.
Advisory Commission of the League of Nations for the Protection and Welfare of Children
and Young People : Mr. CoHEN.

RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE CONGRESS

Ist SECTION
TEACHING

1st Commission. — Methodology of Instructional Films.

The International Congress of Educational and Instructional Cinematography,
having examined the question of the use of the school film, states as follows :

1) that the film should be considered as a didactic auxiliary of the greatest
importance, to be used for all subjects for which it is suited, taking into account the par-
ticular character of each subject and the degree of development of the pupils ;

2) that no subject of whatever nature need be excluded a priori from projection,
either by slides or motion pictures ; but that if the film is ordinarily used for scientific
teaching according to the nature of the subjects, it should be used with great care ;

336 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

a) that for civil, religious, artistic and literary history only the word of the
teacher should be used for the logical and continuous relation of facts, to build up the
different circumstances and conditions, bring out the characters, illustrate the psycho-
logical motives and lend to the narrative the strength of moral, national and human sug-
gestion and of ideal aspiration ; that, in view of the importance of religious feeling in the
spiritual evolution of the child and of the importance of the use of the school film and con-
sidering, on the other hand, the difficulty of producing films suitable to be used for the
teaching of religion such films should be treated with special care and the cooperation
and the approval of the responsible authorities should be sought beforehand ;

b) that in mathematics, a subject in which the film could be used for the incul-
cation of certain notions or for the study of useful technical applications, it is of the
utmost importance to develop the faculty of abstract and clear reasoning ;

c) that for the teaching of modern languages, films or slides may be usefully
employed, for the elementary study of languages and to make the pupils acquainted with
the country where the language they study is spoken ;

d) that when using the film as a visual aid one should consider the frequency
and the duration of the projection, according to the limits imposed by the physiological
and psychical possibilities of the children in the different stages of their development.

As to the methods to be used for school films, the Congress states :

1) that the use of the cinema should not interfere with the educational in-
fluence of the teacher, nor with the effect of his words. It is he who should put the ques-
tions, explain, comment, inspire and direct the activity and the response of the pupils ;

2) that consequently, the teaching film should not be sound or talking, but a
silent film in which the commentary is made by the teacher except where the sound or
talking film may usefully complete and strengthen the visual impression ;

3) that the use of the film should not induce a passive absorption of rapidly suc-
ceeding scenes, but that it should be used to stimulate the activity of the child in every
kind of scholastic work ;

4) that during the projection of the school film the teacher should have the oppor-
tunity of intervening, in order to illustrate points which require special explanation
and that he should take into account the fact that lantern slides are often very useful,
either by themselves or together with motion pictures ;

5) that the subjects to be used for school films should be part of an organised di-
dactic plan, which has been previously studied by pedagogues and approved by the
school authorities in accordance with the school curriculum and which may be modified
according to new possibilities which the use of the film presents.

As to the question of organization, the Congress states :

1) that school films should always be made from a didactic point of view and
with the close cooperation of the teacher ;

2) that all teachers, either elementary or secondary, should be trained, technically,
psychologically and didactically, in teachers' colleges or by special courses, in the
use of the projection equipment and of the school film ;

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ROME 337

3) that every effort should be made in order that every class have its projecting
apparatus and every secondary and elementary school, or at least, every schools
centre, the necessary material, either for motion pictures or for lantern slides.

2nd Commission. — Scientific Cinematography.

The Congress,

having made acquaintance with the publication planned by the Institute for
Educational Cinematography of an Encyclopedia of medical and surgical fdms,
for which purpose special committees have been created in many countries to de-
termine the scientific material suitable to be filmed for the use of students, physic-
ians, post graduate schools and hospitals, makes the following resolutions :

1) that medico-surgical committees be established in other States, and that the
Cinema-Surgical Encyclopedia may as far as possible be an international expression
of the progress attained by surgery ;

2) that the Institute should continue the work already begun of preparing in-
ternational catalogues of scientific films and that the official committees for scientific
films should cooperate to this end with the I. I.E. C, so that the work of cataloguing
may be complete and of uniform system, such as to meet the reguirements of science
and technigue ;

3) that similar initiatives be undertaken as far as possible with regard to those
branches of science in which such initiativs are likely to prove most useful, by creating
special scientific committees which should have as their only purpose the study of the
application of the cinema to scientific research and to the development and improvement
of scientific teaching ;

4) that the Hygiene Section of the League of Nations should collaborate through
a suitable accord with the I. I. E. C. both with regard to the Encyclopedia and any other
projects for assuring propaganda, by means of the film; of the principles of hygiene,

5) that film producers should take due account of the output of scientific films,
keeping in close contact with the scientific world through its experts together with the
cinema technicians; each in his own field should make the largest number possible
of scientific pictures for use not only in the institutions interested but also for the mass
of people who freguent the cinema ;

6) that cinema exhibitors throughout the world include in their programmes the
projection of scientific films together with educational pictures and that the govern-
ments of the various states, by means of suitable legislation and fiscal relief, encourage
the projection of such films as part of every show.

The Congress desires

that the International Institute of Educational Cinematography should initiate
as soon as possible the constitution of a Film Library destined to collect the best scien-
tific films and that the different sources of production (institutes, companies and private
organizations), should send a positive copy of their films to this library in order to
constitute gradually a Film Archive which will assure the preservation of those films
and be a centre of consultation for persons and institutions interested in viewing them.

338 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

3rd Commission. — The Cinema and Technical
and Professional Life.

The Congress insists on the importance of producing films for guidance in the choice
of professions, especially professions for women, as well as for training in different
trades, including apprenticeship and for teaching a new trade to unemployed people.

In films of this kind, sub-titles must be short and clear and sound should be in-
cluded when necessary to give the exact demonstration of the sounds and noises which
are produced in the course of the work.

In the composition of text-books, account must be taken of the aid offered by the mo-
tion picture; they must recall by means of illustrations the most important points con-
tained in the films to be used in teaching.

The Congress points out the importance of centralizing the very complex work of
orientation, teaching, professional training, in its connection with the cinema, to insure
the greatest economy in the production of films and their distribution ; also in order to
keep uniform characteristic's, although differing according to necessity in the use of
films in technical teaching. Central organizations of this kind could find in the
I. I. E. C. the organizing centre for coordination and for practical information on
everything taking place in the different nations ; the I. I. C. E. could also give informa-
tion on existing production, on the character of same and documentation on experiments
and production made.

Thinks it necessary that technical and professional films should be extended to the
prevention of accidents and that special short films might be widely used for the protec-
tion of workpeople and of the general public as far as accidents of the road, in the moun-
tains, and at sea and first aid are concerned. These films should also be shown in
public halls.

Thinks it might also be useful that the prevention of accidents should complete the
technical and professional illustration in order to point out to which dangers one is ex-
posed in a particular handicraft and in which way one may avoid the consequence of
accidents.

Films on prevention of industrial accidents may be used for vocational guidance
inasmuch as the demonstration of the disadvantages and dangers of a trade may sup-
plement the information in direct connection with the psycho-technical examination of
the candidates to the various trades.

For the purpose above set forth the Congress hopes that the Commission appointed
by the I. I. E. C. and by the B. I. T. may devote every effort to indicate a practical
programme for the production and the utilization of films concerning the prevention of
accidents.

4th Commission. — The Cinema and Agricultural Life.

1) Exodus from the country : The Congress is of the opinion that the film may
largely contribute towards preventing the exodus from the country by showing how the
condition of country life may improve from the point of view of health and hygiene, and
by showing that country amusements are much healthier than city amusements, and that
family life in the country is much more intimate.

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ROME 339

The Congress thinks that entertainment should be offered to country people
capable of offsetting the attractions of city life. The rural film should give to the country
worker a feeling of greater dignity by showing him that his work is in no way inferior
to that of the town worker.

The film should especially insist on the intellectual side of the tasks accomplished
by the country worker. This applies equally to both sexes.

2) Collaboration between filmmakers and agricultural technicians : The Congress
is of the unanimous opinion that producers of agricultural fdms or of films concerning
rural life should secure the collaboration of specialists thoroughly conversant, from a
scientific point of view, with the subject in question, and familiar with the conditions
of country life.

3) Educational Cinema in the country : In this connection the cinema must try
to raise the standard of human dignity. It would be useful that in every country there
should be an association of bodies instructed in this problem, with the view of aiding
the circulation of educational films capable of raising the moral standard and of leading
therefore to the improvement of the individual.

The Congress is further of the opinion that films intended for country people
should not describe city life in such way as to give a wrong conception of human dignity
whether it be the representation of an exaggerated luxury or by the description of vices,
or by episodes showing a lowering of human conscience.

4) Agricultural Films of regional character : The Congress believes that, in
order to attain the educational aims they intend to reach, agricultural films must be of
an essentially original character. This does not exclude the possibilities of showing how
the same production is obtained in different countries with different methods of culti-
vation.

I]>a SECTION
EDUCATION

1st Commission. — Hygiene and Social Safeguards.

The Congress,

1) Asserts the undoubted superiority of hygienic propaganda and instruction by
means of the film as compared to other systems of spreading knowledge.

2) Is unanimous in maintaining that propaganda for hygiene and social protection
ought to deal with the entire question of the defence of the race, that is, by the propaganda
of maternal and infant welfare, the physical training of youth and its preservation
from social evils to the propaganda which deals particularly with the various social
aspects of hygiene training ; all this should be understood as having for its sole object
the defence of the race.

3) declares that the efforts of public bodies and all other organisations and insti-
tutions aiming at the defence of human health and the protection of the race should be
directed towards a more organised and disciplined use of motion picture projections :

a) concentrating and coordinating efforts in order to avoid a dispersion of
energies and duplicating productions ;

340 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

b) encouraging the production of such films by means of state subsidies or prizes
for producers or by guaranteeing producers as to the sale of a certain number of copies ;

c) encouraging the production of fdms satisfying the requirements that have
to be met and consequently planned by those who are in close daily contact with the needs
of hygiene propaganda and social safeguard work. The collaboration of technicians
will be required for the production of such fdms so that the pictures do not fail in their
purposes, owing to the fact that they do not respond to scientific requirements ;

d) taking into consideration that if the hygienic teaching film must satisfy di-
dactic and pedagogic requirements in the same way as other teaching films, the hygienic
propaganda film must have literary and social bases. In any case it must be understood
that the logical development of a subject must be capable of directly interesting the mas-
ses and through persuasion, suggestion and emotion, capturing the imagination of the
people, and have thus useful effects on the care which people should take of their health
and that of their families, and of society in general ;

4) Is of the opinion that propaganda of a statistical nature (posters, affixed noti-
ces, etc.), should as far as possible be combined with cinema propaganda, so that pic-
tures should recall to those who see them the scenes actually seen on the screen and thus
affect more deeply the mind of the people ;

5) Is of the opinion that the basis of hygiene propaganda of an international char-
acter should be the same as national hygiene propaganda. It is therefore important
that there should be a centre in each country for co-ordinating all initiative in the use of
the cinema in the field of social hygiene (social diseases, prophylaxis and social insur-
ance, etc.) ;

6) Is furthermore of the opinion that the I. I. E. C. should be considered as a
centre of co-ordination to which all the before mentioned national organizations actually
existing send in all details referring to their work in connection with propaganda and
visual instruction. They should also, in the opinion of the Congress, describe in full
detail the subjects treated in their films, the experiments carried out and the various
means used for projection in small centres (travelling cinemas, etc.).

They should also make known the results of any of their experiments and enquir-
ies, so that the I. I. C. E. may issue a publication annually on the subject of hygiene
propaganda. Such publication ought to contain the detailed catalogue of all films pro-
duced or about to be produced which, owing to the convention for the suppression
of customs barriers, may lead to the exchange of films between different countries ; It
should contain also the list of all those institutions which interest themselves in propa-
ganda by means of the film for hygiene, etc.,

with regard to the subjects of the films in course of production, it is requested that
the I. I. E. C. should make these known as soon as possible as they come to its own
knowledge, and that this should be done through the Institute's periodical the Review
or the New Bulletin.

7) States that the Institute could greatly facilitate the work of international collab-
oration by means of :

a) the utilization, in the international field, of films which, having a definitely
scientific character, could very well be produced equally successfully in countries of a
different mentality ;

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ROME 341

b) the systematic documentation of everything done in all countries to elevate
the hygienic and social level of the masses ;

c) the spreading of results of experiments made in other countries in order
that the most suitable type of programmes for each country may be determined :

d) the production of films of a true international character by means of scenes
taken in different localities both to testify to the universality of the evils which we must
fight and also to allow the widest possible distribution of the means of propaganda ;

8) Requests that the interpretation of the Customs Convention should be extended
to apply to those films of a recreational character obviously having for object the propa-
ganda for social hygiene and prevention ;

9) Believes — in the matter of production — that short films may be either silent
or talking, and that those which are clearly of a propaganda character destined for local-
ities where the cultural level of the masses is not sufficiently high to follow talking com-
ment, should be preferably in silent editions helped out possibly with comment from a
lecturer ;

10) Points out the great utility of the fdm in the matter of anti-venereal propaganda
and urges a wider production and diffusion of general propaganda films to be projected
also in public cinemas and films of special propaganda to be projected before certain
categories of persons ;

11) Considering that workmen's accidents must be regarded in many cases as
psychological facts :

that therefore a greater development in the study of psychological technicology
should be made in order to understand better the individual in regard to his work ;

that to create in the mind of the workman the idea of defence against accident
and to facilitate as well work of scientific research and study the cinema offers the best
possible methods compared to all others in use to-day ;

that, for this purpose the film can be limited simply to documentation and to
technical and scientific research, or it can seek even in comedy or dramatic form which
may respond better to the mentality of the working public the motive force which can
move and instruct at the same time ;

proposes that industrial organizations and national and international insti-
tutions, which are engaged in the problems of work, make a wider use of the cinema in
their propaganda against industrial accidents ;

that they study those types of films which may prove best suited to different
kinds of work in the fields of industry and agriculture ;

that they work to develop such activity in industrial and agricultural fields and
in every other field where it may contribute to the popularization of scientific, social
and human principles.

That such activity should be co-ordinated through the work of the Institute of Rome,
so that films for demonstrating the prevention of accidents and first aid can, by their
character, become a useful instrument of propaganda likely to obtain the widest possible
international circulation.

342 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

2nd Commission. — Popular Education.

The Congress,

on the relations between the cinema and popular education, has taken the
following decisions :

1) Documentary Films : The producers of documentary films should observe
the greatest exactitude and the most scrupulous objectivity as to the historical, as
well as the geographical and the ethnographical truthfulness presented in the films
produced by them. The same objectivity should be observed in the arrangement of
programmes.

2) Films dealing with religious subjects : In films dealing with religious subjects,
the principles of religion should be respected and be represented with the most scrupu-
lous exactitude, this applies also to the representation of ceremonies and symbols.

3) Films presenting some political and philosophical character : Ceremonies
and manifestations of philosophical and political character whether in the past or
present time, must be treated with the greatest respect and exactitude.

4) Amateur Clubs : It is to be wished that the very efficacious activity, for the
formation of public taste, of amateur clubs, be directed more and more towards the dif-
fusion of films presenting a real value from the point of view of culture, and that such
clubs be ready to undertake the exchange of such films from nation to nation. To this
end, the I. I. E. C. should take care to maintain and develop its connections with
amateur clubs and, according to the means at its disposal, should promote the creation
of new clubs.

5) Popular Arts : The International Educational Cinematographic Institute
will undertake the study of the means through which it will be possible to establish a
collaboration with the International Commission for Popular Arts and the national
commissions which have been formed in connection with same, for the recording by
films of different aspects of popular arts.

6) Demography : The Congress recommends : a) the organisation by the
I. I. C. E. of the study of the best methods of presenting animated pictures on all demo-
graphic questions referring to the existence of peoples and their mutual understanding ;

b) the organization of practical collaboration between the I. I. C. E. and the
International Statistical Union.

7) Films on sports : Films dealing with Physical Culture and Sports should not
bear entirely on the technique of sports but should contribute to the development of
the taste for physical exercises.

8) Workers' Leisure : The Institute will study, in agreement with those na-
tional and international organizations which are concerned with the question of workers'
leisure, the best to way make use of the cinema in this essential work of popular edu-
cation.

9) International News and Events : The Institute will examine, in assoc-
iation with the international organizations and the big producers, what are the best
means for securing a news report of international events with the object of circulating
such news in order to develop good relations between the nations.

10) Vaudeville shows : The I. I. E. C. is asked to use its influence to oppose

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ROME 343

itself against certain vaudeville programmes of a vulgar and immoral character which
are sometimes inserted in cinema programmes, thus neutralizing the efforts tending
towards the education of the masses.

3rd Commission. — Social Providence and Saving.

The International Congress of educational Cinematography, having taken note
of the motions adopted by the Delegates of Saving Banks and of their Associa-
tions, with the view of promoting thrift and social providence by means of the
film, presents its thanks to the Delegates of the Saving Banks for their valuable
cooperation and brings to the attention of the Directing Organs of the I. I. E. C.
the wishes expressed by them,

decides to have these motions put up as an annex to the Besolutions of the
Congress :

1) The Delegates of Savings Banks and their Association at the International
Congress of Educational and Instructional Cinematography II Section, 3rd
Commission having taken note of the report on « The Cinema by the International
Thrift and Providence Propaganda " presented by the International Thrift Institute :
invite the Savings Banks to take advantage of the cinema in a more general and sys-
tematic manner for the development of their educational activities, and remind them
that the International Thrift Institute is able to place at their disposal at slight cost
the best thrift films produced up to the present in editions entirely appropriate to the
country where they are to be screened ;

also express the wish that within the ambit of every nation a close co-operation
may be brought about between Savings Banks and other educational, social welfare, etc.
institutions operating in the same region or city, so that thrift and providence may be
systematically included in the programmes of educational screenings and in order that,
in the production of films having educational aims (hygiene and social propaganda,
domestic economy, agricultural propaganda, etc.), the principles of thrift and provid-
ence be included in the most convenient way possible.

2) The delegates of Savings Banks and their Associations attending the
International Congress of Educational and Instructional Cinematography, II.
Section, 3rd Commission, having noted the approval of the agreement signed at Ge-
neva on the 10th October 1933 for the exemption from customs duties on educational
films, which will implicity facilitate also the international circulation of thrift and
providence films ;

whilst heartily congratulating the International Institute of Educational Cin-
ematography on the success of this most useful measure ;

invite the International Thrift Institute and the National Associations of Sav-
ings Banks to make the greatest possible use of the new possibilities of exchange of
thrift films thus afforded ;

invite the Savings Banks and their National Associations in the various
countries to arrange that this customs agreement be ratified by the competent legislative
organs as soon as possible ;

344 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

express the wish that the International Thrift Institute as a specialized technical
organization be entrusted with the task of giving an opinion regarding every thrift
and providence propaganda film aspiring to the designation of « educational*, in order
to take advantage of the facilities contemplated in the above-mentioned customs
agreement.

3) The delegates of Savings Banks and their Associations attending the
International Congress of Educational and Instructional Cinematography II.
Section, 3rd Commission, considering the campaign for the economic education of the
people which is being vigorously promoted in various countries by Saving Banks
in conjunction with the educational authorities ;

invite the Savings Banks to examine the advisability of producing films of a
cultural character clearly showing the principal organs and institutions of economic life
and their functioning, in particular : the function of money, of savings and of credit,
their interdependence and connection with all the other branches of economy ; the anti-
social and anti-economic character of hoarding, the connection existing between the
economic conduct of the individual and the general economic situation (individual
responsibility for the general course of economic life) ;

express the wish that these films may be produced in cooperation with persons
who are experts in economic matters and cinema technique and art, that in particular
they may be screened systematically in schools (in accordance with the wish ex-
pressed in N° 4).

4) The delegates of Savings Banks and their Associations at the International
Congress of Educational and Instructional Cinematography, II Section, 3rd.
Commission, convinced of the vital importance of thrift education in the schools
for the formation of the character and habits of the young ;

call the attention of the Savings Banks and educational authorities to the ne-
cessity of a close, continuous and cordial cooperation between the Savings Banks them-
selves and the school authorities (and the teacher in particular) in order to promote the
screening in the schools of thrift and providence, educational and economic educational
films ;

hope that similarly to what has already been done in some countries, the sav-
ings banks and educational authorities may arrive at the production of instructive
films, both of a general economic character and of a specific thrift instructional char-
acter of the type mentioned in N. 3, showing objectively the historical evolution of
the forms of saving and providence, the origin, development and socio-economic func-
tion of the Savings Banks aiming exclusively at public utility ;

recommend that the possibility be considered of producing alongside of standard
size thrift educational films, contemporary editions of the same film in reduced size,
to be used exclusively in the schools.

5) The delegates of Savings Banks and their Associations attending the In-
ternational Congress of Educational and Instructional Cinematography, II.
Section, 3rd. Commission, having ascertained the encouraging experiences had, partic-

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ROME 345

ularly in France and Italy, in the execution of educational screenings in country cen-
tres by means of travelling squads equipped with portable apparatus (projector,
loud speaker, microphone for lectures, etc.), systematically visiting all the agricultural
centres of a region or of the whole country and screening films every day in the schools
and in the evening before the public ;

invite the Savings Banks

to consider carefully this new effective possibility afforded for the education of the
country population, and to promote, if necessary, agreements with the national or
local committees of educational cinematography, hygiene, social propaganda and the
like interested in the undertaking, for carrying out this programme ; in particular,
they point out the importance of thrift and providence in the life of the country-
dweller, and in the problem of "Back to the land".

6) The delegates of Savings Banks and their Associations at the International
Congress of Educational and Instruction al Cinematography, II. Section, 3rd.
Commission, recommend to the attention of all Savings Banks and other social insti-
tutions the movement which is becoming evident in every country on the initiative of
governments themselves, tending to facilitate or render compulsory the screening of
educational films at public shows, in order that thrift and providence films may also
occupy a place in these screenings in keeping with the social principles they promote.

7) The delegates of Savings Banks and their Associations attending the In-
ternational Congress of Educational and Instructional Cinematography, II. Sec-
tion, 3rd. Commission, considering the great usefulness that would be acquired
for their educational activity by the production of a great film destined for the
big public, namely for screening at public entertainments, but inspired by principles
of thrift and providence, in which however, the educational aims are not so evident as
to make the propaganda tendency of the plot too conspicuous — a film which, on
account of its intrinsinc beauty and artistic value would be implicity assured an in-
ternational circulation like any other theatrical film — considering moreover the import-
ance of the expense which could not be borne by Savings Banks or Savings Banks
Associations taken individually ;

expresses the wish that the largest Savings Banks in the world join forces in this
undertaking, through the International Thrift Institute, by making a financial contri-
bution to the execution of the project. The contributions would then be made good by
the sale of copies of the film in the various countries.

8) The delegates of the Savings Banks and their Associations at the Interna-
tional Congress of Educational and Instructional Cinematography, II. Section,
3rd. Commission, after studying the propositions tending to the development of
thrift by means of educational cinematography, have noted that unfortunately a great
number of visual feature films are dealing with subjects inclined to arouse, in young
people especially, a taste for wasteful expenditure and luxury ;

and express the wish to see the Congress call upon all film producers and public
authorities so that some action be taken in order to improve these general conditions.

346 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

4th Commission. — The State and Cinematography.

i. — Organization of national institutes for educational cinemato-
graphy.

The Congress, recognizing the necessity of a systematic and constant collabor-
ation of all countries and authorities interested in the work of the International In-
stitute of Educational Cinematography, and in order to obtain a complete documen-
tation and to organize the exchange of experiences and materials which may be used
in connection with educational and instructional cinematography ;

Requests the I. I. E. C. to approach governments and boards of education
with the view of organizing national institutes of educational films, in the countries
where they do not exist, the International Institute in Rome serving as a link
between the different national Institutes.

2. — Putting into effect the Convention concerning the free cir-
culation of educational films.

The Congress,

Recognizing the great interest presented by the putting into effect of the International
Convention for the free circulating of educational films signed by twenty-four States.

Requests the States that have signed the Convention to ratify it as soon as possible
and those who have not yet signed, to do so.

Asks the National authorities concerned to use the means at their disposal to
see that the catalogue of educational films, as mentioned in Art. 7 of the Convention,
be established according to the instructions furnished by the I. I. E. C.

3. — The Congress expresses the wish that the putting into effect of the Interna-
tional Convention for the free circulation of educational films be facilitated by the
institution, as soon as possible, in every country concerned, of an office responsible
for the delivery of certificates vouching for the educational character of the films at
the moment they enter and leave the country.

4. — The Congress again draws attention to the fact that it would be
of great interest to obtain by appropriate means the inclusion in every programme
of an educational or documentary film.

5. — International Catalogue.

An international catalogue cannot and should not be published in book form,
owing to the constant additions and suppressions ; the catalogue, which should be
completed by the International Institute, should be based on a card system and pub-
lished periodically in accordance with the rules of classification generally used.

The Congress proposes that in the International Catalogue be classified only those
films the conservation of the negatives of which is guaranteed by the country of origin of
the film itself.

It is to be desired that the International Institute will furnish the following inform-
ation to those who are trying to utilize films for educational and instructional purposes :
1) Subjects treated, including an annotation of the exact content of the film ;

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ROME 347

2) The different size in which the film is realized ;

3) Complete title ;

4) Year of its production ;

5) Kins of schools and the degree of instruction for which the film is suited
(considering age of pupils) ;

6) Scope of the film (education, research, instruction, teaching of art, educa-
tional entertainment, propaganda) ;

7) Kind of production (documentary film with studio shots, microcinematography ,
Rontgencinemalography, trick films) ;

8) Total length of the film and of the picture, titles excluded ;

9) People responsible for the production of the film and censure : a) authors ;
b) producers ; c) distributors ; d) exhibitors ; e) editors ;

10) Silent or sound ;

11) Sprocket placement;

12) Inflammable or non-inflammable.

Films calculated to favour the idea of the protection of animals should be included
in a special classification in all catalogues of educational films.

6. — Collaboration between the Teacher and the Technician for the
production of educational films.

In order to answer the purpose an educational film must be perfect from a pedagog-
ical as well as from a technical point of view.

These films should be produced with the collaboration of the teacher, of the technician
and the expert in the subject treated.

The expert will have to answer for the exactitude of the subject, the teacher for the
suitability of the film for school use and the technician will have to see that the film be
produced in such way as to fill the requirements of both the expert and the teacher.

7. — Censorship.

General Principles : The Congress wishes to underline the fact that the problem
of film censure from the point of view of the protection of children and young people is a
matter of serious concern for all governments. From the reports the representatives of
all Nations have presented to the Congress, it is evident that this concern is increasing
constantly.

In this connection, most countries have thought it necessary to establish two kinds
of censure for young people.

It is to be desired that the I. I. E. C. should study the methods followed at present in
the different countries with the view of formulating a standard type of rule likely to be
generally adopted, taking into due consideration the views of each Government.

Provisions for enforcing censorship regulations : The Congress points out the
importance of associating qualified women to the work of the Commissions appointed
for the control and censorship of films.

The Congress is of opinion that in case there should be no provision for this
particular censure, measures should be taken so that special halls be provided for
children and young people and special suitable programmes organized which will not
endanger the morals of youth.

348 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

5. Commission. — Techique.

(Draft resolution submitted to the Congress by the Bureau on the proposal
of several delegations).

The International Congress of the Educational Film,

Convinced that unification of the sub-standard width film will prove one of the most
efficacious means for encouraging teaching by the film and more generally the use of the
educational film.

Seeing that the discussions on this point which have been proceeding for a number
of years have not yet led to an accord among the group of interested producers.

Notes with satisfaction the declarations from which it results that there is a sincere
wish to arrive at an understanding and that the efforts already accomplished, should be
encouraged.

Begs the direction of the I. I. E. C. to propose and organize a meeting of represent-
atives of the interested groups to nominate persons to take part in this meeting and to
recommend the subjects and method of work which will contribute to this end.

The Congress asks the directing body of the Institute, and more especially its
Technical Committee, to take all the necessary dispositions so that the solution hoped for
should be attained before August 1st, 1934. In the meanwhile, it is to be wished that
the governments or the responsible scholastic administrations will abstain from any
decisions liable to anticipate the general decision.

Ilpd SECTION
THE CINEMA AND THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLES

Problems raised by the Cinema in connection with different
mentalities and cultures.

The Congress,

recognizes the great importance of the problems raised by the diffusion of films
among peoples of different mentalities and cultures ;

considers that it is essential to make provisions so that the films to be distributed
in different countries or regions should not exert a pernicious influence in propagating
from one country to another wrong appreciations of the characteristics of different
civilisations ;

considers on the other hand that the task of the cinema, in the face of problems of
this kind, must be the promotion of the development of the culture and the conservation of
the traditions of the peoples concerned ; at the same time, the cinema must favour intel-
lectual exchanges between the various peoples, and further their mutual understanding;

takes note of the reports presented by the Institute whereof it appears the inquiries
which are now being carried on have already given some very interesting results ;

expresses the wish that these inquiries be pursued and that a large publicity be
given to the results obtained through them ;

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ROME 349

fully appreciates the valuable cooperation offered, especially that of teaching mis-
sionaries, as well as that of lay organizations having social and scientific purposes;

considers that these collaborations must be accepted and encouraged and expresses
the wish that a close and continuous connection be established between these organiza-
tions and the I. I. E. C.

Press and Cinematography.

The Congress,

considering that any effort in the international field such as the one pursued by
the I. I. E. C, in order to reach its full effect, must be assured of the largest and most
generous cooperation on the part of the Press;

considering the influence the Press and the Radio have proved to have on the for-
mation of public taste and on the orientation of public opinion,

calls upon the cooperation of the Press and of the Broadcasting organizations to
support actively the work undertaken by the I. I. E. C. so as to favour the attainment
of the aims pursued by the I. I. E. C.

Encouragements to be given to the production and the diffusion
of films dealing with sports.

The International Congress for Educational and Instruction al Cinematography;

having recognized the usefulness of encouraging films bearing on Physical Culture
and Sports ;

having considered that the Olympic Games of 1936 may offer the occasion for the
production and the diffusion of films of this kind ;

suggests to this end the organization of an international competition for films dealing
with sports ; this competition to be organized through the I.I.E.C. for the Autumn of 1935.

In order to carry out this plan, the Congress takes the liberty of suggesting to the
International Committee for the Olympic Games, that on the occasion of the Olympiad
to be held in 1936 a gold medal be assigned to the best film on sports, in the same way
as the same Committee has done for the best book on sports ;

recommends to the delegates representing at the Congress countries having also
representatives in the Olympic Committee, to inform such representatives of this suggestion
in due time, that is before the meeting which will take place in Athens on May 8, 1935.

The Congress wishing to express to the Head of the Italian Government its deep
appreciation of the interest always shown by him for Physical Culture and Sports,
convinced that his high patronage would greatly help towards the success of this initiative
respectfully hopes that he will kindly take an interest in this.

General resolution on the international function of the cinema.

The Congress declares that the essential object of its work is to emphasize the in-
fluence of the cinema on the moral and intellectual formation of the peoples as well as
on the development of a better understanding among them.

The Congress considers that this educational function of the cinema entails a heavy
responsibility on the part of the authors, producers and exhibitors of films, and more
generally on any authority, group or person, responsible for the diffusion of films.

J — Ice ingl.

350 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

The Congress considers that an entirely free and unencumbered circulation on
the largest possible scale, of educational fdms from one country to another, remains
one of the best means to reach the goal of international amity and understanding. In
this connection the Congress considers that the Censorship and Customs as well as the
administrative regulations, must consequently be drafted in such a way as not to inter-
fere with the application of this principle.

The Congress, however, considers that suitable censorship and administrative
restrictions must be put into effect in order to prevent the diffusion by unscrupulous
producers and distributors of films likely to arouse animosity between Nations.

The Congress wishes most sincerely that the governments take in the future all
possible measures to encourage the diffusion of unbiased and impartial films, and put
a check to the circulation of those showing prejudice and negligence in this respect.

In order to put this recommendation into effect, the Congress proposes to the
International Educational Cinematographic Institute, and more especially to its Con-
sultative and Technical Committee working jointly with the Organisation of Intellec-
tual Cooperation and its Paris Institute, the following measures :

1) To call the attention of the Governments to the international importance of the
cinema and its use as a means to further international understanding.

The Governments might be requested to take suitable measures either in their own
countries, or by means of international agreements. Consultations of experts and
preliminary studies might facilitate the preparation of the texts to be eventually submit-
ted to the Governments.

2) To promote "gentlemen agreements" between producers and also seek their
collaboration in order to encourage the production of fdms conceived in a spirit of im-
partiality, and presenting a real intellectual value, and likely to contribute to inter-
national understanding with the I. I. E. C.

3) To gather and classify by means of the national committees or institutes cor-
responding with the 1. 1. E. C, already existing or to be founded, all the cinematographic
documentation capable of illustrating the material and spiritual life of the different peoples.

4) To this end, to establish all the necessary contacts with the governments, insti-
tutions and international associations concerned.

Youth and the Cinema.

Considering the growing development of the cinema which consequently results
in the increasing participation of childhood and youth not only in performances
especially organized for them in schools and parishes, but also in public performances ;

and that this situation may produce dangerous effects especially in regard to
the health of children and young people, unless special precautions are taken in
the interest of youth ;

and that the cinema can at the same time exercise a deep impression on the
senses and on the imagination of children or young people, and thus constitute
a very powerful means of moral influence but also a very serious danger.

The Congress states :

a) From the point of view of hygiene and considering that precautions are all
the more necessary if the spectators are young, it is indispensable to assure sufficient

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ROME 351

cubic air space in the halls; that this air be changed ; that the spectators be placed at
a certain distance from the screen in order to avoid visual fatigue ; that on the same
principle every means be used in order that the light should not tire the eyes ; that
films having been used too much should not be screened ; that projections in schools should
cease in case of epidemics ;

the admission of children to cinema performances at a late hour and under
conditions which may induce nervous fatigue and lack of sleep which may prove
prejudicial to their health should be prohibited ;

b) From the point of view of safety. That every measure may be taken to avoid
panic and the catastrophe which may easily result with a public composed of children in the
premises : facilities to reach the doors, the equipment of the projection room and the
fire escapes, as well as the necessary proportion of adults to assure discipline and order;

that the necessity of the use of non-inflammable fdms be enjoined for public
performances where a majority of children and of young people is gathered and that,
if possible, this obligation be extended to those performances to which children and
young peoples are admitted ;

that at any rate obligation to use non-inflammable fdms be strictly imposed in
all the cinemas where all the measures of safety may not have been taken to provide
against possible fires and possible panics.

c) From the point of view of the intellectual and moral formation of children
and young people : That the educational cinematography should help at the same
time to give a more exact knowledge of life, in its complexity and its richness,
and to develop in children the qualities of intelligence and character ; that anything
likely to result in mental passivity, a superficiality of knowledge, a lack of concentration,
a tendency to inattention should be avoided ; that the use of the cinema should be direct-
ed less towards knowledge than towards developing the habit of observation and impart-
ing personal reflection ;

That one should try to develop in the child respect and desire for truth ;

That on the other hand, for entertainment performances as well as for the
demonstration of films of a purely educational character, one should avoid showing
children and young people any films which may through their composition and their
rhythm, disturb or spoil their artistic sense ;

That it should be suggested to cinema owners to introduce in their programmes a
certain proportion of educational films besides spectacles purely educational ;

That following an understanding established between the producers and the repre-
sentatives of either public authorities or organizations dedicated to education, pro-
grammes should be established for families, on certain days and under certain conditions;

That, in important centres where such special programmes are possible and keep-
ing in view the importance of the whole family being present together, it should be possi-
ble to foresee the provision by cinema owners of special programmes for children and
young people ;

That in any case efforts must be made in every country to forbid the presentation
of any subject encouraging cruelty, crime, or immorality, as well as anything which
may harm the efforts directed towards civilization and better understanding among the
peoples.

352 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

The Congress calls the attention not only of the public authorities, but also of
all those who are interested in the moral formation of children and youth, to the
necessity of encouraging the production of a greater number of educational fdms, and
inducing famous writers to compose scenarios calculated to strengthen family life as well
as those moral forces which are the very basis of society ;

Especially as far as rural communities are concerned, and in order to offer to the
population the attraction of moving picture projections, and thus help in the struggle
against rural exodus, and for the defence of the moral health of the population ;

a) That in order to offer to country people the entertainment they need, a
methodical activity be organized for the development of rural cinematography, and
that more particularly the methodical organization be formed of distributing centres
for educational and entertainment fdms ;

b) That a certain number of fdms should have as object the distribution of useful
information for the benefU of rural populations, as well as the illustration of the social
importance of rural life ;

c) That great care be given to the choice of entertainment fdms, which should
have a large place in every programme, but that fdms giving a wrong illustration of
town life showing not Us difficulties and its real dangers, but only its artificial pleasures,
should be prohibited.

The Congress considers that the institution in all countries of a special Com-
mittee of censorship of films for children and young peoples is most desirable. In
such a Committee, a special place should be given not only to educators properly speak-
ing but also to the representatives of the organizations which are actively connected
with the education of children and youth and more particularly to fathers and
mothers. These Commissions should not limit their activity simply to publishing lists
of films to which children and young people could be admitted ; but in order to help
the work of those who organize the programmes either for public cinemas or for parishes,
these lists should give some indication as to the moral tendencies of these fdms, and as
to their best possible adaptation to the intellectual needs of different ages and different
classes of peoples.

Schools should be encouraged to teach photo-play appreciation to all pupils. Parents
also should be enlightened regarding the influence of motion pictures.

In this respect, and as a conclusion to the international inquiry begun bythel.I.E.C.
on the systems of censorship now in force in different countries, the Congress recom-
mends the drafting of a standard type of regulation which could be adopted in the
different countries, considering possible modifications, which may be required to adapt
it to suit the different mentalities and cultures.

The Congress states that the action to be exercised in behalf of children and adoles-
cents should be not only of a preservative and somewhat negative character, but that it
ought to be at the same time constructive. The film, like all scientific inventions, should
not be merely harmless, but should be useful. It ought to contribute to the harmonious
development of healthy and clean entertainment, to the diffusion of all such ideas
as may guide young people towards the ideal of a higher life, of a large comprehension
of international friendship and understanding.

CINEMA AND TEACHING METHODS

BY

Giovanni Calo,

Professor of Pedagogy at the University of Florence.

General Considera- T^he utility of the
fr°ns> A cinema in the

school no longer constitutes an argument
for discussion. It is accepted there as is its
indispensability in modern civilized life.
The motion picture represents one of the
most potent means for satisfying two char-
acteristic needs of our society; that is, to
shorten distance as much as possible, both
materially and morally and to render ac-
cessible in the briefest interval of time pos-
sible the greatest number of objects, as-
pects, etc. of human life to the greatest
number of persons.

If we recognize this fact, we shall easily
understand that the cinema is not a more
or less amusing invention capable of various
new and original applications, but is one
of the necessary products of the develop-
ment of the human spirit, and corresponds
essentially to the rhythm of such develop-
ment. It supplies a unique means for il-
lustrating certain characteristics of our con-
temporary civilization and assists us in
arriving at higher levels of existence of
which we have today only a very approximate
idea. Its utility becomes discussible only
when its importance is unduly exaggerated
in comparison with older methods of pro-
gress. Such exaggerations consist for in-
stance in considering the cinema superior
to the book as an instrument of culture and
civilization as Leon Bourdel did, although
with some reserves, in the Ere Nouvelle of
February 1 934. People who do this forget
what is the essential characteristic superiority
of the book and verbal expression in general.
It lies in this that it first of all presents
things, images, abstract truths, events,
states of mind, etc. through an elaboration

and a logical, minute and precise articula-
tion or an inexhaustible flux of fantastic
movements, colours and emotive tones,
such as can result only from the virtue
of the word, and the life of the spirit re-
flected in that transparent, varied, and in-
finitely supple instrument. The second
special characteristic of the printed word
is that it can accompany man every-
where, in all circumstances and moments
of his life, in public and in private, when
travelling or among the solitudes of tr?e
mountains or the desert, at school, or in bed.
The omnipresent intimacy through which
the book or the newspaper can truly become
man's inseparable companions is a privilege
which belongs solely to printed matter.
There is also the fact that in this way ines-
timable treasures of human thought, which
would otherwise disappear for ever, are
preserved for us and could be preserved
in no other way unless we let our fancy run
so far ahead as to imagine motion picture
reproduction of texts. Fortunately, it is
unnecessary to have recourse to exaggera-
tions of this kind to exalt the cultural and
educational value of films. If, as I have
said, we see in the motion picture an essen-
tial and historically necessary and indispen-
sable instrument of human progress, we
must be convinced a priori that it is destined
to have an equally useful and indispensable
function in the school.

We must, however, have a clear and de-
finite idea of the way in which the cinema
can, owing to its special nature, be applied
to didactic purposes, in order to understand
what we can expect of it and to perceive
with what other means it must be integrated
or corrected in view of the educational aims

354

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

which no school can ever set on one side,
however technically or socially powerful
may be the means placed at its disposal.
What is important from the didactic and
educational point of view is the greater or
less wealth of content, that is the greater
or smaller number of contacts with reality,
the greater or less quantity of culture which
one or another teaching method can offer
the school, and still more especially the
way in which it can render the spirit active
and assist in its integral and normal devel-
opment. The cinema when considered in
its scholastic applications should be regard-
ed from these points of view, and espec-
ially from the last mentioned point of
view.

To be sure, there is a by no means negli-
gible importance for the first of the fore-
going considerations to be drawn from the
fact that, independently of the grade and
the way in which the film engages and de-
velops the subject's faculties, a determined
means, if applicable to the school, has an
educational value of its own when it has
become a universally diffused instrument
of social life. The school, taking it up and
using it, carries out a work of adaptation
to surroundings, and puts itself in union
with society, which is to say that it proposes
to reach within certain limits and in a given
way, a formative intent consisting in pre-
paring the child for social life and making
it capable of understanding the forms,
means and spirit of this social life. It is
still true that the predominant criterion of
evaluation cannot but be that of the effi-
cacy of the didactic means the cinema has
or is capable of having on the subject and
its spiritual capacities.

With regard to the first point of view,
that is the quantity of cognitions and con-
tacts with reality distant in time and space,
or commonly removed from the general
sphere of action which the motion picture
is able to offer the child, there is no possibility
of doubt or difference of opinion on the
question of its value.

Then comes the second point of view.

What objections can be made from the
psychical and pedagogical point of view to
the cinema ? Accusations against it have
not been lacking. There is the one made
by H. M. Fay (Le Cinematographic et /' en-
fant in the review Education for July 1 933).
Naturally criticisms of film themes which
are unsuitable for children or have a cor-
rupting tendency do not enter into dis-
cussion. We are speaking of the cinema as
cinema in its essential characteristics, which
must appear and have their effect in schol-
astic applications.

Objections and Jus- The first criticism
tifications. tnat may be ma(Je js

that even when the motion picture puts
before the child's sight objects which it could
not otherwise have a chance of observing,
the film shows it these objects in condi-
tions that are different from those of or-
dinary observation. It sees the images in
an artificial light, which isolates the pic-
ture from the surrounding darkness, des-
troying the rest of the reality and the com-
petition or interference of any other than
the purely visual sensation. This criticism
applies equally to the motion picture and
lantern slides, even if the absorption of
the attention is greater for the former than
for the latter, for reasons into which it is
not necessary for the moment to enter.
It may be said that while the artificiality
of the luminous conditions of the image
itself is an undoubted and apparently in-
superable drawback, but without grave con-
sequence where it is otherwise impossible
to present in its concrete living aspect the
fact or phenomenon, the isolation of the
image from all other perceptions, that is,
practically speaking, from the spectator's real
surroundings, has an aspect that is both
useful and harmful at one and the same time.
It is useful inasmuch as it draws all the
attention to the object which is intensified
and amplified by the projection, thus render-
ing the observation easy. It is harmful in-
asmuch as the spirit tends in this way to
lose its aptitude of directing the attention

THE CINEMA AND TEACHING METHODS

355

and voluntarily isolating objects from the
multitude of images surrounding them,
that is, exercising its powers of observation
under natural conditions.

The drawback is more marked if we are
not dealing with objects outside the child s
ordinary surroundings and reality but with
facts and phenomena which, being percep-
tible in that reality of which the child forms
part would be better observed in a conti-
nuity of relations and connections with
things and facts constituting the surround-
ings and atmosphere common to them and
the child. In this case, the observation
would be at least for a time a referring to
the subject, that is the construction of an
experience around a subject.

One charge which is fairly brought
against the film is that it disturbs the nor-
mal rhythm of time and reality with its
rapid succession of images. It renders
everything vastly more rapid than it really
is. It contracts intervals and almost de-
termines a kind of conventional time, which
differs from normal time, and upsets the
normal aptitudes for ordinary perception
of time, and in this way creates a form of
over-excitement and therefore nervous fa-
tigue. Again, often enough, it does not
observe that minimum of interval between
images which constitutes the time threshold
of perceptibility of stimuli, or that minimum
of duration of movement of the attention
from one object to another which Mager
has called Aufmer\amkeitsschrift (step of
the attention). These are minimums which
vary from one individual to another and
it is possible when the rhythm of the se-
quence is, too rapid that fatigue may be
set up in the spectator, incapacity to follow
the images and a form of mental exhaustion.
Moreover the damage is all the greater
according to the youth of the spectator.
Consequently we can argue that the time
rhythm of the images must be made the
subject of attention so that it is considerably
slower than the tempo commonly used in
motion picture houses.

On the other hand, it is clear that while

the fixed projection is better adapted for
purposes of exercising the power and method
of observation since it gives the spectator
plenty of time to examine it in all its details,
the film picture starts a current of images
which cannot be followed by the mind in
one direction only, but must be followed by
the attention without repose or change of
direction. Naturally enough when it is a
case of presenting to the attention an as-
pect of reality which consists of movement
and change, the drawback is an unavoidable
one.

There remains, in any case, the unques-
tioned psychological fact of the superiority
of what we may call spatial observation
over time observation, that is of observation
turned on what exists as a spatial whole
compared with observation of what follows
and changes in time. This is a fact which
depends on the unidimensional character of
time and the preponderant part assigned
to the memory in the perception of a time
whole, or rather in the reconstruction and
interpretation of a series developing in
time. It is self-evident that the exactness
and the thoroughness of comprehension
of a series of successive images, both in their
reciprocal value (antecedent and consequen-
tial, cause and effect, etc.) and in the mean-
ing of the whole which they help to form,
will be all the greater in proportion as the
attention has had the opportunity of fixing
itself on the static image of objects or forms
constituting the ultimate phases or fina
product of the process, so that minute exa-
mination and understanding of them throw
a stronger light on the process itself and
facilitate reconstruction and reflective com-
prehension.

Advantages and Lim- Another not incon-
itations of the siderable criticism

Sound Film. whjcln jg ra;sed agamst

the cinema and luminous projections in
general is that they throw all the effort on
visual perception, that is, they assist in elim-
inating the collaboration of the other senses
and therefore remove the observation pro-

356

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

cess from the ordinary conditions of com-
mon experience, substituting for ordinary
experience a unilateral exceptional exper-
ence. It may be reasonably argued that
the sound film offers and will continue more
and more in the future to offer a remedy for
this state of things, since it adds to the visual
image the sounds and voices of nature of
men and animals, and opens for the art of
the screen marvellous possibilities. We
must however, remember that in the use
of the cinema in teaching, the addition of
aural sensation can only prove practically
impossible or at any rate a source of dis-
turbance. It must be used in an extremely
limited way when — as didactic require-
ments will often impose — the teacher s
word must supply an explanatory comment
to the succession of pictures on the screen.
Taking it altogether, it is my opinion that
the sound film — apart from its undoubted
value in the entertainment, documentary
and cultural fields — is destined to play a
very small part in teaching proper, that is,
as an instrument and aid to the lesson. I
should like to insist on the opinion which
is commonly held and has become almost
definite, excluding sound pictures from teach-
ing films, since they take the master's part of
illustrating the images with oral comment.
This kind of film is altogether too rigid and
preconceived, unsusceptible of variations
and adaptations. This is due in great
part to the mechanical nature and unchange-
able form of the sound film comment.
If the undoubted advantages of the film
and its wealth of detail for the scholars'
minds can permit us to accept without
obvious harm artificial representations
which are quite outside the contrl of theo
teacher, the harm will prove very serious
if the teacher's live and communicative
words are not allowed to illustrate certain
phases of films, adapting the explanation
to the circumstances of different cases and
the intelligence of the pupil, introducing
personal touches and special details on
which a great deal of the efficacy of all
teaching depends. The film should be in-

corporated as best it can in a didactic pro-
cess of a personal character, in a living re-
lationship between pupil and teacher. Any
tendency to accentuate the preconceived
schematic and unalterable character of a
didactic sound film where the comment
that should come from the teacher is given
by the loud speaker, can be nothing but a
pedagogical monstrosity.

The Cine-didactic This aspect of cinema
Method. representations which

discards the collaboration of the other
senses leads us to consider more thoroughly
the essential problem of the use of fixed
or moving luminous projections in the
schools in regard to the requirements of
the method. For it is clear that the
object placed before the child's observing
faculties will engage its attention just so
much more as the process of observation
can be personal and one in which all the
senses can take a thorough part, and with
and through them the higher functions of
the mind, memory, judgment, reason. It
should be remembered that to inquire and
explore mental situations with all our senses
means remembering, comparing, judging,
synthetizing and a more or less complete
form of reasoning.

We cannot but admit, in this connection,
that the use of luminous projections in the
schools constitutes in certain respects an
improvement of the purely intuitive meth-
od rather than the active method which
is now in the ascendant in didactics and the
contemporary school.

We do not mean to say that fixed projec-
tions or films have nothing in common with
the active method. Everything which arouses
a lively interest and a keen and wakeful
curiosity forms part, in a wide sense, of the
active method. At the same time, we should
take care to observe that where it is possible
to see everything, then there is less field left
and less impulse is available to stir the fancy
and allow it to have a free form of expression.
Nor would we care to deny that, indirectly,
the acquisition of rich visual experiences

THE CINEMA AND TEACHING METHODS

357

and the accumulation of so large a capital
of images can provide material for new
combinations and constructions and the
exercise of a vigorous fancy. There is no
question that the possibility and the habit
of translating the invisible into the visible,
of connecting every mental operation with
a sensitive image that is definite and precise
is not the best way of satisfying that special
need of children for moving freely and
fantastically with their imaginations and
spirits in the realm of the uncontrollable
and undetermined, and of exercising their
imagination at the age when it seems
most inclined to require stimuli to secure
its proper working.

However, it is only proposed to give a
relative weight to this consideration. It
is not my intention to insist over much on it
in view of the various and even contra-
dictory means which a good educational
method must in practice have resort to.

What is undoubtedly true in every sense
and in all circumstances is that the motion
picture, especially if it becomes an end in
itself, when it is not subordinated and
enclosed so to speak in a teaching method
which exists outside of it, and does not al-
low it to act alone on the child's spirit,
inevitably tends to draw with it in a kind of
fascination the child's interest, leaving it
much less capacity for personal examination,
control, self-criticism and various mental
elaborations in a much greater degree than
the lantern slide. What is especially and
necessarily excluded by the very nature
of the luminous projection is the child's
initiative, its real capacity for work, its
tactile and muscular experience of the ob-
ject fact or phenomenon, its possibilities
for " doing it ", modifying it and making
use of it. It is this which constitutes the
essence of the active method, especially
in the lower teaching grades, and to a cer-
tain extent and in certain forms and sub-
jects, also in the higher grades. The thing
which is presented as a luminous image be-
comes isolated and withdrawn from all
other forms of the child's activity apart

from its purely visual activity. The cinema
renders the object rather than the subject
active in that it shows the mobile and dynam-
ic aspect of reality, while the subject is
rendered active only to that degree with
which this mobility and changing life of the
object imparts a more rapid rhythm to the
contemplative and emotive activity of the
subject without depriving it of active force
in other respects. From this point of
view, graphic or plastic representations of
real objects of whatever kind have an un-
doubted claim to superiority since they can
be handled by the child and can be com-
pared, measured, copied, completed with
missing parts or indications, combined with
others and used for different purposes. This
means a possibility of becoming familiar
with them, an active practical intervention
on the part of the child, which is a matter
of great importance not always negligible
in comparison with that which is evidently
lacking in graphic and plastic representations
of reality and real aspects of life and move-
ment.

The essence of a really active method lies
only in complete contact between subject
and object, in the fullest liberty of the form-
er to operate on the latter and to appro-
priate it for itself, both intellectually and
practically.

Here too lie the most favourable condi-
tions for a clear, full and stable record of
objects learnt, which is assisted by what the
Germans call komplikative Geddchtniss, that
is by the mnemonic images of the same ob-
ject relative to the senses and forms of
various experiences. We must realize that
the motion picture determines a form of
teaching which is more contemplative than
active and means in substance, even admit-
ting its new and admirable possibilities,
the final increment of the intuitive phase of
didactics (1).

(1)See my article" For and Against the Cinema
in Schools " in the review Vita Scolastica, Florence,
January, 1934.

358

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

Conclusions. I think the follow-

ing practical suggestions may be gathered
from what has already been said, and I
imagine it will not be difficult to obtain a
general consensus of opinion on them.

(1) Luminous projections should not
be used in schools for those objects and
phenomena which can be adequately ob-
served in reality ;

(2) Preference should be given to a
graphic or plastic representation of the ob-
jects being taught, unless there is some real
and distinct advantage to be gained in
showing the particular reality in movement,
or unless it be deemed advisable to obtain
with fixed projections, special effects of the
image for an understanding of the object ;

(3) The use of both lantern slides and
motion pictures ought to be much restricted
in elementary schools and these aids should
be increasingly employed in the higher
grades, while documentary films in the wide
meaning of the term and pictures having
a recreational-educational scope could be
used with a certain frequency and periodic-
ity even in elementary classes and in pre-
scholastic institutions :

(4) In general, the use of the luminous
image as a visual aid ought not to be too
frequent if only to prevent the pupils
acquiring harmful mental habits and sub-
mitting to hygienic disadvantages. The
film should not be shown for long on each
occasion of a projection, in order that it
may not interfere with the teacher's regu-
lar didactic work and risk causing a confu-
sion of the real aims of teaching ;

(5) The use of lantern slides should
be considered preferable to motion pictures
as an educational means for increasing the
child's powers of observation when the use
of the film does not become inevitable ow-
ing to the special nature of the object and
the purposes aimed at ;

(6) The teacher's word should always
set forth the problem which may later be
illustrated by the film giving the pupil
cognitions and ideas beyond those imme-

diately before his eyes. Sub-titles, explana-
tory comment and printed matter should
not be used in the case of children ;

(7) The teacher ought to regulate the
rhythm in motion picture projections, and
be able to repeat certain parts, to stop the
projector at will and to insert slides be-
tween the running off of the film so that
the best possible advantage may be taken
of the visual instruction and the most fa-
vourable conditions for the exercise of the
powers of observation by the scholars ;

(8) Teaching films ought always to be
made with the collaboration of teachers and
pedagogues according to the grade and type
of school and the educational purpose
they are intended to serve ;

(9) Better than complete darkness in
the projection room is a certain penumbra
effect and a small illuminated zone near
each pupil to enable him to take notes or
read ;

(10) It is necessary to obtain with all
possible means the active collaboration of
the child and draw its active attention to the
objects thrown on the screen such as graphs,
drawings, etc. of the model of the objects
shown it, rapid notes on the develop-
ment of the phenomena appearing on the
screen, explanations by the master, etc. ;

(11) The pupil ought always to be
invited to make a verbal or written recon-
struction of what he has seen after the pro-
jection and he should be held to the great-
est possible precision, allowing him to take
council and advice from other pupils.
Drawings or sketches of a rough and rapid
nature should also be insisted on from the
pupils after they have witnessed some fact
or phenomenon on the screen. This will
prove a memory exercise.

It is only in this way, by demonstrating
the wealth and power of suggestion of the
motion picture for human culture and
thought, that it will be possible to eliminate
the disparity between film teaching and
that ideal active method which is one of the
essential requirements of the modern school.

THE USE OF THE CINEMA IN THE INSTRUCTION
IMPARTED IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS

BY

Hubert Mahr.

THIS report deals with the organization
of the scholastic cinema in Viennese
schools.

A conference of the educational cinema
should occupy itself, among the many other
questions which arise, with that of cul-
ture films, taking into account the reports
upon the conditions and development of the
didactic cinema in the various countries.
The advantages derived from similar com-
parisons would indeed be noteworthy. The
teacher who makes use of the cinema, or
who has the intention of doing so, finds
himself faced with an infinite number of
questions which he is not in a position
to solve unless he avail himself of the
experience of an organisation. Those who
fiave attempted to cope with the matter
on their own account, have all failed. The
separate organizations of teachers who, in the
different countries, interested themselves in
the propaganda of the educational cinema
have all, more or less, come to a complete
standstill, and are obliged to devote all their
energy to preservation of the work already
done. Each conference therefore should be
welcomed, since it stimulates interest in
the movement and points to ever fresh means
wherewith faith in this form of education may
be strengthened.

In this report I have striven to show, in a
simple and modest way, the course which we
Viennese teachers have followed.

The educational cin
emas of Vienna.

Vienna possesses
twenty-one cinemas
to meet the requirements of its schools.
Very few plants are installed in the single
classrooms. The collective scholastic cinema,

the organization of the didactic cinema, in
force about fourteen years, disposes of a
certain number of halls, situated partly in
scholastic buildings, partly in buildings
of the Commune of Vienna.

These halls must correspond to certain
requisite demands imposed by law, and this
naturally represents an obstacle to their
development. In fact, it frequently happens
that a school does not dispose of a hall
suitable for projection and equipped with all
the requisites above mentioned ; or the hall
is sometimes situated at too great a distance
from the school. Therefore the educational
cinematographic organization must insist
that provision be made for a special hall
suitable for projection whenever the build-
ing of a scholastic institute is in progress.

The cinemas at the disposal of the Vien-
nese schools, can generally accomodate from
1 50 to 300 spectators ; it is therefore possible
for more than one class to assist at the same
projection at the same time. The projection
varies from an hour to an hour and a half in
duration ; if one calculates another half hour
to allow for time in which to arrive to and
from the locality where the projection takes
place, one can say that it varies from an hour
and a half to two hours.

The scholastic Council of the City of
Vienna established, some years ago, that the
participation of a didactic projection be com-
pared to a cultural excursion. Therefore the
children are accompanied to the cinema on
days fixed by their respective teachers and the
lesson is given by means of the film.

We film pedagogues are perfectly well
aware that the collective scholastic cinema is
not the ideal type of cinema to be employed

360

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

in schools, and that the cinema could only
be rendered efficacious by use in separate
classrooms.

The former is a rigid, too little mobile form
of scholastic cinematographic organization. It
is extremely difficult to select a programme
suitable for several classes alike, unless the
different classes have studied the same sub-
jects during the same period of time. More
over, the collective cinema cannot individual-
ize, and it accustoms the pupil to be a pas-
sive spectator. One has sought, and with
success, to remedy this, by modifying the
manner of presentation. I will return later to
his argument.

The financial question contributes chiefly
to the preservation of the collective cinema
organization and in this period of great econ-
omic depression it is comprehensible. A film
that has been projected once to 200 persons is
in better condition than one which has been
projected ten times to 20 persons. In order
that I may better explain the views which I
have to propound upon the didactic cinema
I will deal immediately with the

Methods for instruc- Every scholastic cinema
five projection. should fix one day of

the week for projection, the general organiza-
tion agreeing as to which day. The pro-
gramme of films should circulate from cin-
ema to cinema, according to a previously ar-
ranged plan, established for a term.

Each scholastic cinema in turn must notify
the schools depending upon it, of the days
and hours fixed for projection. The teachers
of the different classes will then have the
opportunity of dividing their instructive
material accordingly. The day appointed
should be exclusively for children of the same
age. Accordingly to a carefully prepared
system of rotation, one calculates that the
pupils would attend a number of projections
varying from 2 to 4 a year.

In the last scholastic year the following
subjects were projected in the Viennese
scholastic cinemas :

Primary Schools (first to fourth class, pupils
varying from 6 to 10 years) :

Madame Holle — Be laid, little table ! —
Peregrinations of a postal packet — Country
life — Communications in the big cities —
Firemen — Forestry — Southern Lower
Austria — The valleys of the Austrian Alps

— Brick-making and house-building.
Middle Schools (from fifth to eighth class,

pupils varying from II to 14 years):

The child — Southern Lower Austria —
The valleys of the Austrian Alps — In the
insect kingdom — Look out, Asia ! (Sound
film) Africa ! — Hungary — Northern coun-
tries — Wonders of the technical world —
Captive animals — Hamburg — The mi-
crophone on journeys — The Mediterranean

— From the tree to the newspaper.

All these films, with the exception of the
sound films inserted, were taken from the
archives which the Association of the Schol-
astic Cinema has instituted, in accordance
with the Viennese Urania, under the name of

Austrian archives of All films in these arch-
instructive films. jves are 0f didactic
character, and have been elaborated in
accordance with the principles of cinema-
tographic pedagogy, adapted particularly to
the requirements of instruction in primary
and secondary schools. Their substance
corresponds to a limited quantity of educa-
tional material. For every film there is
also a small series of about ten prints which
help certain difficult parts of the film to be
understood.

The teacher must provide that the film be
attended at the most propitious moment,
serving as basis to the lesson, and helping
to deepen the understanding of certain argu-
ments ; one can safely say that the film plays
an essential part in instruction.

The importance and necessity of the
teachers making advance acquaintance with
the film has been fully understood by the
Scholastic Council of Vienna, which has
taken the necessary measures to procure for
the teaching body the opportunity of draw-
ing the best possible advantage from the
cinema.

To this end, fortnightly projections have

THE CINEMA IN THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF VIENNA 361

been organized, by means of which the
teachers can keep in view the material at
their disposal and the forthcoming pro-
grammes. The schools which depend upon a
scholastic cinema receive a bulletin published
by "the Austrian Scholastic Cinema Asso-
ciation ", which gives the titles of the films
together with a brief synopsis of their con-
tents.

This constitutes the basis of cinemato-
graphic education. It remains for the
teacher to draw from it the best possible
advantage by carefully preparing the pupil.
The preparations should consist essentially
in anticipatory explanations which help the
pupil to understand the film in its integrity :
in inviting comment, encouraging questions
and creating doubts to be solved by the film.
In this manner the spirit of inquiry is encour-
aged in the child and any gift of composi-
tion strengthened.

In my opinion, in order to obtain a more
lasting impression, a number of questions
should be put to the child, to be answered
later by the film. For example, one could
divide a film such as " Forest Culture " into
three parts.

( 1 ) how trees are cut ;

(2) transport of the tree trunks to the
plain ;

(3) how the wood is seasoned.
Those questions which should be put

with the intention of producing a more
profound impression upon the pupils, should
be as following :

(a) how do foresters work with axe
and saw ?

(b) where are trees pruned ?

(c) how does the fall of a felled tree take
place ?

(d) how are tree trunks joined in con-
structing a raft?

(«) at what point is the river current
strongest ?

At what point is the river widest, nar-
rowest ?

(J) how are the trunks loaded?
(g) of what use are rafts ?
The questions should not be put in a

manner which would insist merely upon the
general argument, but should serve to draw
the attention to certain points so as to edu-
cate and strengthen the spirit of observation.
The pupils must be accustomed to this form
of mental exercise by degrees; beginning with
simple questions they will gradually become
accustomed to solving more difficult ones.
It is therefore necessary that the teacher be
well acquainted with the theme of the film and
thorough acquaintance is not possible after
one single vision. It is indispensable that he
knows in advance those points to which he
means to draw the attention of his pupils, or
can so arrange that the film itself calls forth
such questions. This solution would be the
most desirable because such being the
case, the film could be prepared according to
the age and preparation of the young spec-
tators.

Effects of the film. The effect of the film
represents so far an unanswered question for
the collective cinema, which has often been
accused of accustoming the child to an almost
absolute passivity. One forgets all too easily
that a completely passive vision is impossible,
since every impression on our organism
provokes a reaction and a series of impres-
sions, produced by a series of pictures in
direct sequence and logical relationship. Such
impressions are obliged to set thoughts in
motion, by reason of the connection existing
between the mind and the pictures presented.
This difficulty could be overcome by repeti-
tion of the more difficult sequences of the
film, by dividing the film into several parts
and by first illustrating the part to be project-
ed. Thus would complete comprehension
of the separate parts be assured and in this
way comprehension of the film in its integrity
obtained. The obstacle of " passivity " can
thus be eliminated by the interest and com-
prehension of the pupils.

Explanatory conferences have been left
aside completely by our organization. Ap-
peals and illustrations on this and that point,
from time to time, are more than sufficient.

362

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

I am sure that I have not put forward
anything new in this report. Certainly,
cinematographic organization will not be
identical in all countries, but inasmuch as
regards the Austrian and especially the
Viennese teachers, I can only say that we
seek to draw the best possible advantage from
the cinema and that we also strive towards the
goal of projection in separate classes although
the financial side of the question prohibits

us from hoping for its early realization.
Among the numerous other questions,
an international conference should examine
the essential one of the scholastic cinema and
its principal problems. Attempts should be
made to obtain international subsidies which
would contribute toward scholastic cinema-
tographic experiments which might point
out the advisability of definitely following
one system in preference to another.

VISUAL EDUCATION

BY

C. F. Van Nortwick.

EDUCATION is the gathering of knowledge.
One way is through experience ; we
gain experience through our senses. The
eye is the most retentive as well as the most
observant organ of the human senses. This
was observed early in the history of civiliz-
ation when the schools of India used the
sand as blackboards. The earliest records
are pictures. Comenius (1592-1671) used
pictures for the first time in books when
he published his text book, Orbis Pictus.
Pestalozzi (1746-1827) and Rousseau (1712-
1778) used pictures. Froebel (1782-1852)
developed the senses of sight and touch
and employed visual aids in his famous
Kindergarten. A Frenchman named Niepce
made the permanent photograph in 1822.
A rapid development then followed in the
photographic held with pictures and slides.
Dr. Sillers in 1861 was the first to discover
that moving pictures should stand still dur-
ing the moment of vision. This discovery
opened the field of motion pictures. Thom-
as A. Edison was probably the first to
produce a real motion picture projector,
with the use of glass plates.

George Eastman began experimenting
with films in 1888 and in 1895 the first
negative film stock was turned out, followed
in the same year by positive film stock, and
the demand has grown to millions of feet
per month.

The first motion picture machine using
film was invented by Jenkins and Armat and
was marketed under the name of the Edison
Vitascope. This leads us to the present
day developments in motion pictures.

Visual education in its broadest sense
embodies all forms of learning. Visual
education means imaging, and for any learn-
ing to take place the subject matter must be
clearly imaged in the mind of the student.
Therefore, no matter which sense is appealed
to when the activity is first brought to
the attention of the learner the activity
must become imaged before any real learn-
ing takes place.

With the above statement in mind, visual
education readily divides itself into several
groups, as reading, verbalism, smelling,
seeing, touching, hearing, and tasting, in
fact a learning unit for each sense. In

VISUAL EDUCATION

363

common practise the term visual education
is that in connection with objective materials
of teaching things that can be seen.

Visual education need not be narrowed
to use of the school systems. It is surpris-
ing how few people actually read to learn
during their adult life. Their source of
advanced learning is through visualized
objects. How many would read a poster
if it were not for the interest aroused by
the attractive pictures ?

As a school project, visual instruction
has many advantages ; first, it brings into
use all of the learner's senses, the object
being studied in itself, or a picture or
representation of it. At the same time
that the object is before the student it may
be read about or be told about, thus making
for clear imagery through the entire sensory
field.

In the first place what is invoked by the
written or spoken word is quite variable
and probably in most cases differs widely
from the imagery or idea of the author of
which the word is the expression. No a-
mount or quality of verbal description can
paint the visual appearance of beings or
objects so as to invoke images which are
exact likenesses of the thing being described.
With this brief statement in mind, it is
plainly seen that the best teaching and learn-
ing is accomplished when as many of the
human senses are in use as it is possible to
stimulate.

Visual aids may be used with great advan-
tage to give a general idea, an appreciative
treatment, of a field or topic which is not
to be studied exhaustively.

Visual instruction may be used as a back-
ground for a new subject which is to be
introduced.

We may in fact lay down the following
principles :

(a) Visual aids are necessary in gaining
concrete information and reviewing a series
of lessons in a concrete, connected way. No
other visual aid but the film can so quickly
and interestingly review t\ e whole field of
previous study and through revisualization

permanently fix correct mental concepts in
the minds of students.

(b) The moving picture should not
be introduced in a lesson until an urgent
need is felt on the part of the pupil or
group.

(c) The help thus brought should ex-
plain some difficulty, clear up some obscur-
ity, or enrich some subject matter. Only
the material to meet this definite need should
be introduced at this time. Any additional
material only distracts and wastes time.

(d) Educational films should be short
and to the point. If the film is long, impres-
sions succeed each other so rapidly that few
are fixed in the memory and the student is
not called on for any mental effort of his
own.

(e) To point out the best method of
using visual aids, authorities seem to agree
agree that the job is best done when the
subject is thoroughly gone over with the
class beforehand, after the subject discus-
sion is finished. Immediately after this is
the proper time for the use of films, slides,
pictures, etc.

(/) If the visual aids are sufficient to
take the entire class period the next lesson
should be used as a test. There are many
ways of testing, i.e. plus and minus, com-
pletion, multiple choice, writing of stories,
special assignments, oral or general discus-
sion, etc. These are all good and which
to use depends entirely upon the subject
and the teacher. But under no condition
should the lesson go by without a thorough
testing of some kind.

The principles of method recommended
are as follows :

(1) Since education is the harmonious
unfolding of all the faculties and since know-
ledge is received through sense impressions,
the more senses utilized in conveying know-
ledge the better the result.

(2) The pupil must be prepared in
advance for the use of materials. The pu-
pil should become familiar with his tools
and know what he is going to do before he
handles them.

364

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

(3) The teacher also should be fully
prepared, " three times as well prepared
as the pupil.

(4) Present the lesson so as to arouse
interest to stimulate to greater endeavor.

(5) More material than can be well
assimilated should not be given at one time.

(6) Utilize materials of instruction so
as to develop all the faculties of the mind.

(7) Present lessons in an orderly and
systematic way so as not to cause confusion
or a complexity of impressions.

(8) Vary the methods of teaching and
the teaching materials used, in order to
utilize such methods and materials as are
best suited in each instance to accomplish
the purpose of efficient instruction.

(9) Dramatize the lesson, visualize it.

(10) Repetition is an important prac-
tice in memory training. Vary the method
of repetition.

(1 1) Discussion drives home the lesson.
By oral review the teacher can discover which
pupils are deficient in the power of obser-
vation.

(12) Written review fixes facts in the
pupils' minds.

Types of visual instruction.

There are at present several types of vis-
ual aids, those most used are : bulletin,
exhibition and black boards, films, slides,
maps, charts, globes, field trips and excur-
sions, samples, collections, pictures, relics,
specimens, demonstrations, dramatization,
museums, sand tables, school gardens, social-
ized lessons as living persons. Several
of the above may be used in one lesson or
one may cover several lessons : the greater
the number of different angles from which,
the subject can be approached, the more
certain it is that learning will take place.
Here again the method and material de-
pend upon the subject and the teacher.

Visual aids give many advantages, among
the most important are the possibility of
stimulating adequate imagery, to the point
where it becomes sensory. The pupil has a
chance to study the thing itself or a picture
of it, and in many cases can hear or feel the

thing or even smell it, by this procedure the
image naturally will be more accurate. Fast
moving objects may be slowed down to a point
where the movements can be studied and
slow moving objects accelerated. The mo-
vie has the advantage of transporting a whole
class to the scene of action so that the student
actually feels the atmosphere of the setting.
Slides present objects and materials in a
natural state and in colours, so they may be
studied at leisure from every angle.

In spite of the advantages of visual aids
they still are subject to objections. All objec-
tions may be summarized under the follow-
ing seventeen heads :

(1) Films cause eye strain.

(2) There are too many mechanical
difficulties and projection problems, includ-
ing proper wiring, current, etc.

(3) Fire hazard.

(4) Too great expense for equipment
and films.

(5) Films make learning too easy.

(6) Films make superficial thinkers.

(7) Films reduce reading.

(8) Films destroy the sense of perfec-
tion in language.

(9) Films dull the imagination.

(10) Films distract from the lesson.

(11) Films tend to replace the teacher-
text book method of instruction.

(12) Slides and still pictures are better.

(13) Proper films are not available.

(14) Films are inaccurate.

(15) Films are too rapid.

(16) The benefits to be derived are un-
certain and unproven.

(17) There is no established method
of use.

Beneficial use of films may be summed
up under the following the headings :

(1) Films should be used in all branch-
es of education.

(2) Films should not replace the teach-
er, but should be used as auxiliaries.

(3) Films are of proven value in the
demonstration of experiments.

(4) Films are valuable in the analysis
of industrial processes.

VISUAL EDUCATION

365

(5) Excellent results are being obtained
by the use of films.

(6) Stimulate imagination.

(7) Pupils have a chance to study lo-
cation.

(8) Objects may be slowed down to a
point where they can be studied.

(9) Many different objects may be
studied by comparison.

(10) Objective material may be brought
to the class room.

The general trend in the education field
seems to be to use visual as supplementary
and auxiliary material in lessons that have
been studied and digested wherever possi-
ble and when appropriate visual material is
available. Practically all branches of edu-
cation can be now supplied with worthwhile
material provided the person in charge will
make the effort to compile it Some
of the material must be purchased but
a satisfactory amount may be borrowed for
mere transportation charges. Large school
systems have developed the collective plan
where visual material may be borrowed
free of charge.

Outside the strictly educational field, films
are finding their place as studies of methods
of manufacture, as means of comparison
and of stabilization. Large factories are reap-
ing a definite benefit from films as an adver-
tising medium.

Private enterprises have come to use films
as a means of preserving material they wish
to use for future reference and show.
Equipment at one time was complicated
and quite expensive but since the use has
become more general, machines have been

simplified and competition has reduced the
cost to a minimum.

1 - 35 mm projector
1-16 mm projector
1 - stereoptican projector
1 - baloptican projector

Many of the educational visual materials
are entertaining as well as educational and
people are more and more coming to real-
ize the true value of visiting far off places
through the medium of the screen.

Art museums and other places of public
entertainment connected with the education-
al field are using visual aids very extens-
ively in the furthering of their aims.

It is not uncommon to see displayed along
the streets in show windows, box movies
advertising commodities for sale. This same
machine is being used by schools, churches,
business houses and many other institu-
tions that have items of special interest that
they wish to place before the public.

During the short life of the moving picture
and film industry, the business has grown
to such an extent that it has now some part
in practically all phases of life, both bus-
iness and amusement. Recent years
have brought us sixteen millimeter films,
stereoscopic films, colour, films talking pic-
tures, movies by radio, animated drawings,
and the latest films in three dimensions are
now to be perfected.

It is very probable that, in a short period of
time, daylight pictures will have been perfect-
ed so that daylight '* text-books " may be
used in every class room with results which
are at present unheard of.

4 - n,

SUBJECTS WHICH LEND THEMSELVES
TO TEACHING BY FILM

BY

Josef Filip,

President op the Austrian Association of the Scholastic Cinema.

AUSTRIAN educationists who are interest-
ed in motion pictures have for some
time now concerned themselves with this
question. The problem of the kinds of
films suitable for teaching purposes became
a practical one soon after the war, when the
scholastic cinema took a considerable de-
velopment and a large number of cinemas
were installed with the result that the need
for suitable films was felt at once. Never-
theless, the demand for films could not be
satisfied very easily. There was, as a mat-
ter of fact, a fairly large quantity of films
available, but they were spread among a
number of producing firms, and were
by no means easy to come by, either
because the firms in question needed the
pictures as stand-bys, or because the rent-
ing price asked was too high for schools.
This was the reason why the teaching fac-
ulty organized itself and founded the Aus-
trian Association of the Scholastic Cinema
13-15 Stabergasse, Vienna. The members
of the Association at once began to look
through the stocks of the renters and pro-
ducers so that it was possible in a short
time to prepare a list of all films suitable
for schools existing in Austria. Some of
the films which had been made without any
thought of schools were only occasionally
suitable, and often enough it was only parts
of films which could be projected in class-
rooms.

The necessity for bringing order into
this confusion and the advisability of having
a system rather than leaving matters to
chance, became obvious. The section of
Scientific Pedagogy of the Austrian Asso-
ciation of Scholastic Cinemas assumed the

task of deciding in which subjects of in-
struction the use of the motion picture seem-
ed useful or necessary.

The question of the possibility of using
educational films was answered, to begin
with, by the very subject matters them-
selves. The curricula of various types of
schools were examined (primary, high and
secondary) and after lengthy and careful
discussion the subjects which appeared
most suitable for cinema illustration were
defined. The work received the encourage-
ment of the Federal Minister of Instruction
(Decree No. 16154) and the result was a
report which laid down in a definite man-
ner which subjects were suitable for illus-
tration and teaching by the cinema in ele-
mentary and secondary schools and which
required the cinema as a necessity.

In this report, no account was taken of
the films that were actually available, but
after an examination of the subjects, it was
decided which films should be included in
the more or less complete list of schools.
The list thus agreed upon showed scholastic
requirements in the matter of pictures. The
Austrian Association of Scholastic Films
therefore gave the list the title of " Prospec-
tus of Necessary Films ".

The object of these prospectuses was to
serve as a guide for the scholastic authori-
ties and for persons entrusted with post-
graduate courses in their acquisition of mo-
tion pictures, and was intended also to
draw the attention of producers to films used
in schools.

In the choice of subjects to use for pic-
tures, it will be seen that the films can be
made without any special difficulties.

THE CINEMA IN NEW TEACHING CURRICULA

367

The prospectus of film requirements was
drawn up without taking into account the
effect which the pictures might have on
children, since there was no documentary
evidence concerning this point at the time
when the list was compiled.

At the same time, the teachers belonging
to the Austrian Association of Scholastic
Cinemas were perfectly in agreement that
the question of using films ought to be
examined also from the point of view of the
children. In the pedagogic section of the
Association, Dr Karl Hareiter has begun
a partial study of the psychological problem
involved in cinema teaching.

To this end, Dr Hareiter has carried out
numerous experiments and has collected
the results obtained so far in a report which,
together with other reports of the A. A. S. C.
(Austrian Association of Scholastic Cine-
mas) has been laid before the association
with a request to add these partial reports
to the general Austrian report prepared for
the Rome conference.

Regarding the outlook of requirements
of the films already mentioned, the Asso-
ciation, having accepted the request of its
members and the various sections, as well
as the attached explanatory notes, consider-
ed them both of such importance as to
warrant printing. This has been done in
the brochure " The Film as Means of
Teaching " published by the " Deutscher
Verlag fur Jugend und Volk ". The bro-
chure contained a table of the varieties
of the scholastic cinema in Austria, and the
author of this report, as a result, added it
to the general Austrian report for the Rome
Congress.

' The prospectuses of films required "
contained a list of advisable pictures pre-
sented to the Federal Ministry of Instruc-
tion. The result was that the ministry
in question created a film bureau which
now undertakes Jo furnish schools with
appropriate films along the lines of the re-
ports made. This governmental bureau
and the repository of the educational films
of the A. A. S. C. (Vienna, 3 Semengasse)

is run in union by the latter body and the
Vienna, Urania, and provides a practical
solution to the elaborate theoretical scheme
made by the Filmbedarfsplan.

We will summarize here the schemes
which list types of films for primary and
high schools.

In the case of general educational films
the case is different since it would suffice
to change the titles (translate) to render many
of the films available for other countries.
This would prove practical since the same
subjects are treated cinematographically in
many countries, while, on the other hand,
no country possesses even relatively com-
plete repositories of educational pictures.
It is of the first importance that such an
international operation should prevent the
same films from being shown too many
times, and should also encourage the pro-
duction of pictures in a much neglected
field.

I. — FILMS FOR THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS.
The Big City.

Circulation and means of transport :
Movement in a big city, traffic dangers ;
the central station ; the airport ; develop-
ment of means of communication, rail-
ways, ships, airplanes.

Food : Distributing centre, goods sheds,
central meat markets, general markets,
bread, sugar, salt.

Heating : Turf, coal mines, gasometers,
etc.

Illumination : From the resin torch to the
electric lamp. Hydraulic installations. Elec-
tric power stations.

Dwellings : Clothes, household utensils,
extracting iron, manufacture of pots and
pans, etc., glass-making, paper-making,
leather, granite, lime, building material,
road building, house building and the
various trades connected therewith ; a
glance at a factory and a commercial store.

Civilization from the point of view of the
dwellings of antiquity and those of our own

4* — he Ingl.

368

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

times : Primitive epochs, palafittes, Ger-
mans, Romans, Middle Ages, modern times.

Public Service Installations : Reservoirs
of drinking water today and in former times.
Firemen and night watchmen.

Hygiene, Physical Culture : Dangers
menacing children's health. Care of the
teeth. Swimming, Alpine climbing and
winter sports.

The plain.

The Farm : Men and beasts in the farm ;
horticulture ; bees ; the village ; the village
blacksmith ; village festivals ; (fairs, annual
markets, marriage and funeral customs) ;
village ponds (geese, ducks, fish) ; windmill,
harvest ; fruit gathering.

The Meadow and Field : Cultivation up
to harvest time ; Life of the animals ; hares ;
porcupines ; moles ; marmots; crows; May-
bugs.

The Highroad : Vehicles of all kinds ;
travel in the old days.

A Hurricane : Cloud formations ; pas-
sage of a tempest ; lightning ; floods.

The mountain.

The Farm : Men and animals ; getting
in the hay ; economy of pasturage ; life of
the beasts : serpents, vipers, frogs; butter-
flies.

The Wood : Cutting the trees ; charcoal
making ; resin gathering ; life of the beasts :
big game ; foxes ; martins ; squirrels ; birds
(woodpeckers ; cuckoos).

The High Mountain : Funiculars, Alpine
climbing ; winter sports ; avalanches ;
storms ; rainfall; life of the beasts : chamois;
eagles.

Water.

Hydrology : Cloud formations ; precipi-
tation ; springs ; cascades ; river beds ; riv-
ers ; the sea (illustrated with animated
cartoons).

Hydraulic Power : Corrosion ; warping
of wood ; water mill ; sawmill ; water power
for dynamos, the violence of the storm ;

breaking of a dyke ; flood ; steam engine ;
navigation.

Still Water : Ponds, lakes, natural spas ;
swimming, rowing, fishing.

Man and Water : Utilization of water
and its power ; man in conflict with the
power of water ; dykes ; locks ; the Danube
(lock building).

Life of the animals.

(a) Evolutions, habits, emigrations, flights,
food questions, relations with man (exam-
ples to make clear).

(b) Scenes from the life of animals tend-
ing to the formation of character.

II — FILMS FOR HIGHER GRADES.

Education and the Formation
of Character.

Our good animals ; protection of animals ;
a part of the country, protection of plants ;
respect for woods ; mutual assistance.

General geography.

Astronomical Geography : Fitting out
an observatory, (animated cartoons) ; a
ship on the horizon ; cycle of the day and
night ; cycle of the seasons ; the planetary
system ; Jupiter and Saturn ; orbit and
phases of the moon ; eclipse of the Sun
(photographs of a real eclipse) ; comets
(animated cartoons) ; falling stars.

Volcanoes : Section of a volcano in erup-
tion (cartoons) bending ; breaking, rise and
fall of coastlines ; earth movements and
displacements of hills; registration of seis-
mic movements (real life photos).

Water courses : (animated drawings) ;
different kinds of springs and their forma-
tion ; deep erosions, retrograde erosions
formation of epigene valley ; formation of a
gorge, gorges, (photos) ; cascades ; rapids,
torrents (photos), formation of mazes ;
formation of river beds; moving sandbanks;
formation of deltas.

The Sea : Coast shrinkage ; formation
of rugged coastlines and beaches (animated

THE CINEMA IN NEW TEACHING CURRICULA

369

drawings, tides ; cause of tides (animated
drawings) ; formation of lagoons ; bays ;
rough seas ; high tides.

Glaciers : (drawings) snow formation ;
formation of U-shaped valleys in the "Kare";
crests of hills ; crevices ; formation of the
platform of a glacier.

Extraction of minerals : Coal mines ;
constructing a tunnel ; oil wells, turf cutting.

Agriculture : Steam plough ; reaper ;
threshing machine ; harvesting tropical
products : rice, tea, coffee, cocoa.

Forestry : Felling, sawing, water trans-
port of trees ; charcoal.

Cattle raising : Economy of pasture
lands ; prairies ; cattle raising in South
America, sheep raising in Australia.

Fishing : Herring fishing, deep sea fish-
ing ; sardine fishing.

River Navigation : Rowing boats ; locks ;
river ports.

Sea Navigation : Aboard an ocean liner ;
port discipline ; launching a ship.

Railways : Repair works ; turn-tables ;
funiculars.

Preparation of a geographical map : from
geometrical triangulation to the printing
of the map : frontiers (passports, contra-
band, customs officers).

The animal Kingdom.

(A) Primitive types of life (animated
drawings). Synthetic picture of the sim-
plest phenomena of life (movement, nu-
trition, growth). Themes : cell division,
possibility of movement, assimilation of
nutriment, place in nature s economy, pa-
thogenous microbes, microbes in a drop of
water.

(B) Celenterates and Echinoderms : the
film can show the form and direction of
movement of animal bodies with a centraliz-
ed structure. Theme : animal or plant.
Movement of beings and centralized struc-
ture of free beings : fishing for sponges ;
coral formations (animated drawings).

(C) Worms: Symmetrical lateral movement
of animals without members. The in-
testinal worm.

(D) Anthropoids : The subjects so far
indicated require, nearly all of them, a short
film to illustrate them. The following
themes, on the other hand, require a more
extensive illustration : Spiders at work ; life
and activity in the animal world (mice,
ants, wasps, termites). Examples of destro-
ying eggs and larvae of insects ; metamor-
phosis (complete and incomplete) ; harmful
insects (Maybugs, locusts, etc.) ; productive
insects (silk, wax, etc.).

(E) Molluscs : different forms of move-
ment. Themes : cockles ; snails ; cephalo-
pods.

(F) Vertebrates : Fish ; swimming move-
ment, diving ; swimming ; life-buoys.
Themes : coast and deep sea fishing.

Batrachians : Themes : metamorphosis
of frogs, movements. War on flies.

Reptiles : Locomotion in the water and on
land. Themes : Crocodiles, serpents, tur-
tles. The films help to overcome the fear
inspired by these animals.

Birds : Themes : Migratory birds (partial
scenes). Nest-building ; method of flying
and walking on the ground in the courtyard.
Birds of prey at work : how far they travel.
Birds in the egg (animated drawings) ;
Protection of birds. Elements in which they
move (earth, water, air).

Mammals : Curiosities : Ornithoryncus ;
Scaly anteater. Marsupials, whales, dolphins;
seals in water and on land.

Animals that serve Man : Ruminants :
cattle, camels, the giraffe. Carnivorods :
good and bad climbers, good and bad
runners. Bats, tropical and European.

Films of a general character : Polar film.
Domestic animals with us and other na-
tions ; desert film, mountain animals ; ani-
mals that help man ; movements of the
different parts of the skeleton (animated
drawings). Illustration of the metamorpho-
sis of an animal (example : the flying fish).

Man

Hygiene Film : looking after the body ;
care of the teeth ; baths ; gymnastics,
children's ailments ; vaccination.

370

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

Sport Film : Power and selection. Dan-
gers that menace children (according to their
age). First Aid ; relations between men ;
beasts and plants. In cinema pictures of
the animal kingdom showing the fight for
existence, account will be taken of the fact
that their natural value is superior to their
ethical and aesthetic value.

The Vegetable Kingdom.

If it is not easy to convince all our pu-
pils that a real life exists in the plant world
in all its functions, the film (enlarged pic-
tures) provides us with a magnificent means
of rendering visible the movements of
plants, which would otherwise be almost
imperceptible.

Themes : the wonders of flowers, germin-
ation and growth (animated drawings) ;
(potatoes, beans). Fecundation by means
of the wind or insects (as first step towards
explanation of sexual functions) ; morpho-
logical adaptations and conformation of
organs containing the pollen. Fecundation
of wheat ; useful plants and their use
(linen, cotton), mushrooms, preservation of
plants; utilization of fruits. Agricultural film
on the cultivation of vegetables, work in the
fields, pasture land, forestry ; virgin forests.

The greater part of the films we have list-
ed should be entered in the category of
pictures of a general or particular character.

Mineralogy and Geology.

The greater number of the following pic-
tures are included in the " Project of the
Requirements of Technical Films " (films
of a general and to some extent of a special
character).

Themes : Extraction and utilization of
salt, coal, turf, oil, iron, limestone, granite.
Also : volcanoes; water as a destructive and
creative force ; modifications of the crust of
the earth ; formation of crystals.

Physics.
I. Building houses, roads, bridges.

(1) Housebuilding;

(2) Road building ;

(3) Extraction of building materials ;

(a) wood,

(b) sand and gravel,

(c) lime, marble, cement,

(d) tiles and manufacture of bricks,

(e) extraction of granite, syenite, gneiss,
slate, clay.

(4) Bridge-building ;

(5) Iron and its treatment :

(a) extraction of the ore,

(b) blast furnaces,

(c) from iron ore to the worked metal,

(d) foundries and rolling mills.

II. Heating, Lighting, Cleanliness.

(1) Coal mines ;

(2) Illuminating gas ;

(3) Manufacture of matches ;

(4) From the resin torch to the electric
lamp ;

(5) Oil industry ;

(6) Soap-making and candle-making.

III. Food Products, etc.

(1) Water supply, hydrology;

(2) From wheat to bread ;

(3) Manufacture of sugar ;

(4) Milk supply ;

(5) Food supply for a great city ;

(6) Alcohol and its dangers ;

(7) Extraction of salt.

IV. Clothing;

(1) From the cotton fibre to the finished
suit ;

(2) Tanning.

V. Manufacture of Paper.

VI. Means of Communication :

(1) The steam engine for commerce and
economy ;

(2) History of railways ;

(3) The automobile ;

(4) River and sea navigation. From the
hollowed tree trunk to travel on modern
liners ;

(5) The airplane ;

(6) The electric tram ;

THE FILM IN THE AUSTRIAN MIDDLE SCHOOLS

371

(7) Hydraulic installations ;

(8) Dangers of the electric current.

The " Filmsbedanplan " was not com-
piled in the beginning to suit the different
ages of pupils, which made the drawing up
of a proper programme very difficult. From
the film production point of view, this

distinction is very necessary. The films
must be complete and coherent as far as
they go ; whence it is obvious that although
they have to serve more particularly for
the teaching of physics, analysis, that is
to say, the geographical, geological ethnical,
economic, historical and biological content,
must not be sacrificed to synthesis.

USE OF FILMS IN THE AUSTRIAN INSTITUTES
OF MIDDLE EDUCATION SCHOOLS

BY

Doctor Johann Haustein,

Austrian photocraphic and cinematographic service of the Federal Ministry of Education.

THE Austrian institutes of middle educa-
tion, above all those properly called
middle schools (1), comprise : lyceums,
scientific lyceums, technical schools, female
high schools, besides teachers' training col-
leges, technical institutes and those for the
commercial and agricultural professions.

At first, most of these institutes hesitated
regarding the use of the film in education.
Nevertheless, a certain number of them,
particularly some national institutes (board-
ing schools) and various technical and trade
schools together with schools of other kinds,
did provide themselves with a scholastic
cinema. However, save for a few excep-
tions, this installation did not take the form
of a cinema destined for projections in the
class-rooms, but of a scholastic cinema at
the spectacles in which the whole school or
at least several classes together assisted.

(1) Middle school = school between the ele-
mentary school and the high school : pupils leaving
the middle school have the right, after passing
their examinations to frequent high school
(university, technical school, agricultural veterinary
high school, commercial school, etc.).

In the majority of cases, the projection took
place in the afternoon and consisted of
educational or instructive-divertive films
shown to all the pupils of the institute, in-
stead of educational films shown only to cer-
tain classes and during school hours.

This reluctance of the middle schools
with regard to films was not without reason,
not so much because of the uncertainty
of results and the importance of this new
means of education, as on account of the
technical and financial difficulties arising
from the use of the didactic film.

A cinema intended for the showing of
educational films should not be installed in
the hall used for instruction, but in smaller
contiguous rooms provided for the purpose.

The management of the apparatus should
be entrusted to an expert operator who could,
however, be one of the masters.

The material of which the more or less
non-inflammable films are made and which
those authorities most desirous of a safety
guarantee would certainly adopt, was and
is not only expensive but is far from being
durable.

372

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

The middle schools solved this problem
by concentrating their pupils' attention
upon instructive or cultural films when such
where shown in neighbouring cinemas, ar-
ranging when possible for performances to
be given exclusively for certain classes of
the schools, the children being admitted
at reduced prices.

In Vienna, the ' Urania ' and the ' House
of Popular Education ' have, by means of the
organization of the frequent projection of
films for the pupils of the middle schools,
given to young people the benefit of some
most useful films, so that the middle school
masters, after studying the criticisms and
observations made at these performances,
have found them useful for the continuation
of the work. Similar attempts have also
been made in other cities.

The Middle School Masters' Union for
the production of films and photographs
has for some time interested itself in the
question of scholastic films. In a
fitting moment the Union, through Prof.
H. Fuchsig, collaborated in the elaboration
of programmes concerning the necessity of
films, established by the National Ministry
of Education and made by the Cinematogra-
phic Scholastic Union for the elementary
and high schools.

It must be remembered that the above-
named organization has taken active part,
under the direction of its President, Court
Councillor, Doctor K. Czerwenka, in the
preparation of the third International Con-
ference of the Educationl films which took
place at Vienna in 1931.

The Austrian Photographic and Cinema-
tographic Service which is subordinate to
the National Ministry of Education, with
which the above-named Union has a con-
tinuous relationship, has particularly in-
terested itself for several years now, in all
problems of pedagogic and technical char-
acter relating to the educational film and
its use as a means of instruction (espec-
ially in the middle schools) and has* sought,
as far as possible, to solve them.

The Austrian Photographic and Cinema-

tographic Service was the first organization in
Austria to realize the great importance, for
educational purposes, of the reduced size
film, and has for some time been doing
everything in its power to bring about an
improvement in projectors for reduced size
films and a reduction in their price. The
Union has also striven for the production
of such films for educational purposes.

It is only the sub-standard film (the
16 mm film has been chosen because from
the technical point of view it is the one most
conducive to the ends desired) which pre-
mits of an elimination of the already men-
tioned difficulties which represent an im-
pediment to the direct projection of films in
the classes, and the various types of project-
ing apparatus are to-day so perfected and
well-constructed as to give pictures suffi-
ciently luminous for teaching which may
be used by the master with the greatest
facility. In addition, they can be screened
in the class-room without any danger to the
pupils, since the reduced size films are made
of a practically non-inflammable slow com-
bustion material.

In this manner only will it be possible to
realize the wish of all teachers and all
friends and supporters of the educational
film, i. e., the possibility of using the films
in the moment desired, so necessary and ad-
vantageous in the field of education, espec-
ially in the middle schools.

Since it is difficult and often impossible
to alter the prospective programmes of a
collective projection of films during school
hours, one should be able to effect the pro-
jection outside the school hours of instruc-
tion : this is, indeed, one of the conditions
— sine qua non — for the regular use of the
cinema.

Since the apparatus for the reduced size
films attained the desired qualities, the
Austrian middle schools have made ever
increasing use of this means of instruction.

The acquisition, for each individual
school, of small apparatus for reduced size
films has unfortunately been rendered dif-
ficult owing to the economic conditions

THE FILM IN THE AUSTRIAN MIDDLE SCHOOLS

373

and the great saving system which has been
introduced into the middle schools : ne-
vertheless, numerous schools have acquired
these apparata and many others wish to do so.

The Austrian Photo-Cinematographic
service, in view of the needs of the middle
schools, does everything in its power to
complete and increase as far as is possible
and with a precise programme as basis, the
collection of reduced size films for teaching
purposes which it already possesses.

For the present, the schools cannot ob-
tain reduced size films save from renting
houses (apart from the photo-cinematogra-
phic service mentioned, there are the houses
Agfa and Kodak). For the future it will
certainly be advisable to acquire such films
as can be regularly and frequently employed
in teaching. (The new Ozaphan system
of the Agfa will certainly be suitable for
this purpose by reason of its economic con-
venience).

In the meantime, the Austrian Photo-
Cinematographic service contributes to the
work by lending projection apparatus for
reduced size films, for set periods of time,
first to one and then to another of the middle
schools. In this way the schools can exper-
iment with this modern means of instruction
and be persuaded (by reason of the favour-
able results obtained by this trial) to buy
their own apparatus.

Finally, it is necessary to remark that in
Austria, several middle school teachers are
themselves producing films with the ob-
ject of obtaining films especially suited to
their instruction. The great value of such
work is evident, but on account of the ex-
penses incurred, help is needed which
might be given by the public funds or by

those organizations interested in the work,
though, at the present moment, such help
is only possible in a very limited degree.
Ever increasing numbers of middle school
teachers are engaged in modifying the al-
ready existing films of diverse kinds and
origin, so as to render them suitable for
middle school teaching.

One must also note that the National
Ministry of Education, the highest scholas-
tic authority in Austria, already several
years ago decreed that all educational films,
also those destined for the middle schools,
be submitted to its judgement and only
after approbation be used in teaching. This
was decided on in the interest of the quality
of the films, in order to avoid both that the
cinema, after being recognized as a splendid
means of teaching, be discredited, in con-
sequence of the projection of defective or
unsuitable films or of wrong use, and that
precious time be lost.

Subjects, the teaching of which may be
completed by the cinema :

Natural History (zoology, botany, hy-
giene).

Geography (general outline, sea, ice,
volcanoes, etc. story of countries, economy,
peoples).

Physics and Chemistry (technical side).
Among other subjects :

Foreign Languages (foreign culture,
customs and life of the peoples).

Mathematics and gymnastics.
This list of subjects refers principally
to the middle schools. For the use of the
cinema in the other educational institutes,
apart from the subjects themselves there
are also the questions of technical order to
be considered.

THE REDUCED SIZE SOUND FILM

BY

Dr. £. von Lolhoffel.

THE reduced size film has conquered a
predominant position in the field of edu-
cational and instructional cinematography
during the last few years. This is due to the
easy handling and maintenance of the appa-
ratus, the safety it enjoys against the danger
of fire the reasonable price asked for machines
and the numerous uses that can be made
of them. All this has favoured the introduc-
tion of the sub-standard picture in teaching.
The numerous reduced size silent films
existing have given teachers a possibility of
adapting the motion picture to all require-
ments and of including it in their didactic
programmes.

The coming of the sound film makes plain
even in the domain of the reduced size pic-
ture, the disadvantages of the silent film as
compared with the sound film. The supply of
new silent films has necessarily run short since
the production of documentary and instruc-
tive films has all been in sound films. After
more than 80 per cent of the cinemas of
Europe have wired their halls for sound,
silent films no longer prove remunerative for
the big motion picture producing houses.

Consequently, the sub-standard silent pic-
ture was forced to turn into a sound film
to keep up to date.

The early attempts to combine silent films
with gramophone discs could not give
satisfactory results since the reason of the
existence of the sound film does not lie in
the possibility of accompanying pictures with
music or more or less artificial sounds, but
rather in giving sound and image a true and
natural unity capable of effectively increasing
the suggestive quality of the film.

The first step to be taken for the develop-

ment of the reduced size sound films
would naturally consist in the production of
apparatus for registering and projecting sub-
standard sound films.

It will be remembered that last year, at the
last Teaching Cinema Congress, the first
models of sub-standard sound film machines
were presented, or at any rate announced.
Since then, technical progress has reached
such perfection that it has become possible to
solve the problem of reducing normal size
sound films into sub-standard sound films
in the most satisfactory manner. Apparata
for projecting sound films has been put on
the market and these machines are very
perfect from both optical and acoustic points
of view.

The most important question, that of
format, has been settled by means of an
agreement between the German and Amer-
ican producers who have adopted the format
in commonest use in the world market.

The 1 7.5 mm. size, proposed by France, is
not utihzable in these machines, and does
not interest the world market.

In order to preserve for the picture its
natural size and to allow the sound track to
have a width of 16,5 mm (a sufficient width
to obtain a good and fairly powerful repro-
duction) the 1 6 mm film is only perforated
on one side, which does not in any way im-
pede the running of the reel. Lengthy exper-
iments, made without any special precau-
tions, have demonstrated that the running
and evenness of running of the film are
perfectly assured, and that the perforations
are not subjected to any excessive wear.

A new projector for 1 6 m film has been
manufactured by the Klangfilm G. m. b.

THE REDUCED SIZE SOUND FILM

375

which has had a prominent place in the
field of technical development and has
installed the largest number of halls in
Europe.

All the experience and research of a num-
ber of years were placed at the disposal of
the designers of the new apparatus.

For sound reproduction, the ordinary
projector as commonly used is adopted. To
this is applied the sound track reader under

the same time as a socket for the projector
and be furnished with current from the
alternating lines for all the voltages existing
in Italy and for frequencies from 40 to 50
periods. All the attachments are made
with special connecting wires which cannot
be interchanged, so that the wiring up can
be done by persons who are not experts. The
loud-speaker, connected with a length of wire,
can be placed at the side of or behind the

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which the film passes on its run from the
projection opening to the winding-off bobbin.

The earliest machines for projecting sound
films on the market used Siemens 1 6 mm
projectors, but projectors of other makes can
now also be arranged by the Klangfilm for
the reproduction of sound.

The part for reading the sound track
contains a special guide for the film, several
devices for regulating the volume and uni-
formity of the sound, a stimulator lamp for
the optical system and a photo-electric cell.
The amplifier, which weighs but little, and is
of modest dimensions, is constructed in such
a fashion as to be able to be used at one and

screen. It is advisable to place the loud-
speaker behind the screen, or at any rate in
some position where it is not visible, so as
to give the impression of a perfect accord
in time and space between image and sound.
According to the dimensions of the hall or
room where the projector is used, two types
of loud-speaker can be used. In this way,
it is possible to choose the kind of loud-
speaker best adapted to the acoustics of the
hall. The practical use of the reduced size
sound film projector in schools has demon-
strated its great possibilities for scholastic
purposes.

The projection of documentary and in-

376

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

structional films, or weekly reviews with
direct sound effects from nature and life, is
one of the chief objects of the apparatus.

It is superfluous to hint at the utility of
this means for the education and general
instruction of the public.

The simplicity of maintenance, the great
security against fire, open all the possible
applications of the sound film to the reduced
size type.

The collaboration between interested insti-
tutions in the development of the 1 6 mm film
may allow this format of film to be produced
in sufficient quantity and variety to guar-
antee a wide diffusion. In this way, the
scientific progress which brought about the
sound film will give a new impulse to the use
of the motion picture for popular education
and propaganda.

Das aeue Klangfllm - Gerdt fur Schmaltonfilm pabt in jeden Vortragssaal.

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Editor and Responsible Manager

Rome — < L'Universale > Tipografia Poliglotta.

377

The "TROVIERO

PORTABLE SOUND FILM MACHINE
for normal 35 m/m film

ft

SOUND FILM MACHINE FOR PROJECTING

16 m/m reduced size film

For the Educational and

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RLANGFILM

G. M. B. H. BERLIN S. W. 11

378

Production for 1934-35

I National Fill S. 1 1.

ROME (121) - 68 Via Palestro - ROME (121)

Agencies :
TURIN, GENOA, MILAN, PADUA, BOLOGNA, FLORENCE, ROME, NAPLES

This Film will take Part in the II International Show at Venice with

" Wonder Bar"

a fine, attractive film adapted from the famous operetta by Geza Herczeg, Karl Farkas
and Robert Katscher — Directed by Lloyd Bacon — Interpreted by the following
great actors and actresses

AL JOLSON - DOLORES DEL RIO ~ RICARDO CORTEZ ~
KAY FRANCIS ~ DICK POWELL ~ FIFY D'ORSAY - HAL LE
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VENICE NINETEENTH BIENNIAL EXHIBITION

1034

MAY 12 TO OCTOBER 12

The Venice Biennial International Exhibition of Art is the greatest and most important
World Exhibition of Modern Art. Fifteen nations are represented every two years, with shows
in their own pavilions.

ITALY
Belgium - Czechoslovakia - Denmark - France - Germany - Great Britain - Greece -
Holland - Poland - Spain - United States of America - Switzerland - Hungary - U.R.S.S.

THE NINETEENTH BIENNIAL will include the First World Exhibition of Nine-
teenth Century Portraiture. Decorative Art Section.

IN CONNECTION WITH THE VENICE BIENNIAL

First International Theatrical Congress. July 7 " 28.

Second International Exhibition of Cinematographic Art. August 1 - 20.

First releases of new films by all the big houses of Europe and America. Pictures in orig-
inal versions and language. The most noted cinema stars will be present. International meeting
of Film Producers.

Third International Musical Festival. September 6-16.

International exhibitions of Classical Dances - — Open Air performances by the principal
schools of Europe.

Exceptional Reduction in Railway Fares <+> Fotft-'Dove and
Spotting Festivals and Tourneys at "Venice and the Hido <+>

379

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So easy; no previous knowledge required.
Just the Agfa Movex with Agfa Reversible Film and

you are ready for taking cine pictures. You don't need a stand,
nor even a cranking handle.

For showing the pictures at home, there is
the Agfa Movector, equally handy and easy to use by
connecting it to any electric supply.

380

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If it is

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it's

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381

Metro

G

ayer

L

382

(National Insurance Institute)

We have previously demonstrated the working of special forms of assurance
which answer special personal and family interests. Today we would like to talk
about the form of assurance known as —

MIXED ASSURANCE INCREASING CAPITAL TO DOUBLE

which provides for the constitution of a capital sum which is at the free disposal of
the insured party after the lapse of time agreed upon and offers, moreover, special
guarantees in the case of the policy holder's death after the period of the payment of
the premiums or before the lapse of such period.

PRACTICAL EXAMPLE

A business-man, aged 30, desires to enter into the possession of L. 25,000 on at-
taining the age of 55, and also wants his heirs to receive a sum equal at least to L. 25,000
after his death, whenever that may occur. He enters into a policy contract with the

ISTITUTO NAZIONALE DELLE ASSICURAZIONI

of the type referred to above " Mixed assurance with doubling of capital ", engaging
to pay, at the most for 25 years, an annual premium of L. 1,280. By doing this, he
acquires the certainty :

(1) of receiving L. 25,000 if he is alive at the lapse of the policy ;

(2) of guaranteeing to his heirs, in the case of his death after the period of pay-
ment of the premiums the immediate payment of a sum of L. 25,000 ;

(3) of guaranteeing to his heirs, in the event of his death before the ending
of the term for the payment of the premiums, the immediate payment of a sum of
L. 25,000, increased by L. 1 ,000 for each year passed from the effective date of issue
of the policy, the year in course being considered as an entire year.

If, for example, in the case under consideration, the assured person died after
14 years and six months from the date of the issue of the policy, the heirs would
receive L. 25,000 plus L. 15,000, in other words a total sum of

LIRE 40,000

together with any profits accumulated during the years of the existence

of the policy.

It should be remembered that, as well as participating in profits, persons insured by the

ISTITUTO NAZIONALE DELLE ASSICURAZIONI

enjoy special health privileges as for instance reduced rates at many watering places,
spas, hospitals, nursing homes, sanatoria, convalescent homes and maternity clinics-
There are also available for policy holders coupons entitling the holder to free medical
examinations for assured persons for a capital sum over Lire 20,000.

ALL AGENTS BOTH GENERAL AND LOCAL OF THE ISTITUTO NAZIONALE
WILL SUPPLY INFORMATION AND PLANS FOR POLICIES GRATIS

383

CULTURAL SECTION

KRAUSESTRASSE 38-39, BERLIN S.W. 19

Large Choice of Instructional Films for Schools, Universities or the Theatre.
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Agriculture.

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Medicine: popular and technical films.

Recreational films.

Sound Films and Silent Films,

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I.I.E.C.

SUBSCRIBE TO THE

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMA-
=— TOGRAPHY —

AND OBTAIN OTHER SUBSCRIPTIONS

IT IS THE BEST WAY TO
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INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

Monthly Publication
of the INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY (L. of N.)
Rome - I-a, Via Lazzaro Spallanzani - Rome

YEAR VI-

JUNE 1934

N. 6.

CONTENTS

Pag.

The Film in International Life (Note by the Institute of Intellectual Cooperation). . . 387
E. Roux PARASSAC ... — The Educational Cinema 394

E. De Luca . .

F. DlEHL . . .

C. Caravaglios -
E. Rust ....

M. M. TUMMINELLI

G. Diaz Plaja
J. Brerault .

— The Cinema in Intellectual and Social Life 397

— Women and the Cinema 400

— Discs and Sound Films for Folklore Research 405

— The Production of Teaching Films 411

— The Cinema and the Principles of Bio-Pedagogic

Methodology 422

— The Cinema and the Young Person 425

— The Use of the Cinema in Primary Teaching . . . 429

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING BODY

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of State, Professor of Law at the University of

Rome, President.
LUMIERE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.
BROWN J. W., Director of the British Film Institute.
CARTON DE WIART Count Henry, Minister of State, Member of the Child Welfare

Committee of the League of Nations.
FOCILLON Henri, Professor at the University of Paris, Member of the Permanent Committee

of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.
GANGULEE Nagendra Nath, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor of Agriculture and Rural

Economy at the University of Calcutta.
KOZMA Nicolas de, Ministerial Councillor, President-Director of the Hungarian Telegraph

Agency.
LLOPIS Rodolfo, Deputy in the Cortes, ex-General Director of Primary Education at

Madrid.
MISTRAL Gabrielle, Authoress, Ex-Directress of the Lyciefor young girls at Santiago.
OPRESCU Georges, Professor at the University of Bucharest, Member of the Permanent

Committeee of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.
ORDYNSKI Ryzzard, President of the Polish Film Producers' Association.
REYNOLD Gonzago de, Professor at the University of Fribourg, Member of the Commission

for Intellectual Cooperation.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,
The President of the International Agricultural Institute,
The Director of the International Labour Office,
The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the LCI. C, Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW.
Dr. Luciano de FEO, Editor.

P. Berne de Chavannes, Ernest Holzer,

Giuseppe de Feo, Edward Storer,

Jose Maria GlMENO,

Maria Elena Apollonio, Secretary.

THE CINEMA IN INTERNATIONAL LIFE

REPORT OF THE INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF INTELLECTUAL COOPERATION

The Cinema in In- tt was the duty of
tellectual Co-oper- [ tne Institute of
ation- Intellectual Co-op-

eration to endeavour to make use of the new
modern means of spreading ideas : the
press, the wireless and the cinema. These
three means constitute so many aids of
unbounded efficacy for facilitating the
drawing together of humanity, ensuring a
better reciprocal understanding between
nations and spreading that wider knowledge
of the world that must serve as the founda-
tion of every international accord.

The first step was obviously that of
teaching. The peace problem is so inti-
mately connected with the necessity of
forming a new mind that that question was
bound to predominate, and it was logical to
decide to reach the goal by a better prepar-
ation of youth for its national and interna-
tional duties, by conducting the instruction
of adults on more modern lines and by a
characteristically popular teaching and prop-
er utilization of the free time of the work-
ing class.

As regards the cinema, its widespread
activities were the subject of important
discussions in two sections of the Congress
of Rome, and are a continual subject of study
by the International Institute of the Edu-
cational Cinema.

But the Institute of Intellectual Co-
operation offers other possibilities of utiliz-
ation in a general way, of the existing means
for spreading thought and, more particu-
larly, the cinema. They are possibilities
which give rise to other problems, rich in
promise, which must be solved if we are
to form an authentic international collabo-
ration and if the essential principles of
organization, methods of exchange and

division of labour are to be recognized and
brought into being. All this presupposes
the study of a certain number of difficulties
of a juridical, administrative and even
economic order; it is a study that is imperat-
ive and will be logically and gradually
accomplished by the systematic actuation of
a plan or programme of co-operation.

If in fact it is natural first of all to think
of the various means which the progress of
science has placed at the disposal of man,
and equally of the many new possibilities of
drawing mankind together that are opened
to us, it must not be forgotten that the
facility of more rapid contact provokes
defence reactions and stirs up other prob-
lems, which can be solved only by a policy
of fusion resulting from a series of reso-
lutions studied and discussed from every
point of view by all those concerned. It
must not be forgotten that the continual
interdependence of peoples, the possibi-
lities they have of exchanging the most
diverse products, not only between country
and country but between continent and
continent, has made the system of economic
relations infinitely more complex. If the
nations feel with increasing force and un-
derstanding that their reciprocal life inte-
rests are growing ever more closely con-
nected, they have been led, on the other hand,
rightly or wrongly, to endeavour to defend
themselves from the consequences that
might result from this new world situation.

It would certainly be a paradox if these
automatic relations were to be produced in
the field of human thought also, and if,
for material interests or political motives,
or more simply still for lack of organization,
forms of isolation should become defined in
the spiritual sector. The work of intellect-

388

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

ual co-operation tends in fact to make all
the nations benefit by the magnificent effort
of creation, discovery and progress that is
being accomplished today all over the
world ; it seeks to generalize the rules of
reciprocal aid that have always been the
basic rules of science and research, domin-
ated at all times by the broad spirit of
co-operation. Its object is to arouse, in all
the sectors that interest it, those exchanges
and comparisons which constitute a con-
tinual and inexhaustible source of wealth
by the reciprocal knowledge they confer.

7 hese leading ideas apply to the cinema
as to all other intellectual activities and
there is no doubt that the League of Nations
must propose, in its programme to solve
all those problems which may be defined as
the international problems connected with the
use of the cinema.

If we endeavour to define them we see
at once that they come within the three
principal categories of the subjects which
concern all those who in other fields of
action have dedicated their efforts to the
task of bringing the different nations
together :

a) how shall we by means of the cinema
facilitate the bringing together and mental
comprehension of people with people?
How shall we utilize to the utmost this
instrument of reproduction and diffusion
and the infinite resources it offers to spread
useful knowledge, to broaden the crowd's
field of intuition, to supply new grounds of
opinion and give scope for the formation of
a general concept of the world's life and
its necessities ?

b) how shall we prevent this means of
drawing nations together from being em-
ployed for the opposite purpose, not merely
deliberately as a dangerous propaganda but
also through ignorance or disregard of certain
foreign civilizations and mentalities ?

c) how shall we prevent those isolation
reactions which are so frequent today and
which might lead to the closing of frontiers
to films of real interest ? How, we might
add shall we bring about an intellectual

protection which will assure the free circu-
lation of those works of the mind which
should be known all over the world ?

d) how lastly shall we make the best
use of the cinema to raise the intellectual
level of the public, to develop its sense of
beauty, to accustom it to appreciate the
masterpieces of thought ? How shall we
increase the intellectual functions of the
cinema and its task of forming the mind ?

Problems of the The above problems
International Cin- ar;se ;n connection
with all the means for
spreading thought, and have been studied by
the League of Nations and its organization
of Intellectual Co-operation: those connect-
ed with the use of the wireless for peace
propaganda, of the press as aid to a work of
international organization, as the intellectual
function of broadcasting and of the press
itself. In the project for a Moral Disarma-
ment Convention which was formed last
year these difficulties were mentioned. If
this act should be signed and ratified and
put into force, it will be the duty of each
government to see that the microphone and
the screen are not used for purposes con-
trary to the superior aims of peace, but
on the contrary to use them and impose
their use in the interests of international
relations.

In addition to this action, which may be
considered official, there are numerous pri-
vate undertakings which cannot of neces-
sity be included in the work of each govern-
ment and its administrations. One or two
countries are so constitutionally organized
that certain enterprises do not fit in readily
with the State attributes, while in the more
centralized States there are numerous
enterprises which are connected with private
bodies that are either directly interested in
wireless transmission and the cinema or,
by their statutory aims, are formed for the
cause of educating the young and drawing
the nations together. Not only national but
also great international organizations have
undertaken this task . It is obvious ,

THE FILM IN INTERNATIONAL LIFE

389

therefore, that in preparing each programme
of activities in the sector that interests us,
account should be taken of the function
that may be exercised by the above
mentioned Associations, by groups of
educators, by artists, writers and producers.

While these are the features common to
this group of problems resulting from the
use of means of spreading thought, it is
obvious that the cinema has its own special
and characteristic problems. It must first
of all be recognised that the international
problems resulting from the use of the
cinema have not so far been studied as they
deserve, while other neighbouring fields have
been more amply examined. As far as
the press is concerned, the League of Na-
tions has for years been carrying on an
unceasing labour. It has collaborated in the
great technical newspaper conferences ; it has
formulated proposals, studies and resolu-
tions likely to lead to concrete conclusions
in regard to everything connected with the
publication of false news, the duties of
newspapermen and the facilities to which
they have a right. The educational func-
tion of the press, from the point of view of
the public, has been the subject of inquiry by
the International Institute of Intellectual
Co-operation and has given birth to a vol-
ume which was submitted to the examination
of the Press Conference at Madrid, the
inquiry meanwhile being continued in
journalistic circles.

With regard to broadcasting, which also
has aroused similar concern of late, the
International Institute of Intellectual Co-
operation has prepared the project for a
Convention, which has been submitted to
the examination of all governments, the
result of which, as soon as it passes into force,
will be to cause a series of juridical measures
and provisions to be passed, putting broad-
casting, as far as possible, at the service of
international understanding. An inquiry
is still proceeding into the intellectual
function of the wireless, and a number of
experts are collaborating together in search
of the means necessary to ensure that wireless

transmissions contribute to the greatest
extent possible to the education of listeners.
The International Broadcasting Union has
the same aims. It may be said, therefore
that in these cases there is a programme
of international work and that all are con-
cerned to find a definite solution.

The next problem is to prepare a similar
programme of cinematograph material,
keeping in mind the conditions special to
this artistic form and also its infinite possi-
bilities. The cinema could bring every
form of contribution to the principle of
collaboration, and it would undoubtedly be
advisable for the Congress of Rome to
examine each form, especially in regard to
the following points :

a) cinematograph news-reels ;

b) films and animated cartoons intended
to show the value of international relations ;

c) films and animated cartoons suitable
for arousing and developing the conception
of mutual knowledge between nations,
making the people of one country appreciate
the creations of other countries, the part
other countries have in the general work of
civilization and their function in the life
of the world ;

d) films of general culture or of excep-
tional literary, artistic and intellectual value.

Conditions of Inter- The conditions of in-
national Cinema- ternational action in
tograph Action. the cinematograph

field appear, on general lines, to be more
favourable and at the same time more complex
than for other means of diffusion. Wireless
transmission, for instance, is coming in-
creasingly under the direction of organ-
izations which are rigidly state controlled.
There are still some exceptions and differ-
ent types of national organization, but,
generally speaking, it is quite possible to
conceive of government intervention, when
necessary, for the formation of wireless
transmission programmes, and therefore of
the possibility of laying the foundations of
an international understanding under gov-

390

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

eminent guarantee. There are delicate
points that will have to be considered,
doubtless, but they do not, juridically speak-
ing, present difficulties which might lead
to complicated negotiations. These ne-
gotiations would not differ much from sim-
ilar forms of international discussions and
understandings. Such solutions do not
exist for the cinema.

There are, on the other hand, elements in
favour of concerted action. For some time
past, all those who consider an objective
knowledge and intelligent understanding of
the various national points of view as one of
the foundations of international organization,
recognize the importance of spectacles in
which the visual element has a prepon-
derating part ; and the formation of an inter-
national programme of action by means of
the theatre has therefore been studied.
Many of the difficulties that cropped up
in this case automatically disappeared, as a
consequence of the very character of cine-
matograph production. We may cite, as a
typical example of this simplification of the
problem in connection with the cinema, that
of travelling companies, which question is
now settled. The other problem of the
international collection of theatrical works
also becomes very simple, as likewise the
problem of translations. Undoubtedly,
since the talking film has come into general
use, the cinema is no longer, as it used to be,
a universal language ; but a number of
technical processes, written sub-titles and
oral comments, afford a fairly satisfactory
solution of this problem.

The cinema, on the other hand, like the
newspaper and wireless, enables us to keep
the crowd well informed in regard to the
chief living realities and concerns of the
moment. Like all other means of diffusion,
its action can be joined to that of music, and
it has a much greater force of visual im-
pression than the theatre ; it has at disposal
the greatest variety of technical means for
enabling spectators to understand all sorts
of problems, thanks to animated cartoons
and the infinite resources of photography.

There are doubtless typical difficulties
connected with the film, especially those of
an economic order ; but that does not detract
from the fact that there are numerous
possibilities of an understanding, and it ought
to be easy to overcome these difficulties,
considering the numerous measures that
may legitimately be taken. It is a field that
is still to some extent unknown. A number
of national and international organizations
have had these problems under consideration,
and innumerable efforts have been made to
encourage the production of films likely
to help in bringing the nations together.

In fact, the results so far obtained are
excellent.

International Solu- Various international
tions considered meetings convoked by
by the League of the organs of ^

Institute of Intellect-
ual Co-operation have discussed the inter-
national function of the cinema. Meanwhile,
there is no need for us to speak in this
Report of the film on the League of Nations
which is under consideration and for which
several solutions have already been suggested.
The problem, however, was considered
as a whole by the Committee of Arts and
Letters in 1931. This meeting of writers,
philosophers and artists had already been
convoked by the League of Nations to give
the latter its opinion on the fundamental
problems which are agitating the universal
consciousness, and on the means of dealing
with everything that is of direct interest to
the future of human culture. It was natural
that, among other things, the protection and
diffusion of the greatest works of contempor-
ary art and thought should be discussed.
A number of plans of action had already been
considered when one of those present,
Thomas Mann, supported by Miss Vacare-
sco, who had previously made similar pro-
posals, asked that this project of rating,
selecting and protecting works of art should
be extended to the cinema. While taking
into full account the political difficulties
that might result, he suggested that an In-

THE FILM IN INTERNATIONAL LIFE

391

stitute should be formed to use its influence
for obtaining a prohibition to project films
which might have a dangerous effect on the
masses, and to see that no veto should be
placed on films which the Institute consid-
ered suitable for projection. " It might
be objected ", said Mann, " that an inter-
vention of this sort would constitute a kind
of offence to national sovereignty; but it is
impossible to arrive at an understanding
between the various countries without re-
nouncing something. On the other hand,
several nations have already shown them-
selves ready to give up some of their privileges
in homage to the principles of humanity.
If this project seems rather Utopian today
there is no doubt that it will be found
necessary before long ".

This problem was presented to the As-
sembly the same year, through the French
Delegation .

Thus the problem of an international un-
derstanding for the circulation of better films
was faced.

Some time later, on April 28, 1932, a Com-
mittee of film producers and schoolmasters
met at the Paris Institute and examined,
among other questions, the possibility of a
collaboration of the cinematograph industry
in the work of the League of Nations in
regard to :

a) the preparation of scenarios with the
participation of the most authoritative repre-
sentatives of literary and artistic circles ;

b) the possibility of producing news-
reels dealing especially with the League of
Nations and its organizations.

This meeting voted for the nomination
of a Committee of Experts formed of produ-
cers, to collaborate systematically with the
International Institute of Intellectual Co-
operation.

Various Possibilities
of ^ International Jne resolutions quoted
above indicate the line
that might be followed
for the formation of a constructive program-
me. But it must not be forgotten that we are

Collaboration.
Methods.

facing here a very complex situation, and
that, if we were to consider it as one that
could be easily remedied, we should run
the risk of recommending solutions that
might prove inadequate.

In this sector, as in all those connected
with the various forms of intellectual activ-
ity, we must keep in mind the features
proper to each branch of culture. We must
also be sure of support from national organ-
izations and know how to found interna-
tional work on the basis of the principles of
division of effort and co-ordination of the
results obtained nationally. * A preliminary
inquiry will perhaps be necessary for certain
points.

In fact, when -examining the different
aspects of the problem, the Congress will
be able to give valuable suggestions for the
use of the most suitable methods : formation
of an International Committee ; National
Organization to act as basis for the work of
the International Institute of Intellectual
Co-operation :

a) News'Reels. — The news-reel problem
appears under two different aspects. First
of all, the one examined by the Committee
of producers and schoolmasters in April,
1932 : collaboration with the League of
Nations, the International Labour Bureau
and the International Institute of Intellect-
ual Co-operation for the purpose of mak-
ing official international activities known
by means of news-reels. There is a much
greater wealth of material in this field than
may be thought at first sight ; the photo-
graphic possibilities go beyond meetings
of assemblies, conferences and commit-
tees; international action concerns the whole
world and deals with the latest problems
which at moments are in the minds of all.
From this point of view the only possible
solution appears to be an understanding
with producers, by means of a regular
contact with the International Institute of
Intellectual Co-operation, which contact
might be formed of a mixed Council of
those interested.

The other aspect of the problem is that

392

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

of the so-called news-reel. There is certainly
no other means which is so live, so direct
and so suggestive for giving the public the
greatest possible knowledge of the events
occurring all over the world. The choice of
subjects constitutes one of the most im-
portant points in this field, and it is just
this point which gives rise to the necessity
of an international co-operation by means
of an understanding between the various
countries. It is undoubtedly advisable to
form committees which could prepare a
programme likely to interest the subjects of
all nations, by means of a selection from each
national production. An organization of
this kind would be more easily formed in
the broadcasting field, where National
Councils for the preparation of programmes
are becoming general. But surely it would
be possible to form an organization of the
same kind for the cinema, and so make
exchanges more frequent and useful, even-
tually collaborating with an International
Committee of the cinema ?

b) Films of Interest to International Rela-
tions. — In addition to educational films
properly so-called, and news-reels making
known the work of the League of Nations,
this body ought undoubtedly to take the
greatest interest in making the cinema serve
for a more wide-spread knowledge of
great international problems. It has fre-
quently been said that peace depends on
education, and especially on the education of
the masses. But that is a commonplace ;
and if we really seriously wish to arrive at
some form of realizing this end, we must
discover means for spreading the ideas
most suited for arousing interest and facili-
tating understanding of the most complex
problems.

Excellent results have already been
obtained in this sector by the use of anima-
ted cartoons. It remains for technicians to
say whether these forms can be still further
developed, and whether they are suitable for
insertion in the programmes of spectacles
intended for the general public. The
problem of the properly so-called " films to

aid the understanding of various inter-
national problems ", could and should also
be examined, including their evolution and
the way in which they are presented today.
The field of international, political, econom-
ic, financial and cultural relations is suf-
ficiently vast to entitle those who are compe-
tent to decide the utility of an organization
for encouraging productions of this kind.

c) Reciprocal Knowledge among the Na-
tions. — The technical notes annexed to the
present Report deal with the problem of the
cinema in connection with art in all its
forms. This is not a new inquiry ; studies
and numerous practical experiments have
already been carried out for the purpose of
making known, by the aid of the cinema, the
greatest achievements of human genius and
the artistic manifestations of popular art and
tradition.

But there are still other possibilities. The
cinema is an incomparable method for
making different peoples, and still more
different civilizations known and understood.
The production of films for this purpose
should be encouraged. But in this case
also there ought to be an organization for
the exchange and selection of films, of the
type indicated above.

* * *

Perhaps the same organizations and per-
sonages who might be called upon, inter-
nationally, to collaborate with the League of
Nations on the question of the cinema, could
interest themselves in the work of selection,
co-ordination and production, both for news-
reels and for those films dealing with interna-
tional relations and intended to facilitate the
reciprocal knowledge of nations.

d) There remains the more general pro-
blem of the intellectual function of the cinema,
of everything connected with the quality
and artistic, intellectual and moral value of
the films offered to the public. It certainly
is not the case to dwell on the criticisms
that have been only too widely spread. It

THE FILM IN INTERNATIONAL LIFE

393

is better to note the continual progress made,
which we can easily observe in a large num-
ber of cinematograph productions. But
this problem involves a whole series of
problems interesting the highest forms of
intellectual activity : collaboration with
composers, creators, dramatic authors. The
problem of theatrical works that are suitable
for the screen must be studied, as well as
that of original works for the screen.

In addition to these strictly intellectual
problems, there are others of a political,
financial and economic order that cannot be
ignored ; nor can we ignore the question of
the film intended for a civilization different
from that of the country of origin . Although
the film may be, theoretically, a powerful
means of mutual understanding and ap-
preciation, it can also be the cause of misun-
derstanding and discord. This happens in
the case of historical and other types of film
made in one country but dealing with another.

Special consideration should be given
to films likely to give an understanding of the
solidarity that should unite all peoples and
their mutual interest in peace and recip-
rocal collaboration.

After this comes the question of the
facilities to be granted for the circulation of
films, and especially for the circulation of
the best productions, those, that is to say, of
the greatest moral and intellectual value.

A preliminary inquiry could be made on
all these points by the International Insti-
tute of Intellectual Co-operation. There
should be no attempt to collect a complete
documentation by extending the inquiry
over the widest possible field, because in
this case the system of widely distributed
questionnaires could not be adopted, the
aim being quality rather than quantity in the
answers. The best way, therefore, would
be to appeal first to those in each country
who are most qualified to give an opinion :
to scene directors, authors, composers,
writers. When thus definitely consulted

on the various aspects of the problem, they
would be in a position to offer a series of
suggestions on which the efforts of the
international organization for this sector
could be based, thus eliminating all fruitless
and useless experiments.

Conclusion. This note does not

claim to pass in review all the studies, re-
searches and projects connected with the
cinema in international life, nor to deal with
all the services which the film can render
to the documentary knowledge of peoples
and civilizations. It is concerned mainly
with the aid which the cinema may give
to the spiritual drawing together of the
nations, and with demonstrating the fact
that the International Institute of Intellect-
ual Co-operation is ready, by means of
its organization systems, to make of the
cinema an efficacious auxiliary of peace
through the greater mutual knowledge of
nations.

The International Institute of Intellectual
Co-operation proposes to put its labours at
the service of thought, and to make thought
co-operate with the reconstructive work
which the League of Nations has undertaken
in connection with international relations.
There are doubtless other fields in which this
construction of relations and formation of
international bonds is more manageable,
especially if we wish to limit ourselves to
existing institutions. But, with the cinema
we can face the artistic creation of the in-
ternational film in the hope that it may be-
come universal.

It is therefore logical to ask ourselves how,
by this marvellous means which has already
an important educational and informative
function, we can deal with the living forces
of comprehension and understanding. The
problem is, first of all, to come to an agree-
ment as to the rules of action, which should
be as simple and adaptable as possible, and
as to the best way of applying them.

THE EDUCATIONAL CINEMA

BY

Emile Roux Parassac.

THE first thing to do is to define and fix
terms. We speak of the educator cinema
and not of the educational cinema, consider-
ing the cinema in the whole of its functions
and, therefore, as a living being. We
speak of the educational cinema when com-
paring the film with the book, which is a
means and not an action.

It would be a mistake, in fact, to limit the
educator cinema to a determinate moral
formation and thus diminish its general edu-
cational possibilities. The picture is the
only universal language, which there is no
need to learn but which must be properly
understood ; whence we get the magnif-
icent mission of the cinema, which is to
contribute in the best way possible, first,
to the education of the individual and then
to that of peoples, and finally to lead to a
higher conception of civilization.

It is more than ever necessary to so form
men that social life shall be orderly and
progressive, and based on an ideal common
to all. We can reach this end only if
we consider the citizen not as a wheel of
the whole social mechanism, but as a lever.
The city is not formed ", said Augustus
" of houses, porticoes, public squares ; it is
men who form the city .

Many centuries later, in our era, the
Japanese Ruskin, Okakura, who was a
wise man and a student of sociology, ob-
served " that the true beauty of a city is to be
found in the countenances of its inhabitants
and not in towers or the decorations of
monuments .

The whole of education is summed up in
the aspect of serenity that it gives to a
face ; to which we must add, according to

the Socratic precept, " that state of virtue
that is identified with happiness ".

The most important thing is to think and
teach so as to arouse and develop reflection
and direct it in such a way that it may be led
to choose on conscientious lines in respect
to everything that constitutes its duty to
itself and to others.

We must therefore endeavour to see that
each one has this " morality which is the
science of happiness", according to Leibnitz.

But the first and most important thing is
truth, understanding as subjective truth
that which may be reached by getting as
near as possible to objective truth, which
Vauvenargues defined as the ' light of
intelligence ".

The educator cinema can and must be
one of the greatest artificers of this mission.
But, if this end is to be attained, it must be
allowed complete liberty.

This necessarily leads us to certain consid-
erations and the fixing of certain principles.

If, generally speaking, we are all in
agreement now in regard to the scientific
and scholastic film, there is still an enormous
amount of confusion in regard to the educa-
tional film. No one, up to the present,
has managed to make a clear classification
of it, and this leads to continual difficulties
in connection with its adoption, and even
more complicated difficulties in the way of
an international accord permitting the free
circulation of this class of work, composed
of pictures with or without titlesand com-
ments .

Questions arise connected with suscepti-
bilities, spheres, diversities of conception and
with the different methods needed for

THE EDUCATIONAL CINEMA

395

Caching the same and adapting it to indi-
vidual tastes ; all of which certainly does not
tend to assist the formation of interna-
tional cinematography. Whereas, what we
are aiming at is an universal conception of
the question, regardless of boundaries.

Even within the limits of a country
itself, the cinema is apt to adapt itself
too much to the desires and intentions
of those who make use of it ; which is
a fundamental error, and therefore, according
to Plato, the source of all evil.

In our opinion, the educator cinema should
be outside the contingencies of life and
superior to them. There is nothing that
can justify or excuse its use for the favouring
of a given idea, an individual opinion, or
the combatting of other ideas or opinions,
however based on good faith such use may
be, or however respectable the opinions set
forth. The cinema must be an indepen-
dent guide, in the widest meaning of the
words ; able to discern and judge, to lead
to a decision, to improve.

No one should disregard the possibilities
offered by the screen if he wishes to use it
for the purpose of explaining and affirming
what he believes to be good and just ; nor
can he do this if he works with sincere con-
viction, uninfluenced by sectarian thought.
A sounder and completer education leads
to a contrast of ideas, and the best instruc-
tion is that which endeavours to fight
against the power of the lie.

As Dante Alighieri said :

Considerate la vostra semenza
fatti non fosti a viver come bruti,
ma per seguir virtute e conoscenza.

Consider that thy seed

was not made to live as the beasts,

but to follow virtue and knowledge)

As we have considered it for more than
thirty years, the educator cinema cannot
fail to work for the proselytism of minds
and hearts. The whole central and funda-
mental problem of education lies there.

It is therefore necessary that this form of

cinematographic expression should be free
from all shackles of groups and parties
and beliefs, which in their turn may make
use of it, but only on condition that they
clearly proclaim their aims.

In the matter of education, the film must
not be a fighting weapon but a presentment
and explanation of ideas. It must not be
tied down to a determinate field or to a
determinate group, but must deal with every
part of the universe.

Its ideal programme might be found in a
passage of Duclos s Consideration sur les
Moeurs, which was written in the XVIII
century but belongs to all time :

" I do not know if I have an exceptionally
optimistic opinion of my century, but it
seems to me that there is a ferment of uni-
versal thought that tends to develop, which
may even be improved upon, but the pro-
gress of which should be assured and direct-
ed and hastened to the best ends of educa-
tion.

" Instead, however, of preparing to carry
out work, the tendency is to get concerned
over some particular method of some special
instruction, the application of which is
anything but clear and defined, even if
we do not take into account the reforms
that would have to be made in methods.
This is not the greatest utility that
universities and academies could offer to
the State. What ought we to teach ? How
ought we to teach ? Every didactic system,
and, we might add, every educational system
ought to be founded on these two questions".

The educator cinema should not be
subjected to discussion, to suspicion, to
criticism ; but should be a good, sound
lesson for the cultivation and direction of
the intelligence, the enrichment of the
mind, for making sure that each act shall be
directed to the benefit of man and humanity.

Although it may seem that we are making
too frequent an appeal to the classics they
bring a very useful contribution in support
of our thesis.

Virgil says: " Speak and teach with hon-
esty, do not concern yourself about others,

396

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

teach according to truth, do not worry about
anything ".

St an earlier date, St. Paul said, writing
to the Philippians : " Whatsoever things
are true, whatsoever things are honest, what-
soever things are pure, whatsoever things
are lovely, whatsoever things are of good
report, if there be any virtue, and if there
be any praise, think on these things ".

Now, the picture, which must not be
changed from its truthful expression, which
is the truer in so far as it is the mirror of life
itself, identifying itself with reality, is a
better teacher of good and evil than the word.
And we must see that it works only for good.

There is frequently an attempt to limit
its function, forcing the screen to present
doctrines that are, wrongly or rightly, con-
troversial. This means that it is kept
within the confines of lies, or of that nega-
tion which results fro ma pretended spiritual
neutrality. It is forgotten that it is
quite possible to expound sound ideas,
the idea-power which is truly and eminently
educational, without either taking sides or
following a tendency. It is only in this
way that we can satisfy all without serving
the cause of one. Otherwise, the cinema
becomes a cause of discord and no longer
represents the educator in the noblest and
widest meaning of the term, that is to say,
for the benefit of all.

It is not sufficient to combat ignorance ;
we must direct the consciousness so that
instruction and education march step by
step. The film offers every possibility for
carrying out this task. While allowing to
everyone the right of using the screen for
anything that may seem useful or convenient
to him, we must refuse anyone the right
of altering its educational character and
compromising its magnificent social and
moral power.

Above all, from the international point
of view, every film which tends to cause
division must be rejected, and those only
must be adopted which are likely to impress
the principles of union on the citizens of one
country and on the peoples of all.

Those who create educational films
should be asked to take their inspiration
from this thought of Boileau :

" qu'en eux le vrai, du mensonge vainquetir
partout se montre aux yeux et saisisse le coeur
que le bien et le mal y soient prises au juste .

Thus the time may come when we shall no
longer need, as Charles d' Orleans hoped,
to :

" Prier pour la paix, le vray tresor de joie ! "

for we shall have reached it through these
educational forms which everyone should
fervently help to spread.

THE CINEMA IN INTELLECTUAL AND SOCIAL LIFE

BY

Egizio de Luca.

FROM its modest beginnings the cinema
has grown and developed until it is
now called upon to carry out an important
intellectual and social function.

It occupies an increasingly larger place in
the educational field, as witness its growing
use in schools and universities. This is an
additional proof that the cinema is the best
didactic means we have.

The human mind tends to pass from the
concrete to the abstract, especially in the field
of experimental science. The working out
of scientific laws comes from a long, minute
observation of facts, that is to say, of the phen-
omena that may be perceived by our senses.
It is these latter, in fact, which enable us
to search for the relation between cause
and effect and to establish, consequently,
the relations on which such laws depend.

All the most important discoveries are due
to these observations, carried out with pa-
tient perseverance. The method adopted
by certain schools, which teach children the
laws governing the various sciences without
first making them acquainted with the
works that led to the discovery of these laws,
is therefore open to criticism. Experience
has shown, over and over again, that the best
results are to be obtained by personal obser-
vation of the manifestations of nature, and
that it is only when a child has carefully
observed the objects of which we are speak-
ing, that it can gain an exact idea of the
laws we are trying to teach it. It is obvious,
therefore, that the first appeal of the teacher
should be, not to the memory, but to the
intelligence.

It is well known that the object itself
makes a more direct appeal to the mind that a

mere description of it. It is difficult to forget
a thing once seen, whereas nothing is easier
than to forget a thing we have known only
vaguely by reading a description of it. That
is why most writers of children's books
illustrate their works with a lot of simple and
easily understood drawings, which help
young minds to a better understanding
of the text. The cinema, therefore, which
shows to children the thing itself instead of
giving a more or less abstract description of
it, is undoubtedly the best possible teaching
means that could be used in school pro-
grammes.

Many European universities make use of
the cinema, but it is still not nearly so exten-
sively used as it should be. This fact should
be brought to the attention of the principals
of all educational institutions, that they may
realize the marvellous possibilities offered
by the cinema. It would be of great use,
especially in elementary classes, to replace
simple drawings by the film, and to give
children, instead of the frequently heavy and
pedantic explanations of the master, a vision
of life itself.

What is the function of the cinema in
intellectual life?

This is a problem that interests every
branch of science and industry, without
distinction; they are fields in which the cin-
ema has right to intervene, since it can give
the most valuable aid.

For instance, at the Conferences and
Congresses organized for the study and solu-
tion of scientific problems and the study of
geographical problems, the cinema would
fill a very definite need, if only it were made
use of.

398

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

A day will come when we shall have, as
well as our great national libraries, public and
private cinematograph libraries ; we shall be
able to seek in their catalogues for the films we
need and have them projected in properly
equipped halls. In this way, without having
to move from one place to another, we shall
be able to see and study everything we need,
which would be impossible without the cin-
ema. Every science and subject will thus
be open to all. It is a project that deserves
to be taken into consideration by govern-
ments, for it offers infinite advantages.

The influence exercised by the cinema
on the future of our intellectual and social
life is made still more important by the valua-
ble invention of the talking film.

If the film is used rationally in the moral
and economic field, it will be able to fill great
gaps and become one of the principal factors
of moral propaganda. Our worst economic
difficulties, especially those of the present
moment, are founded mainly on psychological
causes. The very depression through which
we are passing is not founded on a real
economic basis, but is due to the tying up of
credit by the bad faith that reigns everywhere.
Failures and bankruptcies, which before the
war were considered as a dishonour by com-
mercial men, are now considered by many as
a new and easy means of getting rich. Men
no longer trust one another. Financial
scandals are brought to light day by day,
and it is not difficult to understand why every-
body is becoming suspicious and disinclined
to trust his money to those who might make
it yield an honest return. Fear makes people
pessimistic, egoistic, and wicked.

Is there not some means in all this, or
outside of all this, that will bring back order
from chaos ? Something that will redeem
our expiring society, make us kinder, bring the
peoples together and reconcile them, in spite
of the calumnies they are continually launch-
ing at one another. Something that will
change the wickedness of man and lessen its
effects, and replace it by a truce of goodwill
and indulgence. By its formidable penetra-
tion of the masses, the cinema would seem to

be the most effective means that could be
adopted to this end. The reformation of
the worlds morality and mentality, the
re-establishment of the idea of " honesty ",,
which is rapidly losing all meaning, is the
task that contemporary States have to face.

People must be made to understand that
the day of mad speculation has passed, that
the time has come to give ourselves soul and
body to honest, tenacious work, the essential
foundation of peace and prosperity. A
society cannot live without ideals, just as
surely it cannot live without moral principles.
We must therefore set to work to re-educate
youth, and to this end the cinema, well
thought out and under good control, may be, as
Mgr. Verdier declares, of incalculable benefit.
It can arouse in man the noblest sentiments,
which serve to elevate humanity and give it
a love for the ideal.

From this point of view, it would seem that
producers have not yet seriously and con-
scientiously tried to find the way that will
lead to such a goal. They are satisfied to
concern themselves only with films that may
be successful, without regard to their moral-
ity, their only thought being to please the
public ; and their films laud immorality and
obscenity, which, unfortunately, can be
made to appear only too attractive.

We certainly do not mean to suggest that
films which are heavy and boring and sermons
should be put in the front rank, but it is
quite possible for a moral film to be attract-
ive, and there are certain problem films
which arouse a sense of renewal and opti-
mism in the human soul and stimulate the
best part of the spectator's mind. The
cinema, therefore, can and must be used for
the welfare of humanity. It has a function
of the highest importance, namely, that of
spreading sound ideas that are free from
any dangerous tendency ; properly used, it
would be possible by its means to bring
our contemporaries back to an ideal of
honesty and duty.

From another point of view also the cinema
has a lofty task before it, in the formation of
public opinion.

THE CINEMA IN INTELLECTUAL AND SOCIAL LIFE

399

Several films, such as " All Quiet on the
Western Front ". " Girls in Uniform
and " I am an Escaped Convict », have
accomplished the task intended by their
authors in a marvellous manner. They put
forward visually and under new forms, the
ideals of justice and humanity.

After this, we have the ideas expressed by
two statesmen. First, the words of Benito
Mussolini : " Out of a thousand inventions,
there are three which mark an epoch in the
history of civilized humanity : the invention
of moveable letters, which was made at the
end of the XVth century ; the camera oscura
which came a century later ; and lastly, the
cinematograph, three fundamental stages of
progress for the human mind, three formida-
ble instruments for the conquest and spread
of culture.

" The cinema, which is still in the first
phases of its development, has the advantage
over the book of making a direct appeal to
the sight, and forms, so to speak, a language

that is easily understood by all peoples of
the earth ; whence we get its universal
character and the innumerable possibilities
it offers for international educational col-
laboration .

These possibilities had already been touched
on by Herriot : " Thirty years ago it would
have been impossible to help humanity
except in thought or books. Two modern
discoveries, the cinema and the wireless,
put the whole world at man's disposal at the
present day. They are inventions which
Dr. Faust himself could not have conceived,
and the significance of which not one of us,
even today, can appreciate .

In a word, for teaching, for the reconstitu-
tion of public morals and as an instrument for
the propaganda of ideas, there is nothing
that equals the cinema. It would be a sin,
therefore, not to benefit by such an invention,
which, by its power of suggestion and dif-
fusion, penetrates the most obscure corners
of the mind of the masses.

WOMEN AND THE CINEMA

BY

Frances White Diehl

(Mrs. Ambrose n. Diehl) of the National Council of Women, U. Si A.

The Women of the Women of all nations
World Unite in Cin- possess the legitimate
ematographic In- right to be concerned

with influences which
effect their homes and the character build-
ing of the family. It is natural therefore
that women throughout the world are
making it their business to throw the
spotlight on the Cinema and seek to know
the true power and effect of this universal
form of recreation and entertainment.

That the motion picture has an influence
on our social thinking and social problems
is obvious. We have had many expressions
of opinion regarding the Cinema and its
relation to social problems, but we have
not had enough established scientific facts
to substantiate them.

There is a variance of scientific opinion
as to degree and power of the screen's
influence, but we, as women, have felt a
decided influence in our family lives,
brought about by attendance at motion
picture houses ; therefore, we are determined
to analyze and regulate the effect. It is
our right to make our influence felt on all
those phases of life which concern the
happiness of our homes and our children.
Truly, as women, this is our great and most
immediate social problem.

Valuable and important studies have
been made in many countries concerning
the effect, tendencies and use of motion
pictures in relation to moral, cultural and
racial values. These studies are well worth
the time of anyone who is giving serious
thought to this phase of the motion pic-
ture.

There are tendencies and dangers in

motion pictures today that we must not
minimize, and valuable experiments for
their betterment are being carried on by
women in various countries of the world.
Responsible persons are exerting every effort
to bring to the consciousness of those who
make and exhibit motion pictures how great
an opportunity is theirs for advancing
knowledge and raising the ideals common in
the hearts of nations the world over. We
believe, as we note certain changes that
have taken place in recent years, that the
women of America with their constructive
programme, have exerted a powerful influ-
ence to improve films. It is not the occasional
critical and prejudiced voice that brings
results, but rather the combined efforts of
women in thousands of communities
throughout the world whose influence
cannot fail to be recognized.

The motion picture has found its way
to the ends of the earth. Its dramatic
appeal is universal.

In our complex and intense modern life,
entertainment has become indispensable,
and we must join forces to insure the por-
trayal of proper social and cultural values
on the screen.

Safe-guarding the Naturally the interest
Younger Generation. 0f women in the Mo-
tion Picture Problem centers about its reac-
tion upon children.

The commercial picture has only occa-
sionally been adaptable to children, there-
fore it seems logical psychology that chil-
dren should be given special shows and
should be discouraged from a general
attendance. This has promoted many local

WOMEN AND WE CINEMA

401

movements for Children's Matinees and
Family Night Programmes.

Careful parents are thoughtful as to the
influences on coming generations and
exercise supervision over their children s
recreation and cinema experience, but
unfortunately we have a large percentage of
neglectful parents — mothers who too
frequently utilize the neighbourhood theatre
as a day nursery and, regardless of the
attraction, permit their offspring to spend
hours in cinema houses. Therefore we
must, as a civic duty, assist in protecting the
unprotected child. This subject has been
given much thought and study by most
countries and by all conscientious individuals
honestly concerned with the welfare of
young people. The answer seems to lie in
the necessity of demanding general im-
provement in film production.

It is a sad fact that the public does not
always respond to the best in pictures any
more than it responds to the best in liter-
ature, paintings or stage plays, so we must
seek encouragement for worthwhile pro-
ductions, which has been the fundamental
reason for the organization throughout the
country of hundreds of Community Better
Film Councils and similar groups, to teach
discrimination in motion picture atten-
dance and to preview and bulletin the best
pictures suitable for family patronage.

There have been endless surveys and
attempted analyses of the effect of the
Cinema " on children ". After carefully
studying dozens of such so-called surveys
and reading innumerable statements on the
subject, we are of the opinion that no one
knows the exact extent of the influence of
the Cinema or its results. Some author-
ities insist that the so-called " War " pic-
tures are an influence for peace and give
children an aversion to war, other psychol-
ogists are positive they create interest and
inclination toward the excitement and thrill
of war.

Dr. Phyllis Blanchard, of the Philadelphia
Child Guidance Clinic, has gone on record
with the following opinion :

" Numerous studies made by scientists
have failed to establish any appreciable
contribution to delinquency from motion
pictures, but we do find the motion picture
to be helpful in many ways.

" The overwhelming cause of child
delinquency is maladjustments or neglect of
training in home life. The plain truth is
that the child's behaviour patterns are formed
before the age of picture attendance, and
that at least 85 per cent of child delinquency
is traceable to home influence which took
shape in a generation before the motion
picture's popularity afforded a convenient
alibi for those who do not, or cannot, provide
helpful stimuli for their children ' .

Others believe the reverse is true. Never-
theless, we must " play safe ' with the
future generations and every school, associa-
tion and organization should unite in a
definite and concentrated effort to demand
hat motion picture producers, produce
" up to the classes instead of down to the
masses " and insist that the industry realize
and recognize its obligation as an influence
for good as well as for recreation and
amusement.

The problem of children and their at-
tendance at pictures is a problem which
every father and mother might settle but
which, unfortunately, they do not settle.
Those children must be protected and
guided toward the proper type of motion
pictures. They are going to see pictures of
course. Every child considers that his
or her right. Our duty is to see that what
the child sees is in keeping with its needs for
wholesome amusement and fun, and at the
same time that it is clean and suitable. We
cannot shift all the responsibility on to the
producers or the exhibitors ; we can only
share responsibility with them.

1) The report of the "British Commis-
sion on Educational and Cultural Films ' ,
which gave rise to the British Film Institute.
It is to be hoped that every country will
create a similar institution, in close con-
nection with the I. E. C, whose activities
would be automatically altered and increased.

2 — h

402

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

2) The project of the " National Council
of Teachers of English (U. S. A.) " drawn
up by Dr. William Lewin, to which is
annexed a study by Lewin on " Cinemato-
graph criticism in American High Schools ".

3) The synthesis of thirty-six important
studies and inquiries, compiled by Dr. F.
Dean McClusky under the title of " Visual
Instruction, its Efficacy and Requirements ".

4) The report by Dr. Borris V. Morkovin
of the University of South California on
" The Cinema and Human Conduct ".

5) The illuminating study by Dr. Howard
le Sourd on the utilization of the cinema in
religious education.

From the office of Mrs. Thomas G. Winter,
Public Relations of the Association of
Motion Picture Producers and Distributors
of America, Inc. ", we have received a
complete list of the associations which at
present concern themselves with the distri-
bution of educational films of the following
kinds :

Scientific Educational Films ;

Commercial Films of Various Industries

Industrial Films ;

United States Government Films ;

Foreign Films ;

News Reels ;

Health and Welfare Films ;

Historical and Religious Films.

The Importance of A vast amount of
Visual Aids in Di- educational research
dactlcs* has demonstrated

beyond question the value of visual educ-
ation. As this phase of the Cinema is prim-
arily the object of this international confer-
ence, and the Institute has on file much
exhaustive and inportant material relative
to this subject, we feel that any contrib-
ution we attempt to make will be the pro-
verbial " Coals to Newcastle ", but in years
of cinematographic studies and interest,
we have assimilated some practical facts
pertinent to the subject which may be
emphasized to advantage in summarizing
cinema usage.

Since the motion picture has become a
major factor in modern life for the dissem-
ination of information, knowledge and ideas,
utilizing it for educational purposes has
passed the pioneering and theoretical stage
and has become a recognized medium.

The following are some of the most
valuable recent reports and surveys from
which we have gained much information
and formed our conclusions.

Some of the established facts are that,
through these use of films, students ben-
efit by :

1) The stimulation of clear and orginal
thinking.

2) Improvement in quality of memory
and recollection.

3) Retaining permanent impressions.
A few important and practical uses of

educational films are as follows :

1) The teaching of foreign languages.
Verification of the effectiveness and methods
of such use has been splendidly demonstrat-
ed by Dr. F. Juer Marbach, in several
articles on the subject in the International
Review.

2) Simplifies higher technical instruc-
tion.

3) A medium of disseminating propa-
ganda for national issues, such as Public
Health and Welfare.

4) The instruction which vocational
guidance films afford in assisting students
to choose occupations, thus aiding in solving
the world problem of unemployment.

5) Adult education and general sup-
plementary instruction wherever practical.

6) The propagation and preservation
of the principles of technique in the great
art-science of curing the human body is of
vital importance to everyone.

Concurring with those who have given
thorough and intelligent study to the sub-
ject, we strongly advocate and recommend :

1 ) The international circulation of films
of an educational character.

2) The establishment of cinema archives
for the preservation for posterity of excep-
tional films and historical events.

WOMEN AND THE CINEMA

403

3) A central " Clearing House " for
educational films and some form of au-
thority governing their production and
exhibition.

Cinema Influence on It has been said :
World Peace and "Jne cinema is a real
Understanding. League of Nations,

binding the World together ". The News-
reels teach all men and all women that
other nations are interestingly different, but
basically and profoundly kin. We know it
to be a world-wide vehicle of ideas and
information. The great goodwill of the
screen is its constant introduction of the
peoples of the world to one another. School
children feel that they have met Mussolini
and heard him speak; they feel acquainted
with all the great world figures in current
events, with the type of building, the nat-
ural geography, the customs of the people
in all the important nations of the world,
even with the games the children play.
The Cinema has proven a potent purveyor
between nations of intellectual ideas and
national ideals. Through war-realism
films, inter-racial friendship and the sym-
pathetic portrayal of peoples, we have
been taken out of our provincialism into
the area of world affairs. We learn to
know the great leaders of thought and gov-
ernment throughout the world and become
intimate with the world and its problems.
There is no doubt that motion pictures
have been a definite force contributing
to world peace. However, we feel the
recognition of the power of this contribution
has been slow in coming from leaders in
the peace movement. Impressions of the
stupidity, the futility and waste of war have
reached more people through the screen than
would have been possible from any other
source. It has brought out the sensitive-
ness of nationalism in the world today.
No producer would dare to caricature or
misinterpret the nationals of another country
or show them only in their worst light.
So, in general, pictures place their emphasis

on the best to be found among the people
of other races.

Travel films have helped wonderfully in
internationalization, for vast numbers of
people travel the world over today and learn
the habits and customs of those of other
countries. The great value of many of
these so-called travel films lies in the fact
that not only are the physical aspects of
a country shown, but also the thoughts and
habits of the national mind are made clear.

American Motion The National Recov-

Picture Industry ery Act was adopted

under the N.R. A. b our Government

to regulate trade and

industry for public benefit, and has been

instrumental in ironing out many of the

industrial trade problems which have been

constant subjects of controversy.

The drafting of a Code to cover picture
production was an arduous, lengthy process
covering, necessarily, conflicting points of
view of various groups, and taking into con-
sideration both the " big " producers and the
independent groups, all setting forth opposing
needs. Another complication was the fact
that while making and showing pictures is a
business, it is also an artistic and a social
activity.

In framing the Code, the Producers,
Distributors, Exhibitors and Consumers,
were represented at the hearings — each
group advocating code measures to meet
their requirements and solve their problems.
Aside from the physical and industrial
questions, the " Consumer " — or public
— which depends on motion pictures for a
large part of its recreation, was an equation
to be considered, and Article VII, under
General Trade Policy Provisions, gave us
the following :

Part 1. The industry pledges its com-
bined strength to maintain right moral stan-
dards in the production of motion pictures
as a form of entertainment. To that end
the industry pledges itself to and shall
adhere to the regulations promulgated by

404

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

and within the industry to assure the at-
tainment of such purpose.

Part 2. The industry pledges its combined
strength to maintain the best standards of
advertising and publicity procedure. To that
end the industry pledges itself to and shall
adhere to the regulations promulgated by
and within the industry to assure the attain-
ment of such purpose.

Controversial questions will be settled by
established boards :

To guarantee every theatre operator,
large or small, full opportunity for redress
for grievances, the Code establishes two
separate sets of boards, one to settle contro-
versial questions, such as the maximum
length of time that the first run exhibitor
may demand and receive before the pic-
ture exhibited by him may be shown by
exhibitors who have contracted to play
the pictures subsequently, and the other,
to hear every claim of grievance concerning
the provisions of the Code, or otherwise,
that may be asserted by anyone within the
industry, and to determine the same.

Sanction is also provided for arbitra-
tion of individual disputes and controversies
that may arise out of contracts between
distributors and exhibitors through methods
prescribed in the Standard Exhibition
Contract, incorporated into the Code. In
addition, the Code provides a method of
arbitration to be pursued wherever under
the Code controversial matters between
certain groups in the industry are to be
referred for arbitration.

Finally, there is created a Code
Authority highly representative of all branch-
es of the industry, on which will sit
three representatives of the Government.
This authority not only will administer
the Code, but will sit as a court of ap-
peal for any claimant who has been unable
to obtain satisfactory redress from local
boards.

Thus, the Code not only provides for
self-regulation by the industry itself, but
establishes machinery which should guar-
antee impartial adjustment of all differences

among the component units of the industry
large and small.

Indications of Ad- To face any question
vancement toward fa;rly> we must ]ook
Higher Production at it from alj sides amj

Standards. • •■ .,

omit generalizations

that lack a basis in fact. All human agencies
are a mixture of good and evil, and nowhere
can this be more clearly seen than in motion
pictures. A cheap and tawdry story may
be offered us one day by a producer and the
next day will bring us some profoundly
impressive study.

The person who tells us that all films are
without worth and unfit to see is the one
who either does not attend movies or who
selects, deliberately or accidentally, those
films which are below standard and which are
decreasing in number each year. There is
no question but that pictures are improving,
but they will continue to improve only in
proportion to the public demand and sup-
port of better pictures.

Let us look honestly at the real service the
screen has given to the world and see certain
clear facts. Knowledge of the world we
live in has been brought to us as to no other
generation. We been lifted out of our
provincialism into contact with every country
on earth. Everyone now recognizes how
great a gift of science has come to us in the
motion picture, how powerful the screen is
its inherent possibilities for service to
mankind.

The results of the current depression
have been reflected in recent motion pic-
tures — the re-establishment of family
life on a saner basis. A simpler and less
luxurious home life is now being depicted.
Another hopeful sign in the development of
the motion picture is the recent tendency
to deal honestly and realistically with im-
portant subject matter.

It is true, however, that people want to see
the bright side of life on the screen — the way
the other half live — not the drab pictures of
life they live themselves. They find on

WOMEN AND THE CINEMA

405

the screen liberation from daily cares and
personal problems.

With additional leisure, due to shorter
working hours, attendance in picture houses
is increasing, and it becomes more than ever
important that socially-minded individuals
and organizations unite in their programmes
for collecting and distributing cinema infor-
mation to serve as a reliable guide to the
family in selecting its motion picture enter-
tainment.

It is particularly significant, in view of
the growing demand for more pictures
suitable for children, that this year's produc-
tion in America contained 72 pictures

endorsed by the previewing groups as suit-
able for juveniles, and that 71 % of the
total year s product for 1 933 was passed on
as proper cinema entertainment for general
distribution.

We have shown that the best way to
insure high class motion picture productions
is to create a taste for them, and we are
glad to report that our hope to do so is being
realised, while future production lies in
the fact that hundreds of thousands of
men and women throughout the country are
working earnestly to make America's most
democratic amusement conform to the
highest standards of taste.

DISCS AND SOUND FILMS
FOR FOLK-LORE RESEARCH

BY

Prof. Cesare Caravaglios,

of the University of Rome.

THE three means at present available to
the musician desirous of collecting
traditional music are :

(a) transcription by ear on music paper;

(b) gramophone disc recording ;

(c) sound film recording.

Transcription by Ear With regard to the
on Music Paper. case 0f transcription
by ear, this method is the most uncertain
of the three, since, granting that the musician
who takes down the music is possessed of
extreme sensitiveness and an extensive mus-
ical training — things not always to be
found — the musical notation in common
use does not provide all the signs corres-
ponding to the notes to be registered.

The fundamental structure of ethnical
music, as a matter of fact, does not lie in the
musical scale in common use, but rather in

a natural spontaneous scale so that the
pitch of certain sounds in folk-lore melodies
does not always coincide with the twelve
semi-tones of the tempered scale (1). This
is the reason why all the popular music
transcribed by ear that is available today
is very different from the same music when
actually played or sung by the people of
its land of origin.

The limited possibilities of musical
memory combined with inaccuracies in

(1) Prof. Silvestro Baglioni, who has given up
a great deal of his precious time to the study of
this matter, has shown that the same phenomenon
can be observed in the case of popular musical
instruments.

In fact, he has been able to form a system of
measuring the pitch of the sounds of musical in-
struments peculiar to different peoples. (See
S. Baglioni : Contribute alia conoscenza della musica
naturale in Rivista di Antropologia., Vol. XV,
Section 3, and Vol. XVI, sections 1-3).

406

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

transcription render this form of register-
ing music still more unsatisfactory and make
it difficult to follow the popular singer.
The latter, in order to help the transcriber,
is obliged to repeat his song several times,
and, in repeating it, he introduces small
changes without even being aware of it.
All this makes the work of transcribing
almost impossible (1).

Students of the subject have for some
time been looking for a man who would
invent a satisfactory method of transcrib-
ing popular or ethnical music, as the ex-
perts in collecting dialects have been able
to do for the special dialect sounds in local
speech. So far no successful system has
yet been evolved for registering popular
music by ear and hand. The solution of
the problem does not seem likely to be
arrived at very easily, since it is connected
with another difficult and wider problem,
the new art music notation.

To modify the musical scale at present in
use means starting a complete revolution
of the harmonic system, which is in fact the
actual musical system now in common use.

At the same time, musicians in all coun-
tries have always sought to give music a
richer notation, that is by using half-tones,
We have examples of this in the efforts made
by Mationkine and Wichnegradsky Leurie
in Russia. R. H. Stein Mollendorf and Ma-

ger in Germany, Silvestro Baglioni, the
physiologist who built a harmonium for
half-tones in Italy. The most fruitful
experiment, however, is the one made by
Alois Haln, who illustrated some time ago
at Prague some of his compositions based
on studies of Arab music and Czecho-
slovak peasant airs, based on a scale of
quarter-tones.

The maestro Adriano Lualdi, who was
present at the recitals of Alois Haln, states
that the impressions received while listen-
ing to the fantasies of this remarkable
musician composed with his novel system
are like those received from a form of music
which has not yet found its ubi consistam,
proper development or the range which is
available to traditional music. It is still too
closely bound up with the old school (2).

Trascribing on Gram- The difficulties en-
ophone Discs. countered in trans-

cribing by ear traditional music moved Raf-
faele Corso to write in this connection that
it was not yet possible to make accurate
ear transcripts (3). Seven years later, in
1930, at the International Congress of
Popular Art, held at Antwerp, Liege and
Brussels, in September and October of
that year, I proposed that the transcription
of folk tunes and other forms of traditional
music should be made from a disc already

(1) Recently a German, OsKAR FlSCHlNGER, has
taken advantage of the possibility of transform-
ing the graphic signs of a small film into sound.
He has devised a system of drawing rather than
writing music, depending for his principle, on the
luminous transcription of sounds.

Fischinger's experiments tended to find out how a
musical idea can be fixed directly on the film with the
maximum expression. Naturally he did not confine
himself to the three millimetres of film of the usual
sound track, but carried out his experiments on
the full width of the film. According to his own
statements, the experiments proved very successful.

The signs traced on the film permitted Fischinger
to establish a graphic rotation for numerous instru-
mental sonorities, marks for soft, loud and very
loud playing, and certain other musical effects. He
obtained some surprising results which, according
to him, open the way to amazing possibilities in this
field of research. Various sound effects of pitch

and timbre are it seems obtainable, which ordinary
orchestras cannot arrive at. E. Houston Peret in the
first page of his collection of popular Brazilian songs
(First series : Musical Library of the Guimet
Museum, Oriental Library, Gunther, Paris, 1930)
publishes a table explanatory of the signs used in
the collection for indicating the various shades of
tone (quarter tones, semi-tones, three-quarter-
tones, etc.), as well as timbre, which can be guttural,
nasal, chesty, from the head, with closed lips, etc.
The International Institute for Popular Music has,
among things, undertaken the task of studying and
applying a new method of registration and notation
of sounds (See Fernando Liuzzi : / canti del popolo.
Istituto Internazionale per la Musica Popolare .
Ed. Alpes, Milan, 1929, page 270.

(2) See A. LUALDI : Musical Voyage in Europe,
Alpes, Milan, 1929, page 270.

(3) See R. Corso : Folk-lore. Pub. by Da
Vinci, Rome, 1923, p. 41.

DISCS AND SOUND FILMS FOR FOLKLORE RESEARCH

407

recording the air or song instead of from the
voice or instrument of a singer or player. I
gave an illustration of the method I sug-
gested by playing some discs I had made of
the cries of Neapolitan street vendors.

I remember that my transcriptions ap-
peared and actually were perfectly satisfac-
tory and answered all scientific requi-
rements.

The gramophone disc, by doing away
with the actual singer or player, can repro-
duce the melody to be transcribed as often
as is desired, and what is still more impor-
tant the reproduction is always the same,
which renders the transcription on the music
sheet much easier. In this connection,
I should like to add that the German philo-
logist William Doegen, creator of the Berlin
sound archive, has invented a device
which, when it is applied to a gramophone,
enables the same phrase, verse., line or word
to be heard as often as is desired without
stopping and restarting the machine.

Special Gramophone Any collection by

Apparatus. ear of popular music

requires, it should be understood, the
employment of a large number of musicians
specially trained and fitted for the work.
The use of the gramophone allows even
those without expert knowledge of folk-
lore or music to make collections of popular
music. This is a fact of the first import-
ance in our studies.

Two gramophone firms, the Schackio-
graph S. G. and the Siemens Tonscheiber
have manufactured two recording machines
which are easily handled and portable. By
means of these machines, it is possible to
make a record on a disc in the most incon-
venient circumstances.

Nor is this the whole story. There are
other advantages. The Schaktograph costs
little, that is just over £ 40 and it is capable
of giving an excellent " spiral ", that is re-
production of sounds. Discs of any mater-
ial with a maximum diameter of 25 cm. can
be made with certainty of success. The

other apparatus, the Siemens Telefunhen
Tonscreiber costs rather more, but guaran-
tees greater precision in the recording of
sounds. This machine was used by the
two firms in question, who still hold patent
rights in the two recording machines which
thus remain only available for a privi-
leged few, barring their use by the mass
of amateurs who would be able to use the
machines with great advantage in the work
of gathering together popular airs and music.
When the patents run out, and, it becomes
possible for all firms in the gramophone
business to manufacture similar apparatus,
these machines will be within the reach of
everybody, and the problem of collecting
and transcribing our traditional popular
music will be solved.

Transcribing by
Sound Film.

But since every
scientific programme
is closely connected with the development
and improvement of the instruments used
in connection with it, folk-lore students
cannot but turn their attention to another
system for documenting folk-lore, that is the
system of the sound film which is, fortun-
ately, in full development today.

The sound film, in fact, offers the expert
not only the possibility of an exact reproduc-
tion of popular music and speech, but, and
this is a comforting fact — it also gives an
expert truthfulness to life, the surround-
ings in which the song or speech are sung
or said, that is to say, all the data necessary
for a study of the documents under examin-
ation.

The sound film today has only begun the
cycle of its diffusion. It is at present
unfortunately, a very costly means of re-
search. When in ten years or so it is
available for everyone, not only on account
of its low price, but also owing to its simplic-
ity of handling, we shall then really be in
a position to say that we have definitely
settled the question of collecting folk-lore
documents in general and items of folk-
lore music in particular.

408

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

The Sound Film Con- Let us look at the
nected with Scien- advantages which a
tifical Ne^ds. sound film can offer

for the study of popular traditions.

To examine the question thoroughly, we
must go back a little and look into the mat-
ter of the silent film which in its way and
within its limitations, has already solved
the problem we are discussing.

It is possible today for anyone interested
in this matter to buy for a small sum — I
believe about £ 10 — a reduced size motion
picture camera. A machine of this type
will allow the owner of it to make reduced
size pictures of anything and everything
that is of interest to him in his studies.
This is a first step on the path to folk-lore
reasearch by means of the motion picture
camera. The possibilities of the silent film,
however, are not sufficient to meet the de-
mands of modern science. Even rapid re-
gistration and reproduction on the screen
of all kinds of movements, slow motion and
accelerated running off are not enough today.
Science demands that the sound film be
brought in to its aid.

A country dance taken with the silent
film camera means a half documentation of
the fact, since, though it may show the move-
ments of the dance quite perfectly, it con-
tains no trace of the accompanying music.
The modern conception of folk-lore music
considers gesture, word, music as three
closely inter-connected elements. For the
people the gesture is a help for the word,
especially when the word is sung, since then
the singer is definitely under the influence
of passion which he expresses and inter-
prets in his song. When we have said this,
it is easily seen why these three elements
should be studied both as a whole and
in their dependence and individual charac-
teristics. The sound film answers these
requirements perfectly since with the aid
of the photo electric cell, it can register on
the film surroundings and action, music
and word in perfect concordance.

The documentary folk-lore picture which
came into being during the domination of

the silent film, was inevitably forced to
make use of sound as soon as the sub-stan-
dard sound film became a practical and
widely used medium.

Let us now examine the characteristics
and the advantages of the reduced size
silent film.

The Reduced Size Film The first advantage
in Connection with Qf the silent substan-
Popular Traditions. dard fiIm oyer normal

depends on its width, which varies from
1 7 mm. to 8 mm., that is from a half to
a quarter the size of the width of ordinary
35 mm. film.

Reduced size 8 mm. film has recently been
placed on the market by the Kodak people.
It is obtained from 16 mm. film on which,
be means of a special device, first of all
an impression of half the film in all its
length is made ; then the other half reversed.

It is possible, using this system, to obtain
four times the number of pictures it would
be possible to obtain by using ordinary
16 mm. in the ordinary way. This is
because in the space of a photogram of the
1 6 mm. we get four photograms of 8 mm.
Consequently the length of the 16 m. film,
which is normally 30 mm., is reduced to
7.50 m. for the same number of photos,
which means an economy of 60 %.

Naturally, attempts have not been lack-
ing to arrive at a standard size for the reduced
size film, and it would appear, according to
the views of the experts, that the 9.5 mm
size is the most suitable, both in the matter
of price and technical exigencies.

It is essential to note here that the great
improvements made in film emulsion dur-
ing recent years allow enlargements to be
made in a very satisfactory way. The re-
duced size film implies necessarily a reduced
size projector. Today reduced size motion
picture cameras are no larger than an ordin-
ary camera and are, from the technical point
of view, perfect in the matter of operation,
optical effects, etc., while they can even be
used under disadvantageous conditions such

DISCS AND SOUND FILMS FOR FOLKLORE RESEARCH

409

as may arise from a weak artificial illumi-
nation.

The machines do not need tripods, and
can be used instantaneously on any subject
and moved from point to point, thus allow-
ing the object being filmed to be followed
with almost the rapidity of the human eye.

A special apparatus, the Kodacolor permits
the projection of coloured pictures. The
reduced size film is large enough to allow
of satisfactory documentary pictures being
taken on it.

Reduced sized films are, by law, manufac-
tured of non-inflammable material, which
permits of their being stored anywhere and
in any box or piece of furniture, just as if
they were books.

Reduced size projectors are also of small
dimensions, and can easily be installed
without any necessity for a special fire-
proof cabin which makes it possible to
project any sub-standard silent film where
there is electric light supply.

These facts, which at first sight, may
seem to have nothing to do with folk-lore
studies, have on the contrary great importance
in this connection since they reveal to the
student, the possibilities of the technical
means at his disposal.

Unfortunately students of folk-lore ques-
tions do not as a rule know of the means
at their disposal, and the collections of
folk-lore material which are made from time
are generally limited to gathering what is
easy and close at hand, and has probably
been already collected in some form or
another. This is, without doubt, one of the
reasons why folk-lore studies have not taken
on that proper scientific character which
they should have.

Folk-lore research today cannot afford to
neglect these means, and every folk-lore
student should also be a good amateur
cinematographer. He should own a reduced
size silent film camera, and as soon as is
possible a sound film camera. The ex-
penses will not be heavy, and he will be in
a position to work with certainty and ser-
iousness.

If he cannot do anything else, the folk-
lore student can hire a motion picture cam-
era. The film required is sold at a price
which compares favourably with that of
books. Then by selling copies of the pic-
tures made, the folk-lore expert can hope
to make some profit or, at anyrate, to
cover the cost of his material.

Contribution of Cin- There is a large num-

ema Amateurs. |-,er 0f cmema ama-
teurs in Italy. Anyone who has examined
their work is aware what excellent material
is to be found among it. Amateur cinema-
tography is also well advanced among
other nations. There are numerous national
and international associations and clubs
which are continually promoting gatherings
and cooperative and united endeavour.
Collection of folk-lore documents and
especially musical folk-lore cannot do
without this valuable aid.

Research work done at the desk or in the
study is anti-scientific. It requires a large
number of collectors spread around the
zone under examination. The Opera Na-
zionale Dopolavoro (Workers Leisure Move-
ment) is deeply interested in this matter,
and has every right to be. The good work
done this field by the 0. N. D. is v/ell
known. The National L. U. C. E. Insti-
tute is also entitled to take a share in this
form of research work.

In fact these two bodies, assisted by
first rate experts, ought to organize, select,
encourage and develop the work of the
amateurs in the domain of folk-lore re-
search.

The work of the motion picture amateurs
will not diminish the value of the work of
scientists in this field. It goes without
saying that not all the work of the amateurs
will merit serious consideration. It will
become the task of the expert to distinguish,
in this connection, what is really important
in the collection of material made by ama-
teurs. This will follow the normal course
of events which generally passes through
three stages : collection of material, selec-

410

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

tion of material, scientific use of material
chosen.

The field of folk-lore reasearch is in itself
a very interesting one, and the cine-ama-
teurs will be delighted to operate in a de-
partment which is new to them and to see
their work appreciated and made use of
by scientists.

Documentary Folk- Before concluding

lore Film. these few remarks on

the means available for folk-lore research,
it will be well to lay down the requisites and
characteristics of a documentary folk-lore
film.

From the point of view of organization
I recommend that it be based on a plan which
has been carefully prepared before any pic-
tures are made, so that it may be quite
clear what the film is actually attempting
to do.

This scenario will assure the sound film
having a logical development and being
harmonious in all its parts, clear and precise
in content and in the method used for
making it.

It will be advisable in preparing the plans
for a scenario, to make a distinction between
what is essential and what is secondary.
The sub-titles which must be short and clear,
though they may also be numerous, serve
as an indication to the student or expert on
the nature and contents of the film.

The organization and preparation of the
scenario must be made by an expert in folk-
lore matters. He must also see to the
" shots " that are made, must choose the
sets, and scenes, the backgrounds, etc.

The operator is not called upon to do
anything more than settle purely technical
questions, giving the folk-lore expert all
the benefit of his cinematographic knowledge
His work, however, is of the greatest im-
portance.

A documentary sound film can be put
together by attaching a number of " shots "
taken at various places and intervals of time.
This too is work in which the voice of the

folk-lore expert must be supreme, with the
operator assisting him in technical cinema
matters such as cutting, lighting, print-
ing, etc.

The folk-lore expert must therefore select
and arrange the partial " shots " according
to the subject which it is proposed to illus-
trate. He must connect these various
" shots " together, compile the sub-titles,
see to the perfect synchronization of the
music, words, gestures.

I would like to insist on the necessity
of avoiding any straining or falsification of
sounds reproduced, such as the quality of
the music of musical instruments or of
human voices. I know that, owing to
certain defects in the technique of sound
reproduction, this advice is not always easy
to follow, but it is an essential point in a
documentary sound film.

It is generally possible though for a clever
operator to reduce sound distortions to
a minimum and practically to eliminate
them.

The fact that I have given so much space
to the sound film as compared with the
silent picture must not lead the reader to
suppose that the latter is no longer useful
for folk-lore research. This is not the case.
The silent film has still a great deal of work
to do in this field, and can render innumer-
able services to science.

In conclusion, I should like to say that a
documentary folk-lore film, in order to be
useful to science, must be based on the real
thing and not on something like it. That
is, there must be a hundred per cent respect
for truth in films of this kind. I will
explain this with an example.

A documentary film on Neapolitan folk-
lore will only be a real documentary picture
if the fisherman of the Mergellina pull in
their nets, sing their songs, etc., as they
really do, without any false and artificial
stage effects, which will destroy the value
of the picture.

Folk-lore research, from this point of
view, has not made many valuable contribu-
tions, with the exception of some attempts

DISCS AND SOUND FILMS FOR FOLKLORE RESEARCH

411

by the O. N. D. and the L. U. C. E. I will not fail to take every advantage of this
am sure, however, that we shall not have to powerful means offered by modern tech-
wait long for such films. nique for undertaking an interesting but
I hope therefore that experts and students difficult work.

THE PRODUCTION OF TEACHING FILMS

BY

Dr. Ernest Rust,

of the Photographic Institute of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology.

Features of the Teach- T^y the "teaching
ing Film. jjfilm" we mean

the kind of film which is suitable for the
school and can be used during lessons, like
any other didactic means, at the right mo-
ment. The distinctive feature of the teach-
ing film (1) is its instructive content , clearly
defined according to the principles of peda-
gogics and adapted to the particular type
and grade of school.

School teaching is necessarily based on
a foundation of determinate presumptions
and acquirements, because the pupil must
learn to make use of these presumptions
and acquirements ; it is only in this way that
he can develop his mind and understand the
problems of life. The teaching film is there-
fore to some extent in contradiction with
the cultural film, since the latter is intended
for a public which has received no particular
instruction in the subjects presented and is
gathered together by chance.

The cultural film is intended for a public
which requires a greater recreational quality
in films and is therefore satisfied with a
more or less superficial and explanatory

content ; whereas the didactic film must aid
the pupil-spectator to understand and to
realize relations which are not easily per-
ceived. The school, therefore, makes other
and greater demands on the film than a
cinema hall or other places where docu-
mentary films are shown to the general
public (2).

Necessity of Collab- If a film is to be suit-
oration. able for use jn scnools

a number of things must be taken into consid-
eration : the psychology of the pupils,
the function to be entrusted to the teacher,
the necessary details of collective teaching.
The master only is in a position to judge
of these qualities, but his aptitude and
knowledge are not of themselves sufficient
for the creation of a film which responds to
rigorous didactic requirements. A film is
a much more complicated production than
a text book, and the conception, staging and
making of a film cannot be done by the
teacher only, except in a few isolated cases.
The master is well informed as to pedagogic
requirements but he is not familiar with

(1) We deliberately refrain from using the words (2) We must point out here that we have not the

educational film " (Lehrfilm) because this expres- slightest intention of condemning cultural films ,

sicn covers not only the scholastic film produced for on the contrary, when they are in their proper place

teaching purposes, but also instructive films of every we welcome them as readily as the teaching film

.kind such as those the popularization of knowledge. in the school.

412

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

the special technique and aesthetics of
animated production. On the other hand,
the cameraman, through his understanding
of art and psychological knowledge of film
suitability, knows what is necessary and
how, for instance, to arrange a scene so
that it will impress the spectator. He is a
master of photographic technique and
knows the possibilities of perfect photo-
graphy, but he knows nothing of the essen-
tial points that must be made to stand out
in a teaching film. He sees things too much
from the aesthetic point of view and from
that of the production of striking views and
scenic effects to be able to realize that
truth to detail must form the foundation
of a teaching film. Considering the
clear and precise language of the animated
picture, it is necessary that the scenes res-
pond absolutely to reality and scientific
exactitude ; and neither the teacher, who
is simply a pedagogue, nor the cinema-tech-
nician are by the nature of things equal to
this task. We need the assistance of a
third person, therefore, one who is asperiol-
ist on the matter treated in the film. An
authentic teaching film cannot, consequently
be created except in collaboration with teacher,
specialist and cinema-technician.

With the object of bringing about the
collaboration of these three indispensable
persons for the creation of a didactic film,
the " Schweizerische Arbeitsgemeinschaft fiir
Unterrichtskinematographie " (SAFU) (Swiss
Association for the Advancement of Teach-
ing Cinematography) was founded in
Switzerland. This institution has at its
disposal, for its cine-technical works, the
well equipped Photographic Institute of the
Federal Institute of Technology so that the
requirements of technical film production
can be met. In this way it was possible,
in spite of the difficulties encountered to
take a number of films in which scholastic
requirements took first place. These films
proved to be extremely useful for the ends
they were intended to serve, and we there-
fore give a brief account of the criteria on
which they were based. In the examples

cited, we have given the preference to the
demonstrative film, (Anschaungsfilm) but
school requirements apply equally to the
educational film, (Erziehungsfilm) whose
object is to act as guide to children and arouse
lofty aspirations.

CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS

Adherence to Teach- The first requirement
ing Aims and in a film used for
Scholastic Metho- teaching is its com-
dology. plete adherence to

didactic ends and to
the methodology of school work. It fol-
lows that a film of this kind, like all other
teaching means, must not go beyond the
school curriculum but must be an exact
and necessary derivation of teaching.

So far, in the film industry, the search has
been for what is rare and interesting.
What the school requires, instead, is the
search for what may serve to develop
knowledge and faculties and at the same
time constitute a vital value. The fact
that a subject is interesting and a knowledge
of it useful is not a sufficient reason for its
introduction, with the film, into the school.
The school is facing a large number of
objectives that must be reached within
a more or less limited period, and can deal,
therefore, only with those subjects which
are of decisive importance and have utiliza-
tion possibilities which are of vital interest
to the pupil and his intellectual formation.
Thus, films showing the preparation or
sparkling wines, or caramels, or " The
Siam Hemp Industry in the Island of
Cebu ", " Pearl Fishing in the Indian
Ocean ", or films on the making of pianos,
or on furs, " From Rabbit to Sealskin
Coat ", or " The Marvels of the Deep ',
some of which are considered as official
teaching films, are far from what properly
constitutes a teaching film, and are more in
the nature of pleasing and interesting
entertainment for the spectator.

Nor can a film on shipbuilding be con-

THE PRODUCTION OF TEACHING FILMS

413

sidered as a generally utilizable didactic,
film, in view of the specialization of the
subject dealt with ; whereas a film on the
raw materials and elementary workmanship
that form the logical groundwork for the
building of a ship would properly come
under this heading : as, for instance, the
treatment of timber and metals and the
fundamental works for building operations.

It is undoubtedly one of the schools
tasks to show operations of a complicated
nature and to order teaching on the lines
of practical life ; but before proceeding to
complicated things, it is necessary to lay the
foundations with great care. For this pur-
pose, the only useful film is the short one
that deals concisely with one single subject.
It is not often that the teacher is able to
explain very complex relations and pheno-
mena of life and nature, and even so he
must exercise the greatest care in his choice
of subjects and means of illustrating them,
and must never undertake the examination
of a complex thing without having previously
given the necessary explanations of the
fundamental elements that constitute it.

This is why it is practically impossible
to use in teaching any of the numerous
cultural films that have been produced for
the popularization of so many subjects,
although such films may occasionally be
usefully given as supplementary or recreational
films.

The first outcome of the necessity of
keeping the film within the teaching hnits
of scholastic methodology is that we must
establish a scheme of films needed for the var-
ious subjects and the different types and grades
of schools. This system was adopted,
first in Austria and then in Switzerland.
But the lists of films proposed by teachers
who have not yet had sufficient experience
in teaching by film will have to be carefully
revised, for it is a fact that many pictures
which appear useful enough for teaching
purposes at first sight have not been found
so in practice. When making out the list
of necessary films, therefore, the persons
to be interrogated are those teachers who

have great didactic experience in teaching
by film.

It must be kept in mind, also, that with
our present means and without using films,
it is quite possible to satisfy didactic re-
quirements, and that the film will therefore
become a necessity only when it can make
teaching richer, more impressive and more
in correlation with life, without trouble
or loss of time.

Perfection of the Films intended for teach-

Film.

ing purposes must

be true to life ; they must not give
rise to misconceptions or to suppositions
that will not stand criticism by scientists or
specialists. As a matter of fact, unfortunate-
ly, the teaching films on the market
cannot be said to comply with these condi-
tions. For instance, the text of a film showing
the oscillation of a thin and a thick string
teaches that the vibrations of the thin string
produce a high note, while those of the thick
string produce a low one. But this would be
the case only if the two strings in the film
were to show a differing number of
oscillations ! In an animated cartoon
showing a gas motor, the piston compresses
the gaseous mixture in such a way that,
if it were to happen in fact, the gas would
catch fire before the return of the piston
and the cylinder would explode.

One of the first principles of teaching
should be to simplify things, but such
simplification always implies a certain
amount of falsification. For this reason, the
simplification process which inevitably con-
tains some errors should only be pursued
in so far as it is indispensable for the require-
ments of teaching.

It must be remembered that a true projec-
tion is always efficacious, and that it will
have at all times authentic didactic value
and may be used also for more advanced
pupils. An example of the kind is given
by our animated cartoon on the beating of
the heart, which was produced with the
collaboration of a professor of physiology
and a primary school teacher. It is so

414

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

simplified that its projection is useful for
pupils aged 13-14 years, and it is no less
true that the medical student can learn from
it. Such perfect correctness requires the
collaboration of a specialist.

In natural history films, and especially
in those dealing with the life of animals,
much stress must be laid on the behaviour
and natural movements of the subjects.
When the subjects of these films, instead
of being in their natural settings, are taken
in the studios of the film company where
unnatural surroundings, the film director's
orders and the artificial light prevent
normal behaviour, the result is an absurdity.
The same may be said of a film which
showed a nest of eagles and in which stones
were thrown to cause the eaglets to move.

When presenting movements in a film,
all artificial motions must be avoided ;
as, for instance, in a workshop film, where
the workmen are made to move and gest-
iculate in a useless and unnatural fashion.
All these false movements may be of use for
the general public, but they serve no di-
dactic purpose.

School and science demand a transcrip-
tion of real life under unrehearsed condi-
tions. The teaching camera-man must for-
get his usual illusive function and record
faithfully only the work of nature.

That is why films of animals taken in
their natural surroundings necessitate, in
addition to a perfect scientific knowledge, an
extraordinary amount of time and patience
if such films are really to show the es-
sential characteristics and movements of the
animals in a way that is superior to ordinary
fine pictures arranged and made according
to aesthetic principles.
We do not find this impression of complete
reality, which is so necessary in serious
teaching, in the greater number of popular
cultural films is use. If, for instance, we
eliminate from that interesting documen-
tary film of an expedition, " Simba, King
of the Desert ", all those episodes which
might disturb the course of teaching, and try
to make a natural arrangement of the re-

mainder, as was done at Zurich, we get
nothing but some insignificant groups of
animals which just move from one side
of the screen to the other.

It follows, as a natural consequence, that
a perfect teaching film can result only from
the intelligent collaboration of master and
specialist, the choice of whom is extremely
important, because they must not only un-
derstand each other but must also be able
to work together with pleasure. The ideal
thing would be to find one person combining
both requirements, as happened in the case
of a film of ours, on seagulls, and another on
cellular formation. In the film on the
" Beating of the Heart " a primary school
teacher and a university professor collabo-
rated very successfully.

Movement, an Es- The third require-
sential Point- ment Qf the teaching

film is that it must represent only those scenes
where movement plays an important part.
We do not mean that completeness should
be pushed to the point of introducing unsuit-
able things into a film. Those things
which are not suited for the film must be
shown by stills taken at the same time,
because lantern slides, when adequate, are
much better from the pedagogic point of
view than the film, which moves rapidly
and limits the teacher's conduct of his
lesson. Stills taken at the same time as the
film also serve as a pedagogic preparation
for the latter, with the result that it is
not only more easily understood but may
be much shorter than would be the case
without the use of stills.

Films and Lantern Those desiring to pro-
Slides, duce teaching films
should keep in mind the disadvantages
inherent in moving picture projections and
so arrange that they appear as little as pos-
sible. One of these disadvantages, from
the teaching point of view, is the fixed
nature of the film, in which nothing can
be added or omitted or particularly em-
phasized. We therefore do not want the

THE PRODUCTION OF TEACHING FILMS

415

film in school except when it allows of
a noticeably better illustration than can be
given by lantern slides. This constitutes
the fourth requirement of the school (1).
The film is a teaching means that must be
used with judgment, not only because
it entails considerable expense, but also
because, according to our fifth require-
ment, the film should show nothing that
can be equally well shown by the usual
experimental school method, either by a visit
to nature or to some workshop or factory.
The best film in the world cannot equal the
perception of reality in which all the senses
share.

But as visits of the kind or experiments
in class take a lot of time and can be con-
ducted to a limited extent only, the film
may be satisfactorily utilized as a comple-
ment, with considerable saving of time and
without any loss of efficacy in the present-
ment.

Our experience in this connection shows
that a film can give, in a quarter of an hour
and with all the necessary tranquillity for
the pupils, all that could be accomplished
in a half day's visit. This, however, is
the case only when the pupil has been
properly prepared beforehand by the teacher.

In the film on the seagull we showed that
a work that took seventeen days to accom-
plish, under favourable conditions, can be
seen in a quarter of an hour, provided, as
already stated, that there has been a previous
preparation with the aid of stills taken
together with the film. This picture is a
convincing proof for the most sceptical
that a well made film is sometimes of higher
value even than an instructive excursion, not
only because it would not be possible for
children to remain in the marshes for seven-
teen days, from five in the morning till night,
and because it would not be possible to
put an observation tent at the disposal of
each pupil, but also because the film observes
with the eye of an expert. The film on
cellular division shows the processes of the

(1) Film and other means of instruction.

schematic division of the nucleus in a
uniform and complete sequence, in a way
that it would be impossible to observe in
the living cell. It could be shown only by
comparing an infinite number of interme-
diate states of dead and coloured cells. The
film on " grafting " shows that it may still
be useful to make films of objects which
could be observed easily in their natural
state under certain conditions, because
unfortunately it is not always possible to
obtain these conditions, especially in town
schools ; and in any case, the possibility of
projecting these objects on the screen in
dimensions much larger than nature enables
a whole class to follow the operation without
distraction from surrounding objects. It
is obvious that in these cases the film is in
its right place, because nature can never be
so well observed in school as through the
film.

Need for Short Films. Long films are tiring
and cause the pupil's mind to wander,
whereas short films may be preceded by a
good preparation on the part of the master
and can be perfectly understood and leave
time for a discussion. In my capacity as
head of an educational film bureau, I had
the right to cut films, and made use of this
faculty even after some lessons had been
given with them, reducing the films to the
most efficient length.

Explanatory Notes Each film should be ac-
companied by a short
introduction to the subject that is being dealt
with, touching on the essential points of the
film and facilitating the teacher's preparatory
work- This principle is deduced from the
conception that the teacher must be in
position to utilize the projection from every
point of view, without there being anything
that he is unable to understand, even though
some of the details may not be necessary
for the specific purposes of teaching. The
illustrative sheets or notes will frequently
give information as to why certain acts

416

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

or aspects have been photographed ; as for
instance in our illustrative sheet on the film
" cellular division ", which explains why the
usual form of chromosomes given in books
was not chosen, but the rod-like form,
and also why chromosomes have different
forms.

It may be objected that the teaching film,
as we see it, would be rather dull, but
we are of opinion that in teaching humour
should be the teacher's prerogative and not
be forced into the film. We are not, how-
ever, opposed to the idea of a film whose
interest lies in the facts presented. For
instance, in a film intended for pupils from
the second to the third scholastic year il-
lustrating " How a Table is Made ", the
first scene shows children making a rudi-
mentary table-top out of a packing case and
nailing it on to four legs. When one of the
children sits on the table, however, it col-
lapses. The scene is comical and may
appear to be unnecessary but is, on the
contrary, quite necessary, because it helps
the explanation of why this table-top must
be attached to the legs by transverse
lengths of wood, which otherwise, the
children would not understand when they
see the carpenter at work on a table. Al-
though we are on principle opposed to the
introduction of superfluous scenes in a
teaching film, there appears in the above
film, in addition to the carpenter, a boy of
about the age of the pupils of 7 or 8 years
for whom it is intended (1). This boy
serves to draw the attention of the specta-
tors to the exact points required by the
action represented ; and his appearance in
the film is justified by the fact that the
carpenter is making a little play table for
his son Jean. These scenes however, which
seem to belong to the ordinary cinema,
have nothing in common with those docu-
mentary films which are full of episodes
that have no direct relation to the subject ;

(1) This film is made use of in lessons on the
mother tongue as well as in lessons on the subject
dealt with in it.

they are completely justified by the psycho-
logy of the youthful spectators, and would
be superfluous only if intended for older
children.

Since school requirements must be
imposed in the most definite way at every
stage in the production of a teaching film,
and since the failure to observe this rule is
responsible for the fact that we have so far
practically no perfect teaching films, we
have been compelled to give precedence to
these requirements in our discourse on
the creation of a teaching film. This produc-
tion process, to which we referred when cit-
ing films produced by the " SAFU " as
examples, begins with the question or de-
mand : what subject matter could be made
more living, complete and striking by
means of the film ? When the " SAFU "
began to consider the production of its first
film, we decided that the bird life was
such a subject.

The second stage was the choice of a suit-
able species of bird, the whole of whose life
was to be filmed, with due consideration to
pedagogical, technical and economic re-
quirements and also to the means at dis-
posal. We decided to film the " Life of a
Seagull " as a sample of bird life, being
guided in our choice : a) for pedagogical
reasons because, being a winter visitor to
our shores, this bird is known to our pupils
and because we were able to show it to them
in the prelude to conjugal life, building its
nest and sitting on its eggs, as well as the
hatching of young, their feeding by the par-
ents, the care of the young, the search for
food, flight, the care of the plumage,
the difference between the plumage of
young and old, their collective life, migrat-
ion and protection ; b) for technical reasons,
because the seagull is a large bird of strik-
ing appearance, which builds its nest on
land, seeks its food on land and in the water,
is not very sensitive to noise or very intel-
ligent, and because the picture-making could
be done easily in a protection park on
the spot ; c) for economic reasons, because
the marshes where the seagull congregates

THE PRODUCTION OF TEACHING FILMS

417

were easy of access, and there was a hut
there where our collaborators could take
shelter without expense, and lastly be-
cause the technicians and specialists who
were looking after the pictures, being stim-
ulated only by the desire for scientific re-
search, had offered to do the work without
remuneration. Another reason for making
this choice was that we had Dr. Noll, an
excellent pedagogue and specialist in orni-
thology, to help us, and another specialist
as cameraman who had made his studies in
photography and scientific cinematography
at the Photographic Institute of the Federal
Institute of Technology.

As an illustration of craftsmanship for the
first teaching grade, we chose the film on
the making of a table (" How a Table is
Made ") because it showed a relatively
simple operation and required the use of a
material of primary importance, namely,
wood ; because we could thus show the
manufacture of a simple but important ob-
ject in common use ; and also because, to-
gether with the hand labour, we could give
a demonstration of the importance of
machine work-

Tine Scenario. When the question

of the subject mat-
ter has been settled, we reach the third
stage, namely, the drawing up of the scen-
ario, in which teacher, specialist and cin-
ema-technician must collaborate. This is
not an easy task, but is necessary because
the success of the film largely depends
upon it. Unless a properly detailed scen-
ario is prepared before beginning work, the
final composition of the film will show an-
noying gaps or scenes which are badly ar-
ranged or do not fit in with the rest ; and these
defects invariably occur if one of the
three collaborators in the film is lacking.
Before beginning to shoot a film, the " SA
FU " has the scenario passed by a special
committee of experts, composed of masters
in the particular grades of teaching for
which the film is intended.

Choice of Location When it has been
and Collabor- decided to make the
ators> film, we reach the

fourth stage, that is to
say, the choice of a suitable place for shoot-
ing the scenes and of the persons who will
have to play some part in the film or are
needed for the picture-making, if this
part of the preliminary work has not yet
been done.

For the film on " Grafting " we chose
a suitable tree near which it was possible
to place the apparatus without too many
complicated arrangements ; and we had
the assistance of a specialized fruit-grower
who thoroughly understood his job. For
the before mentioned film on the making of
a table, we had much more difficulty in
finding a carpenter and a boy to take the
part of his son who were able to play with
sufficient naturalness to avoid giving the
young spectators the impression that they
were acting a part, children being very
critical observers. For the other film,
on the registration of heartbeats, we had
to find a draftsman who was able to carry
out the animated cartoons after consulting
the professor and studying the necessary
anatomical plates.

We had to get the help of an amateur
for another film, on locks, who obliged us
by constructing a model, ready to work, on
the same type as the Bale-Augstone.

Finances. Even when all the

collaborators of a film
work without remuneration, money is still
one of the indispensable necessities for
producing a film, and it is not always easy
to procure it. One of the reasons is that
this type of film does not at present yield
any financial gain, and commercial firms
are far from anxious to finance films of the
kind, while, on the other hand, the authori-
ties are not easily interested in the plans
of work presented to them. At the " SAFU ,,
where we produce films instead of merely
talking about them, some members of the
society advanced the necessary capital

Ice ingl.

418

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

in the hope of being reimbursed by future
profits, which, luckily, did not prove a delu-
sion.

Technical Prepara- When the execution

tlon* of the film is assured

from the material and financial point of
view, we come to the preparations of a tech-
nical order. Keeping in mind all the ob-
stacles to be overcome, the qualified spec-
ialist and the cinema-technician study the
necessary arrangements and prepare what
is requisite in the way of apparatus and ac-
cessories.

In order that we may have a wider field
of action when making a film, we must
have excellent lenses of different focal dis-
tances. The technical equipment, above
all, must be first class for the production
of teaching films.

There is also the lighting problem. When
the shooting is to be done out of doors, the
most suitable position must be fixed before-
hand and also the best time of day, so that
the work can be carried out in the shortest
time possible. Sufficient light must be as-
sured for inside shots, so that every detail
will appear clear and precise.

Although the carpenter's workshop where
we took the film on the making of a table
was well lighted, we had to use a number of
extra lamps, which consumed 12,000 watts.

It is often necessary to make preliminary
experiments, because every film presents
new and unforseen problems. When the
regular shooting has once begun, it must
proceed without interruption, because
unity of time and place is of much more
importance in teaching films, for pedagog-
ical reasons, than m theatrical films.

The making of the seagull film neces-
sitated the experiment a year before-
hand in the marshes. After this first trial,
we set up a suitable tent and a collaps-
ible boat to carry the heavy apparatus.
We had also to discover some way of pro-
tecting the apparatus from damp or a pos-
sible fall into the water ; and lastly, we had
to arrange the shed, which was open to the

air, so that it could be used for the camera.
In all the shooting operations we had to
make use of the photometer, and therefore
we not only had to consider the high frequen-
cy installation and the lenses from the
point of view of perfect working and capac-
ity, but everything measurable had to be
controlled : the indications of the tachome-
ter, the shutting times, scales of distance,
indications of light intensity. The result
showed how indispensable all these oper-
ations were. Three weeks were needed for
this complete preparation, but we encount-
ered no difficulties afterwards; indeed, every-
thing worked to perfection.

Taking the Pictures. The collaboration of
teacher, specialist and cinema-technician
is more than ever indispensable at the
seventh stage, which constitutes the actual
shooting of the film.

However well prepared we may be, new
situations frequently crop up, and it is nec-
essary to know how to provide for them
instantly, with a prompt decision that in-
dicates the right lines to follow. The lat-
ter must take into account not only the
material but also the pedagogic and technical
aspects, and only too often it is anything
but easy to find the necessary and suitable
point of conjunction between the three
needs.

In the case of the seagull film, the mat-
erial and pedagogic requirements were
simplified by the fact that specialist and
teacher were combined in one person. But
the cinema-technician frequently had to
protest, on account of the insufficiency of
the light, the lack of depth of focus, the un-
suitability of the background which, as a
consequence of the lack of colours in photo-
graphic reproduction, invariably came out
differently from the way it appeared in
nature. But thanks to this collaboration,
a satisfactory solution was always found.

The repetition of shots must be avoid-
ed as far as possible, because many objects
and phenomena do not lend themselves to
be taken over again exactly as they were

THE PRODUCTION OF TEACHING FILMS

419

the first time, and the attention of the pupils
would be distracted during the projection
if there were a change of site.

If the success of a difficult shots is not
sure, it must be done over again, possibly
with different poses, lenses and diaphgrams.
It may be found economical to use twice or
even three times the meterage of negative
needed for the finished picture. We may
mention that, for the seagull picture, we
exposed about 1 ,000 metres, of which, after
a careful selection, we were able to use 700
metres for the film to be projected at lec-
ture and 310 metres standard size (125
reduced size) for the edition intended for
teaching.

Printing and Devel- It is when we reach
opment. the eighth stage, which

consists of the printing and developing
of the film, that we know whether the
shots have been successful or not. There
are risks in this field also, and the develop-
ing should be done, if possible, by the cinema-
technician who made the film and knows
the results that should be obtained.

In any case, automatic development
should be made use of in normal cases. To
obtain the best results in delicate negatives
it is as well to use frame or drum develop-
ment with which it is possible to keep cons-
tant control and to adapt the developer.
In printing also, the expert is much better
able to bring out all the essential values.

Critical Revision. After the printing has
been done, the film
must be revised by the master, specialist
and cinema-technician, who examine and
discuss the various problems : what should
be repeated or changed, and how the changes
should be made.

The seagull film was made with such
care that we had a sufficient length of per-
fect film. In the film on grafting, a close-
up had to be repeated for pedagogical rea-
sons ; it had come out too small and had to
be done on a larger scale. The film on
cellular division had to be shot a second

time, the first rushes not being perfect from
the technical point of view : a certain trick
process, expressly invented for this film,
had been used, and the operators were not
altogether successful with it the first time,
owing to its novelty. During the shoot-
ing of the film on locks, one of our collab-
orators knocked against the counterpoise
of the boat, causing it to wobble, and the
whole length of film had to be done over
again. The movement of the boat had
happened just in the moment when the water
was lowered, so that it was impossible
to cut out this part of the film, as one could
do with a theatre film, filling up the gaps
with a title or close up. A second shooting
was necessary also for the film registering
heart beats, and some of the animated car-
toons had to be altered, the specialist real-
izing that there was too much movement
in the point of intersection with a strong
connecting tissue.

Cutting and Com- This task is of the

position of the greatest importance

osi lve. an(j OCCUpjes a lot 0f

time. It must be carried out in collabor-
ation by the specialist, teacher and cinema-
technician. An outsider cannot form the
slightest idea of the number of times each
scene must pass through the observation
and control apparatus before it can be
cut successfully.

Choice of Titles. The choice of titles

must be made by the teacher, with the aid
of the specialist. The titles must be short
and sloganlike, serving more for the infor-
mation of the teacher than the pupils,
to whom a lengthy film could not be shown
without proper preparation.

There is no fixed rule for titles. Thus
for instance, in the film on the making of
a table, a number of short sentences and
exclamations were chosen by way of excep-
tion, giving the idea of a conversation
between father and son. These writings
should be read in chorus by the class.
Without betraying the content of the pictures

420

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

to come, they arouse curiosity, as, for
instance, in the sentence, " Go away,
Jean, it is dangerous ! ", which comes be-
fore a picture where the plank is cut by
the band saw.

Comment. The necessary com-

ment on the film means a good deal of
work for both specialist and teacher. Com-
ments must not consist of treatises or
scientific reports on the subject of films, but
presuppose that the master has a full
knowledge of the subject within the limits
of his teaching. The object of these com-
ments, which have a pedagogic character,
is to facilitate the master's task of including
the film in the didactic field and explaining
the projection.

Critical Examination. Up to this point the
film has been conceived and carried out by
a small group of persons who have worked
at its production with all their hearts.
But we now reach the fatal stage when it is
submitted to the critical examination of
masters who have had nothing to do with its
creation and must make use of it in their
classes. Shortly after this examination they
must use it in a trial lesson before their
pupils, and only thus will they be able to
judge of its practical results. Unexpected
reactions are seen at these first trials,
especially in the lower classes.

These experiments suggest that the
cinema-technician who shoots the film
should attend during the lesson, so that he
may be able to eliminate from the scenes
everything that may be the cause of confusion
and misunderstanding on the part of pupils.
The cinema-technician should be able to rea-
lize these points before shooting, whereas the
teacher cannot perceive them till afterwards.
After the deliberate criticism by the teacher
and the involuntary criticism of the pupils,
improvements may be made when necessary;
but in any case, observation should be
noted and kept in mind when making the
next film.

Master Copy and The last work that
Reduced Size Neg- remains to be done,
ative- if the teaching film

thus created is to fulfil its purpose, is to
make a perfect master copy and take a
reduced size negative from it, which will
be more suitable for schools, especially
on account of its lower cost.

An excellent reduced-size negative can
be obtained by means of a reduction from a
standard size master positive which fulfils
all technical requirements ; and a positive
obtained from a negative of this kind
is generally more perfect than the one
usually obtained by an immediate reduc-
tion from the original negative.

The advisability of having a good master
copy and a reduced size duplicate negative
is suggested by the fact that a teaching
film has not such a short life, generally, as a
theatrical film, which disappears from circu-
lation a short time unless there is something
exceptional in it. Good teaching films get
out of date very slowly, and even years after
their production there is a demand for
copies to replace those which are worn
out (1).

The Industry and the When producing teach-
Teaching Film. jng nlmS) we have

not followed the usual methods of the cinem-
atograph industry. It must be understood
at once, however, that if the industry wants
to concern itself with the production of
this type of film, it must begin by adapt-
ing itself to the requirements of the school,
because no matter what kind of propaganda
or pressure is exercised by the industry,
it is out of the question that a film which

(1) Up to the present we have always made stan-
dard size films and then reduced them to the 16 mm.
size. In view, however, of the fact that the grain
of the reduced size film is now finer and that ap-
paratus is being constructed for the direct taking
of reduced size films on a professional basis, there
is every reason to hope that we may be able to
shoot films directly in this reduced size without
deterioration in the quality of the pictures taken.
The necessary outlay for a film would thus be
considerably reduced.

THE PRODUCTION OF TEACHING FILMS

421

does not respond rigorously to didactic
requirements wdl ever have any success,
mainly in consequence of the control exer-
cised by teachers, who quite rightly have
the greatest influence in school matters.
The industry might perhaps point out
that films produced in accordance with the
requirements of teaching would cost too
much, while there would be no prospect of
making much profit out of them. It must
be admitted, unfortunately, that the school
will never prove a particularly remunerative
market for the film industry. This is espec-
ially the case at present, teaching by the
film being in little use. But if perfect
teaching films are produced, the demand will
grow rapidly, so that if the industry is ready
to be satisfied with a moderate profit, it can
perfectly well undertake the production of
teaching films. Associations such as the
" SAFU " will first have to clear the way
still more, perhaps, but it would be advis-
able that this preparatory work should be
done, from now on, in collaboration with
the industry ; and this could be done if the
the latter would agree to renounce making
any considerable profit for the moment
and contribute to the work by training
camera-men capable of collaborating intel-
ligently with specialist and teacher and ready
to give their enthusiastic aid.

Adaptation of Exis- We must devote a
ting Films. last worcj to tne ac}ap.

tation of existing films with the idea of
using them in teaching, because this was
our starting point at Basle and Zurich and

we have had considerable experience in
this line. Although there is a widespread
idea that something good could be made
out of existing films, it is only rarely in
practice, that it is possible to make a good
teaching film out of them, either because
many of the scenes are much too short to
be used in class or because many points which
are of importance in teaching are totally
lacking and especially because the films
have not been made for the purpose of
teaching.

At first, we had to content ourselves with
films of this kind and gained valuable ex-
perience in class by their means. But the
production of teaching films by making use
of existing negatives can be considered only
as a modest complement to the teaching
film. Perhaps the situation would be
improved if we could complete these films
by adding new shots.

With the object of getting a practical
understanding of the production of teach-
ing films, the " SAFU " undertook the work
of production from beginning to end. We
have shown one of the ways that lead of the
goal. Undoubtedly there are other ways
suited to other situations and bodies, ways
in which the educational film industry can
lend profit-assistance. All these ways mav
lead to the goal aimed at, provided that we
never lose sight of teaching requirements
and the useful collaboration of teacher, spe-
cialist and cinema-technician. The require-
ments of teaching are high, but they
must be satisfied because nothing is too good
for the school.

REPORT ON THE EDUCATIONAL CINEMA
IN CONNECTION WITH THE PRINCIPLES
OF BIO - PEDAGOGICAL METHODOLOGY

BY

Dr. Michele M. Tumminelli,

Dean of the Institute of Bio-Pedagogical Education "Edmondo de Amicis" in Milan.

IN giving its enthusiastic support to the
first International Congress of Educational
Cinematography, the Institute of Bio-peda-
gogical Education intends to illustrate the
importance of cinematography not only
from the point of view of its utility as a
didactic aid, but as a valuable instrument
in Bio-pedagogy.

It is necessary to insert here a short
parenthesis regarding the science of bio-
pedagogy in which we have the honour
of being enthusiastic pioneers. Bio-ped-
agogy is the science which proposes to
educate and instruct by taking advantage
of the laws governing the medicine of the
constitution, psychology, and pedagogy,
and also taking into due consideration the
three aspects of the student's personality,
that is the physical intellectual and mental
aspects.

Education which follows this unitarian
and correctionalist principle abandons the
old concepts of abstract pedagogy in order
to strike out along new paths in human
rationalized education. In follows very
definite laws and rules which aim at find-
ing an individual educational formula for
each pupil and of establishing the most
suitable educational method.

This new educational science which takes
for its basic concept the grand principle
of the vital unity of the living being, estab-
lished in human biology by famous scien-
tists like Nicola Pende, teachers in bio-
typology, the German doctor Frederick
Kraus, the French biologist Le Dant, the

physio-pathologist Grasset and others,
presupposes the existence in every Insti-
tute, in connection with education based
on the fundamental principles of the new
science of a doctor having a wide experience
in the laws governing human growth.

The Edmondo De Amicis Institute of
Milan which we have the honour of re-
presenting at the first international Congress
of Educational Cinematography, though
containing its effects within the limits of
the general lines of work of the Nicola
Pende Bio-typological school, has followed
for some four years, in its educational ac-
tivity an individual and bio-pedagogical
policy and has collected a notable mass of
documentary material suitable for dem-
onstrating the utility and efficacy of the
bio-pedagogical method in educational meth-
odology for the didactic training and instruc-
tion of human material in the pre-puberty
or puberty stage of life.

None of the ancient or modern pedagogic
systems, not even the most famous of them,
are capable of saying all that bio-pedagogy
can already say after its recent inception.
It has revolutionized traditional educational
methods which we assert to be absolutely
inadequate and insufficient for modern
needs.

The Instruments of Through following
the Intelligence. tnjs method, we have
arrived at the following conclusions amongst
others: — intelligence is a gift which, owing
to the necessary disequilibrium of a mental

THE CINEMA AND THE PRINCIPLES OF BIO-PEDAGOGICAL METHODOLOGY 423

character caused in young people by the
phenomenon of growth, often remains lazy
and inactive among the young scholars of
middle and elementary schools. We can
say — to use an expression which is rather
fashionable at the present time — that there
are active intelligences which form the min-
ority, and there are frozen intelligences.
The active intelligence is the one which
makes use of its instruments for action,
which the frozen intelligence hardly does
at all, or in an insufficient manner.

The instruments of the intelligence are
the attention, the memory and the will,
without an appropriate use of which, the
intelligence remains unproductive that is,
a frozen asset.

The attention, the will and the memory
are influenced, according to the doctrines
of constitutional medicine, by the endocrine
glandular system. It is possible to exert
an influence on them through apotherapeut-
ical excitation and methodological stimuli.

Let us leave on one side, for a moment,
the therapeutical form of excitation and
confine ourselves to the methodological
method. This latter is essentially schol-
astic and follows the principles embodied in
the old adage, that is, that use improves
an organ and can indeed sometimes create
ona.

Attention, will and memory are three re-
curring elements of the same principle, and
action in one of these instruments, is man-
ifested in all three.

The Cinema as a A lesson given with
Methodological Aid. tne use 0f t^e mo_

tion picture has a powerful effect on the at-
tention. The pupil remains isolated from
the external surroundings which might dis-
tract him (surroundings distraction, due to
persons and things) and is also freed from
the distraction deriving from distant agents
and our sub-conscious mind (galloping
fancy, sensory influences existing in the
organism in a latent condition or through
the association of ideas or through the ef-
fect of contrast).

The pupil who follows a lesson given witth
the assistance of the motion picture is al-
most entirely free from distracting influence.
His attention is carried against his will,
as it were, to the screen, while his intelli-
gence, drawn along by the attention, is found
to understand and take interest in the les-
son, abandoning completely that state of
torpor in which it often remains during an
oral lesson.

The student is isolated by the darkness
of the projection hall, and nothing can be
the object of his attention save the picture
being shown on the screen. The attention
thus acts automatically on the will.

The pupil leaves the filmed lesson with a
mass of concepts already acquired and de-
veloped. The teaching he has received has
permeated deeply into his mind, and the
text-book comes to fill its place as guide
and counsellor.

The Experimental We proved all this
film on Physics. wnen we macJe an ex-
perimental film on physics, the actual di-
rection of which was undertaken by Dr.
Enrico Purgotti in collaboration with the
" Million Film " of Milan.

This film which we shall show to the
members of the congress is a year old, and
if we had to make the picture over again,
we would cut out the sub-titles and make
the picture more lively by introducing some
extra shots. The film in question is a
lesson which illustrates the notion of work
and energy with a lively and amusing suc-
cession of scenes in animated drawings.
The picture concludes with an illustration
of aspirators at work, a little mannikin
being used for the handling. Dr. Pargotti
decided on this semi-human figure (devil
or mannikin) so as better to illustrate the
effort made.

' The introduction of a picture like this
" says Dr. Pargotti in his report " can be
made human by the use of animated draw-
ings which would remove all ideal aspects
from the picture ' .

Our experiment aimed at making the

424

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

lesson a thing to itself as a didactic aid that
should act directly on the attention, and we
believe we succeeded in our aims which
were really of a twofold character. The
carrying of a scholastic programme or cur-
riculum such as we have outlined required
much more than the projection of one
film. A regular cinema archive is required
such as would be suited to the mental needs
of pupils from the lowest elementary class
to pupils about to leave school.

Education of the We must meet an
Active Attention, objection here that is
sometimes raised. Does the motion pic-
ture tire the pupil. We are of the opinion
that it does. The film tires, both because
it demands all the pupils' attention owing
to its interest, and also because it arouses
in the pupils a nervous state of mind deriving
from the darkened hall and the strain of a
constant attention. But, after all, the
scholastic film is short, and always will be
short. It lasts two minutes at the most and
generally not more than 15 minutes. Thus,
there is little risk of the pupil really becom-
ing tired in such a way that his attention can
no longer be given because he tends to be-
come sleepy.

There still remains the question of fat-
igue, which would be an embarrassing con-
sideration if it were not heavily counter-
balanced by the advantage of a greater rap-
idity of learning of the lesson. Here
we come to the nucleus of our methodo-
logical experiences.

The curriculum in middle schools is
weighty and abundant in subject-matter
and imposes on the student an extra-scolas-
tic work, that is. home work, which some-
times proves injurious to the health. If the
film can succeed in increasing the capacity
of the attention — and we know that it
can — the repeated effect of the motion
picture will render the attention more agile
and capable, and will increase the effort
of the will which comes from the joy of
learning. The memory which is strength-
ened by exercise will also show signs

of improvement. We have therefore to
realize the fact that the motion picture
does sometimes exercise an immediate
action which causes fatigue to be set up
in the pupil, owing to the active efforts of
the attention and at the same time a me-
diate action which renders the pupil quick-
er in learning and appreciating the various
subjects in the curriculum.

It is not difficult to arrive at the conclu-
sion that the use of the cinema answers the
requirements of a rational system of mental
hygiene since it allows the pupil to learn
in a reasonably short period of time what
required two hours or more with a frozen
intelligence, and also necessitated home
work.

Our experience in this field of activity
has been confirmed by similar oral exer-
cises made successfully in various classes.

Urgent Necessities. These, in our opinion,
are the aims and objects of the scholastic
film, the practical operation and working
of which we will now examine.

As things are at present, scholastic cine-
matography appears to be in a poor and
disorganized condition The teacher is
not properly prepared or ready for his
work, while few schools are equipped with
even an inexpensive film projector capable
of satisfying modern requirements.

In my opinion, there is no department
of study or education which the motion
picture cannot well enter.

The teacher will automatically become
acquainted with the new aid when there is
an abundant supply of films, and he has at
his disposal a simple, easily handled machine
which he can use himself. Whence comes
the necessity of insisting that all schools
supply themselves with a film repos-
itory, a projector and a screen. When it
is not possible, owing to financial consider-
ations, to provide a projector, a hall
should be prepared for occasional film
projections.

All nations ought to use the same film
format and sound films when it is desired

THE CINEMA AND THE PRINCIPLES OE BIO-PEDAGOGICAL METHODOLOGY Alb

to express sounds or speech. There
should not be any sub-titles, but the teach-
er should illustrate the filmed lesson
from a manual.

Conclusion. As a result of the

foregoing remarks, we can sum up as
follows : —

(1) All scholastic pictures should be
made after taking due account of the phy-
sical, psychical and mental conditions of the
young people for whom the films are in-
tended. Every producing firm should re-
quest the opinion of a constitutional doc-
tor on its scholastic pictures before releas-
ing them. The doctor's name should
be given in the illustrative brochure of the
film.

(2) All countries to come to an agree-
ment to use standardized reduced size sound
films.

(3) No film to last longer than 20
minutes.

(4) The film production to be under
regular State control and the interna-
tional distribution of such scholastic pic-
tures te entrusted to the Rome I. I. E. C.

(5) National and international prizes
and awards to be offered for films.

(6) Films to be lent to schools with
State financial help, and no distinction to be
made between free and State schools.

(7) Classes for preparing teachers in
cinema methodology and human biology to
be instituted at the universities and in
normal schools.

THE CINEMA AND THE YOUNG PERSON

BY

Prof. G. Diaz-Plaja,

of the University of Barcelona.

THE penetration of the motion picture
into the field of pedagogy is, at any
rate in theory, a reality, as a vast bibliogra-
phy would prove, were the official docu-
mentations of the fact not sufficient evidence.
The educational possibilities of the film
have been examined most carefully and
thoroughly by the experts, yet a glance at
catalogues and articles shows a strange dis-
proportion between the amount of objects
of works actually made and other objects,
which, despite their eminent desirability
as pictures, have been almost forgotten.
We are aware of numerous studies which
deal with the phenomenon cinema under
moral, hygienic, social, political, sanitary
and educational aspects, but the mass of
work accumulated on these subjects only
streses the relative poverty of works given

up to an analysis of the phenomenon child
in the light of the educational films.

This observation of ours becomes neces-
sary at a time like the present when there is
a general tendency not to consider the educ-
ational period concluded with the end of the
scholastic age, but rather to wish for and de-
velop a post-scholastic organization which
has as one of its objects not to leave the in-
dividual to the free exercise of his unguided
judgment.

I confine myself purposely to this obser-
vation, since this is not the subject which I
propose to deal with here. Rather is it
my intention to consider the case of the
student who is passing from the elementary
to the middle schools. Unfortunately,
there is no particularized bibliography
available for this case.

426

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

It would be absurd to suggest that the
rules and regulation as laid down for the
use of the educational motion picture in the
elementary schools can be applied success-
fully for middle schools. There cannot
even be any satisfactory adaptation of the
one for the other. The pedagogues of the
cinema have not, in my opinion, sufficiently
illustrated the radical differences existing
between these two types of school and the
didactic differences which inevitably result
therefrom.

Infancy and adolescence are perhaps
the two periods of human life which are
most distinct from one another " states
Mendousse (1). One of the greatest er-
rors of the new pedagogy as revealed in
various countries, as, for instance in Spain,
is to consider secondary classes as a devel-
opment of elementary schooling. This is
great mistake, for " the adolescent is nei-
ther a big child nor a young man " (2).
Perhaps, the delay in adapting the film to
the requirements of the middle schools (3)
depends on the confusion of ideas existing
among educational pioneers concerning
this category of schools.

We will point out a few facts and cir-
cumstances which allow us to distinguish
the psychology of children in the elementary
classes and adolescents in the middle schools.

We may take this occasion to agree with
Spranger that " in adolescence, manifesta-
tions of the spirit are not solely considered
subjective realities inasmuch as they are
enriched with personal experiences. " And
again : " The adolescent is not capable of
creation in any field since his vital activity
is limited to absorbing the culture furnished

(1) L'ame de I' adolescent, Paris, Alcan, 1930,
page 1.

(2) Id., p. 295.

(3) Barcelona, for instance, has faced the ques-
tion of the educational film boldly, taking the mo-
tion picture for teaching purposes to the university,
See Review of the I. I. C. E. for Sept. 1932). It
has not introduced the educational motion picture
into the " lyceums ".

(4) There does not even exist a specific output
of films for middle schools.

him. Man creates his life, following ex-
ternal experiences, not as objects of curios-
ity, but as vital stimuli ".

It is particularly during the period of
adolescence that these vital constructions
are formed (1).

Consequently, the picture of the world
which the educationist must place before the
eyes of the adolescent should present certain
special characteristics. The film-catalogue
and window opened on the world (2) —
must adapt itself to the new requirements
of the physical development of the student.
Let us see what these requirements are.

Scientific Speciali- The passage from

zations. primary to secondary

teaching presupposes, from the point of
view of subject matter and teacher, a ru-
dimentary specialization which may be
likened to the unity of the elementary
school. The student will consider every
subject in the curriculum apart, and peda-
gogy will be able to proceed under the best
conditions. In the fields of geography and
natural science, the teacher will find it
easiest and simplest to make a gradual use
of the valuable motion picture.

Documentary and Must all films that
Artistic Films. are shown in schools

be documentary pictures ? This question,
which is a grave and wide one, has not been
properly examined in the numerous books
dealing with the elementary school. One
might say, perhaps, that the documentary
film is best suited for teaching or instruction,
and the artistic film for education. This
statement leads us, first of all, to admit that
the documentary picture is indispensable in
the various stages of development of an
individual, and that it is advisable to make
it conform strictly to the various stages of
such development, that is, taking due ac-

(1) SPRANGER. The Psychology of the Adolescent,
Chap. II.

(2) G. Diaz-PlAiA. Una Cultura del Cinema,
Barcelona, 1931.

THE CINEMA AND THE YOUNG PERSON

All

count of the various requirements of the
elementary, secondary and high schools.
Our second observation allows it to be
established that it is advisable to give a
preference to artistic films of an educational
nature in the various classes of the middle
schools.

It is clear that the psychical conditions
of the adolescent show certain characteris-
tics some of which we have already noted,
and counsel the choice in middle school
teaching of formative stimuli, while inform-
ative stimuli should be allowed to form the
chief spiritual pabulum of the student in
the high schools and at the university. In
both cases, however, the essential thing is
to acquire that knowledge and sense of the
subject which is obtainable during the
course of secondary studies.

Are we then to argue that only purely
documentary pictures should be shown to
the children of the elementary schools ?
This is, in fact, the truth, though we may
include some short comic films, preferably
animated drawings. It is clear that this
selection of pictures has as its principal ob-
ject the avoiding of any premature develop-
ment of the critical spirit. At the same
time, it can only be of value in those
countries where children are rigorously
forbidden entry to ordinary theatrical ci-
nemas.

The Censorship and This point leads us
the Adolescent. on to another. This
is the rational organization of the censor-
ship, the neessity of which is beyond any
question. The constitution of Weimar
and the constitution of the present Spanish
Republic expressly recognize this neces-
sity. The power for suggestion of the
motion picture justifies this unanimity of
opinion. The censorship has generally
a double aspect, a police aspect which im-
plies the suppression of any attempt at
revolutionary propaganda or apology, and a
moral aspect with tends to eliminate from
films scenes in which passion, vice or ex-
hibitionism go beyond certain limits, which

limits will naturally vary according to coun-
try, epoch and customs. (There is much
to be said on these two forms of censorship
and they way in which they are exercised).

This brings up another subject which we
should like to examine. Does the govern-
ment censorship succeed in rendering the
cinema spectacle fit to be seen by children
and adolescents ? Official opinion is
somewhat divided on this point. Often
enough the restrictions imposed by the
censorship are not inspired by principles
of a moral character. The regulation which
forbids the entry into San Salvador of per-
sons under 30 for instance seems to us
based on hygienic considerations. Generally
speaking, the legislative measures are not
very rigorous. Out of 37 countries which
have juridical dispositions on the cinema,
27 neither consider or make any effort to
defend the healthy of the adolescent. Some
form of moral control is more general,
though often enough this is of a negative
character. Cinema commissions lay down
the hours for afternoon cinema shows, re-
gulate the admission of children to picture
palaces unless the children are accompan-
ied, interdict certain kinds of shows, clas-
sify films not adapted for young people,
obliging exhibitors to publish the fact in
their advertising matter. What is lacking,
however, in all this legislation is something
positive in the way of a law dictated by an
enthusiastic creator of educational examples
likely to eliminate the evil and exalt the
good. Among many examples, we will
choose one very interesting Italian case.
Article 157 of the Decree of April 1926,
after having authorized the censorship to
forbid young people seeing films which,
on account of their passionate nature or
their crime or detective aspects might be
capable of exercising an evil influence on the
sentiments adds : " films treating of works
of art, cities, panoramas, historical scenes,
folklore, facts from natural history and scien-
tific experiments are pictures which may be
considered as being especially suitable for
children and adolescents. So too are pic-

428

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

tures which help to exalt the civic and relig-
ious virtues, the sacred character of the
home and family sentiments, mother love,
the spirit of sacrifice, acts of heroism tend-
ing to exalt goodness, valour, energy and
glory ".

I should like to conclude these remarks
on the censorship with a final argument
which seems to me of very considerable
importance. We must take particular care
to safeguard the moral sentiment in young
persons, and not be satisfied only with
exercising vigilance over particular scenes
of any film. In this connection, the aban-
don of Marlene Dietrich starring in Stern-
berg's picture " The Blue Angel ' seems
less dangerous than the kind of sentiment
which is to be found in the rest of the film
in question, that is the sympathy which is
extended to the students' vicious precocity,
and the shameful fall of the old preacher
of a morality which he does not follow him-
self. The same observations apply to Mar-
cel Pagnol's " Topaze .

The Question of In the foregoing re-
Fantasy, marks we think we
have shown the necessity of giving a strictly
real and documentary character to films
destined for the primary schools. The
middle schools, on the other hand, in view
of the requirements of modern students
need not avoid films infused with a certain
amount of fancy (1). Does the cinema de-
velop the fancy ?

Personally, I have always maintained
that the motion picture which is a typical
product of our age, is an anti-romantic art
which seeks for exact contours. I have also
put it on record that every lapse from real-
ity into fantasy ought to be considered
from the strictly cinematographic-pedagogic
point of view as suspect.

How then are to avoid the cinema con-
stituting, if not a danger, at least an obstacle

to the fancy ? There is a type of imagina-
tion which manifests itself in a desire for
novelty, in a longing to find untrodden
paths, and it can be satisfied by any geo-
graphical report or book of travel. There
is, on the other hand, another kind of
imagination which finds its sustenance in
legends and myths, and will discover pro-
per satisfaction in the kind of motion pic-
ture advised for use in the middle schools.
There are, for example, epic films which
can be used during a lesson in literature.
Some years ago, I had an opportunity of
seeing a film version of the Iliad. In the
film, Achilles was represented by a small
muscular man something like a mounte-
bank. A few years later, Fitz Lang show-
ed us his first cinema version of the Nibe~
lungen, in which Siegfried was shown as
a supernatural man, airy and spiritual,
Fritz Lang explained that if Siegfried
triumphs over the dragon, it is due pre-
cisely to his divine origin. If we are going
to explain the power of the gods solely by
the girth and force of their muscles, what
will remain of their mystic quality ? When
a mythic personage reaches the limit of
un reality, the cinema producer's art lies
in making the divinity of the character
appear as something disconnected from his
physical force, something that resides in a
kind of aureole, visible only to the imagina-
tion.

Where are we to find the cinema material
for use in our " lyceums "?

Certainly not in the scholastic film repo-
sitories where subject matter is prepared ad
hoc. This is not the place, however, to
go into the question of the errors committ-
ed in school books, educational text books,
and didactic films which often err owing
to an excessive concentration on the purpose
of the book or picture. The pedagogue
must look for the educational picture in the
existing production, that is in the cinemas

(1) The first items of learning and information ders these points of instruction or if also they
should be imparted in a rigid fashion. It does not read books of adventure,
much matter if the young people's fancy embroi- (2) G. Diaz-PlA A. Id. Estetica, III, 47.

THE CINEMA AND WE YOUNG PERSON

429

on the screens of which the film producers
preach their idealogies to the public (1).
What cinema repository or archive could
provide us with a picture like " Remorse ",
for instance ?

The Film as Art in Summing up our re-
School Curricula. mar]<S( tne non-docu-
mentary film will prove a powerful aid for
the teacher of history or literature as great
outstanding events in modern life and great
works of art attract bit by bit the attention
of film producers.

Finally, — and this point seems to me of

(1) This fact alone would suffice to justify the
use of standard size didactic films rather than re-
duced formats such as 16 mm.

especial interest — the cinema must and
can be treated for a lycee pupil for the first
time as an art to itself, a live independent
universal art of our times, full of an aes-
thetic of its own, and full of suggestions
of eternity, something in fact that is much
more than a simple, supplementary, plas-
tic adjunct to a lesson, or a moral example.
The motion picture then must be stud-
ied and shown as a thing with an aesthetic
value comparable to the other arts, with
which it has analogies and differences,
which could well be made the subject of
interesting studies. It is a means capable
of spreading a knowledge of the peoples
in the world, their nature and psychology,
It is a factor in the pacification and fusion
of the nations.

REPORT ON THE USE OF THE CINEMA
IN PRIMARY TEACHING

BY

Jean Brerault

THE cinema projection machines intend-
ed for use in the primary schools in
France are fairly numerous. Some cal-
culations place the total number at about
12,000, of which more than half are used in
primary schools.

At the same time, it is not very usual for
the motion picture to be employed in clas-
ses as a complementary illustration of
a lesson. I do not mean by this that the
projectors, lie unused in dark cellars cov-
ered with layers of dust. This does indeed
happen sometimes, but generally the pro-
jectors are regularly used.

The teachers are well acquainted with
the cinema performances known as " schol-
astic projections " organized in some
specially reserved hall of the school.

The projections are of two kinds. At
the one kind, which takes place out of school
hours, ex-pupils attend and also their fam-
ilies. These shows are of great utility,
and it is to be hoped that they may devel-
op and extend, for their educational value
is high for young people who have left
school too soon, to begin work in the fac-
tory or office.

The other kind of projections are ded-
icated to the students during their regular
hours of study. These projections, which
have a definite educational object and are
often at the same time recreational, are
attended by the pupils, and are in the nature
of rewards for their good will and diligence
in study Often enough, their object is
limited to this, without their having any

430

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

particular didactic purpose. They are not
made to follow any special method but given
more or less at haphazard and according
to the possibilities of the moment as regards
the choice of pictures.

This Kind of Projection Cannot be Called
the Teaching Film. — That definition must
be meant to signify " a document which the
teacher uses for illustrating a lesson together
with lantern slides, observation and exper-
iments .

It may be said that the utilization of the
film understood in this way is at present
impossible in the great majority of cases.

The scholastic curricula of the primary
classes are officially determined. For each
course, whether, it be elementary, middle or
superior, and for each subject-matter, the
teachers plan a series of lessons which
are given, during the scholastic year, ac-
cording to a carefully studied progression.

Each lesson, which is closely connected
with the preceding and subsequent lesson,
is based on a definite part of the curriculum.
The teacher certainly does not hesitate to
refer to past lessons if he considers it nec-
essary. He makes comparisons and points
out differences. Real live teaching can-
not be given in minute doses or administered
with parsimony according to an immutable
system. On the other hand, too much
liberty in teaching is equally harmful. The
great thing is to avoid wasting the attention
of the pupil which must be used to the
best advantage.

A charge is often brought against current
films, and often enough not without reason,
of dissipating the pupil's attention. One
film can be used in three or four lessons
when the subject dealt with is complex.
Our primary teaching is simple and the
pictures which illustrate it should also be
simple. Such films should only include
scenes which are suited to a given lesson
to the exclusion of all other lessons.

Other people hold the view that the les-
son ought to be adapted to the film. This
is not my view. I believe rather that the
film should be adapted to the lesson, or at

any rate to the subject treated in it, and
that it should be conceived with the defin-
ite object of providing a supplementary
illustration of the documentary means placed
at the student's disposal. Analysis re-
quires a study and a preparation which
nature does not offer us. A synthesis
presupposes a knowledge of the individual
elements which is not a priori inevitably
imposed. It is not a case of distorting
natural phenomena, even if the distortion
presents advantages in certain instances
(acceleration, slow motion, etc.) The
teacher must choose and evaluate. In his
hands, the motion picture is an instrument
which must be carefully studied, if it is to
produce good results.

Again, teachers regret that they are un-
able to find, or can only rarely find in the
films provided for them, this connecting
link between the subjects of the lesson and
the cinema illustrations. The official bul-
letins give us evidence of this.

Some one may say : how is it that it has
not so far been possible to apply a method
which seems so simple ?

It is not for lack of trying. It would be
most unfair not to give due honour to the
first workers in primary cinema teaching.
The early installations were due to their
efforts, and all that is being done today is
a result of their early labours. But the
motion picture had progressed since then.
The projections of those days, were, we
have said, educational projections more
than anything else. The true teaching cin-
ema must answer the requirements of a
new formula which is beginning to be
seen and which in perhaps 15 years will be
out of date in turn after having completed
its cycle of life.

Cataloguing Teach- Whatever we may
ing Films. tmnk 0f tne matter,

teachers must utilize the films, that are to

be found on the market. Often enough,

their choice is far from easy.

Bit by bit, as the definition of a teaching

film becomes clearer and the difference be-

THE USE OF THE CINEMA IN PRIMARY TEACHING

431

tween it and an ordinary documentary picture
becomes plain, the classifications is use for
educational films in general will appear
less and less satisfactory. There is not a
sufficiently accurate sub-division of films
that can be used in post-scholastic projec-
tions in respect of pictures which are spec-
ially suited to the schools.

Until recently, there was a regular state
of anarchy in the production of teaching
films, and the film repositories did not help
out matters much by any proper system of
distribution.

The creation of a central organization has
been wanted for a long time, and marks an
important stage in the development of the
scholastic cinema. If such an organ will
prepare an official catalogue of true teach-
ing films, it will render a great service to the
primary school teachers. The Pedagogic
Museum and some regional film repositories
have already arrived at this point in their
organization, and we cannot but praise their
efforts. This pioneer work which has been
recently effected should serve as a model for
the constructive plan, the details of which
have not yet been fixed.

Let us now consider some of the questions
involved in this work of organization.

Method to be fol- (a) Place for Pro-
lowed in Film jections. — Since the
Teaching. film ;g & part of a

lesson, and a documentation given the child-
ren like printed pictures or lantern slides,
objects or manual work, it is necessary and
indispensable that the projection be given
in the class-room together with the lesson.

The motion picture has as its object
the illustration of one or more facts which
the teacher cannot explain with his own
words or with the aid of the fixed projection.
Such illustration should take place at exactly
the opportune moment in the lesson,
without delays or interruptions which
may prove harmful.

If the pupils are obliged to get up and
go to another room to see the projection,
it is clear that the rhythm of the lesson

will be broken. Distractions will be inev-
itable, and the teacher will find himself
obliged to repeat what he was already ex-
plained with serious loss of time.

(b) Hov) to Project the Film. — It is not
possible to lay down a fixed rule regarding
the manner in which a teaching film should
be projected. It may happen that the teach-
er may need to present a fact or a group of
facts connected with one another in such
a way that one projection will suffice for
the purpose of the illustration.

This is the simplest kind of case. It
may also occur that recourse must be had
to the projector at more than one interval
during a lesson. The projection can then
be made with comments or other illustrative
means according as the teacher decides in
his plan of work.

This latter case does not, as a matter of
fact, happen often in primary teaching,
where the objects shown are very simple
and easy to be taught directly and in elem-
entary syntheses.

(c) Comment. — It may appear advisable,
to comment a film for children while it is
being run. This is an error, however,
which in practice will not fail to give un-
satisfactory results.

The children must give all their attention
to the moving images. Their attention will
be entirely taken up this visual effort.

For verbal comment to be a useful
complement to the showing of a film, it is
necessary that it be in perfect accord with
the film, in accord, that is, not only with the
spirit the of picture but also its time. Thus,
every word said must be uttered at just the
right moment, and not a second earlier or
later. This is not an easy condition to
satisfy, and if there is any lack of rhythm
between image and word, the pupil will
lose contact. Either he will see and not
hear, or vice versa.

One the other hand, comment can easily
be overdone. The teacher should avoid
over-describing things passing across the
screen, which explain themselves better
than any words of his can do.

432

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

In general, it is better, for the teacher
to make his comment before the projection
rather than afterwards.

This does not mean that comment is
always useless during the course of the
projection. In the case of the sound film,
the case is quite the other way.

(d) The Sound Film. — Some movements
and certain animated drawings are adequately
supplemented with words, but it is neces-
sary that the words be spoken at the right
moment, and that they be words chosen
to express clearly and rapidly the indispens-
able indications required. The addition
of sound to the film is, in this case, more
efficacious than the teacher's words, the
will find it very difficult to find the right
moment to make his remarks and to choose
the right phrase. Again, with the sound
film the compilation of image and sound
can be studied at length and with care and
the definite arrangement and combination
of the two duly arrived at.

This does not mean that speech care-
fully and prudently adapted to the film is
not useful and fully justifies the addition
of the sound track to the film for primary
teaching.

This is all the more the case if the scenes
are accompanied by various sounds such
as nature sounds, talk, cries of animals,
noises of machines, etc... In these cases,
the sound track is useful as it helps to give
reality and exactitude to the scene being
shown, and allows of a complete study.

A teaching sound film ought not, however,
to be 100 per cent sound. There is a marked
difference between the normal sonorization
of the artistic or documentary picture.
In the latter, the producer almost always
attempts to avoid silent intervals, filling
them up with musical comment. No such
fears need be entertained for a well planned
teaching film. The student is already well
prepared for seeing the picture by the teach-
er's comments, and it is substance rather than
appearance that he requires. It is only in
very rare cases that the musical accompan-
iment will teach the pupil anything.

The use of the sound film must be con-
sidered a desirable thing. Let us hope that
technical progress will enable producers and
middle-men to supply schools with good
films at reasonable prices.

(e) Explanatory Notes. — Teachers have
a due appreciation of the explanatory notes
attached to pictures. Since it is not al-
ways possible for them to examine films
beforehand, the notes permit them to prepare
their lessons in advance, taking due account
of the picture to be shown and in this way
possible errors or omissions are avoided.

A proper note should describe all the
scenes in the picture with the sub-titles,
spoken comment and noises. It can even
go so far as to suggest but only to suggest
the form of the lesson and its place in the
curriculum. It can also illustrate the cir-
cumstances under which the picture was
made, its date and some episodes connected
with the shooting of the film. It can also
contain a list of fixed slides useful for com-
pleting the documentation of the subject.

Utilization of Fixed The luminous fixed
and Animated Pro- projection which we
jections. haye known for a ]ong

time now is an excel-
lent way of showing things to students.
It is clearly superior to ordinary photographs
and reproductions exhibited to the pupils
in schools.

The attention of all the children converges
at the same moment on the same image,
and the master can in this way, without
further consideration give all the useful
information. He can question and get his
class in hand very easily.

The fixed image can be used in many
subjects. It cannot, however, attempt to
represent things which have their essential
existence in motion.

During a geography lesson, on the Alps,
for instance, there is no doubt that the show-
ing of a score of suitable well chosen photo-
graphs will prove much more efficacious
than any comment or literature. It is also
equally evident that a short film would

THE USE OF THE CINEMA IN PRIMARY TEACHING

43

make the lesson still more interesting,
showing the movements which fixed pro-
jections cannot give, such as the rush of
torrents, cascades, avalanches, climbs of
mountains, crevices, cattle being led to
pasture, ecc.

How many lessons of geography and nat-
ural science could be made more natural
and effective with the use of slides and films !

It is easy to imagine lessons in the course
of which, together with the teacher's ex-
planation, there should be included practical
experiments, fixed and animated projections
according to the subject being treated.

If we consider the various methods of
observations available for the pupils dur-
ing a lesson, we shall soon see that not all
exercise the same attraction. Fixed pro-
jections are appreciated, it is true, but the
film still more so. It is necessary to take
this fact into account and to endeavour to
carry on the interest during the lesson,
concluding with a motion picture projec-
tion.

In general, the lesson will begin with the
teacher's explanations and the considera-
tions of the pupils on the projection and
the experiments. Even at this point of the
lesson, it is advisable to hint at the animated
scenes which will be screened at the con-
clusion. In this way the pupils' curiosity
is aroused and the film will be likely to be
shown under the best conditions.

The lantern slide and the motion picture
are not therefore in any way antagonistic.
The motion picture projector should always
be used together with the lantern slide.
Both have their well defined task in the les-
son, a task which suggests the following ob-
servations.

that the use of lantern slides may be de-
veloped to any degree.

We should like to add that projections
may be made in semi-darkness which permits
the pupils to see sketches and allows
the master to exercise a proper surveillance.

Film : (a) The film is not useful for all
lessons.

(b) Where its use is considered indis-
pensable, it should be limited to represent-
ing movements. It ought not to invade
the field of the lantern slide nor the prac-
tical experiment, nor direct object lesson, ob-
servation, or the close study from life of
animals and things. The film should there-
fore be very short, and its running ought
not to exceed ten minutes.

(c) It is useless to stop the projector on a
photograph to give explanations. If a
special position or attitude has to be dilated
on, recourse should be had to the slide.
Scenes shown in motion pictures are val-
uable for the student inasmuch as they re-
present movements. To stop them is to
destroy their value. It means creating a
complication and running the risk of dam-
aging the film when it is much easier to use
a lantern slide which can illustrate the point
better and allow of length explanations,

(d) It is not necessary for a good film to
be complete. . . This indeed is one of its
characteristics. It fulfills its purpose only
if it is used in the lesson in conjunction with
other elements of teaching, and it is only
in this way that the best results can be ob-
tained.

It results from the foregoing that fixed
and animated projections cannot be con-
ceived of separately. It is by their use to-
gether in the lesson that the best results are
obtained.

Fixed Projections. They are perfectly

adapted for showing what can only be pro-
perly observed in complete immobility.
In this case, the teacher's comments and
explanations and the remarks and replies
of the pupils can follow one another without
difficulty. There is no need to demonstrate

Effects of Cinema CURRICULA, TlME-
Teaching. TABLES, TEXT-BOOKS.

— The motion picture, considered as a
supplementary documentation presented
to the pupils, does not seem likely to bring
noticeable modifications in scholastic cur-

^ Ice ingl.

434

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

ricula and the arrangement of the time-
tables of schools.

The fact that a teaching film is projected
in class during the lesson without the lat-
ter being in any way interrupted and
without the pupils having to move to an-
other room together with the brief duration
of the projection clearly show that the pre-
sent hours for teaching can be respected.
The projection of the film will always take
up part of the teacher's oral demonstration
when the latter is obliged to have recourse
to speech to explain as best he can a being,
a phenomenon or a movement.

It would be a good thing if text-books
took due account of the films intended to
illustrate lessons and contained for example,
details, movements, comment or reproduc-
tions of some typical episode or scene of
the motion picture or the lantern slides used
in the lesson.

Subiects usefully The success of the
accompanied with cjnema is intimately
Cinema Aid. connected with move-

ment. But a proper explanation is requir-
ed here. We are concerned with everything
which contains movement in itself : natural,
elements, living beings, machines, etc.
Moreover, what is immobile can also be re-
presented by a mobile means of observa-
tion ; as for instance, panoramas, views,
landscapes ; horizontally, vertically or in
relief. These effects, which are much used
nowadays, have the advantage of giving
an admirable relief to objects. They al-
low them to be seen and observed from all
angles, and reveal a number of different
aspects in them.

A mountain landscape, for instance, seen
from a vehicle which is moving on a wind-
ing road acquires much more life than if
seen from a fixed point. My pupils have
always derived great profit from the pro-
jection of films like " Life in the Alps ".
" Life in the Pyrenees ". These were
pictures made during an automobile tour.
Modern technique permits of employing

the motion picture in class through animat-
ed drawings. By means of these figures,
it is possible today to explain with clarity,
simplicity and notable rapidity the develop-
ment of operations which formerly were
only explained laboriously with repetitions
and the aid of rough impromptu sketches.

Animated drawings find their place in the
primary schools as well as for use for adol-
escents and adults. Let us suppose that
we have to explain the working of a lock
on a river or canal, or the mechanism of a
steam engine. In these cases, the use of
animated drawing intermingled with pho-
tographs, will prove admirably illustrative.
The pupils will no longer be facing dis-
continuous demonstrations, and the theor-
etical argument becomes plain and identifies
itself with the images on the screen. The
abstract becomes immediately concrete.
We should not be led to forego the use of
such a method by the excuse that it is liable
to cause a certain intellectual laziness.

We are dealing with primary schools
where the average intellectual level is not
very high. There are mental processes,
simple enough in themselves, which are
inaccessible to many young minds that must
be either assisted or abandoned, as the case
may be. The most promising intelligen-
ces should certainly always be helped, but
the motion picture allows us to elevate
somewhat the possibilities of the majority
of the children and to bring them into
touch with the conditions of modern life.

From this it will be seen that the sub-
jects which can best be illustrated by the
cinema are geography (physical, economic
and human) and physical and natural
sciences (biology, hygiene, industrial applic-
ations).

In the matter of history, it is prudent to
make some reservations. Historical re-
constructions are too often suspect. Even
in the best films there are often gross errors.
It would appear that the value of the histor-
ical film may lie in its capacity for showing
the conditions of life in bygone epochs,
rural and city life in various periods, the

THE USE OF THE CINEMA IN PRIMARY TEACHING

435

and Slides for
Schools.

history of agriculture, industry and trans-
ports.

For other subjects the employment of the
motion picture seems to be less urgent.
I do not see any necessity for its use in arith-
metic, for instance, at any rate, in primary
schools.

Neither for the teaching of the French
language or morality ; there does there seem
to be any need to have recourse to the cin-
ema.

The life of the school and the people
among whom the scholars grow up will
furnish sufficient objects for observation,
reflection and practice.

In the matter of hand-writing, drawing
and singing, these subjects are too summary
and simple in primary schools to require the
aid of the motion picture.

Qualities Required DISTRIBUTION AND
in Teaching Pro- quality OF FlLMS. —
lectors for Films There are three spec-
lal difficulties which
teachers have to face
when they determine to make use of the
film. These are : material difficulties in
projection — Scarcity of films — Lack of
standard pedagogic quality in films.

Material Difficulties. — One of the chief
of these difficulties is to obtain the indis-
pensable darkness owing to lack of dark cur-
tains, etc.

Then many machines require rather
complicated handling. The greater num-
ber of teachers, and especially women teach-
ers, have no practical acquaintance with
the cinema projector or with films, and the
idea of having to work a machine disturbs
and troubles them. Placing the film in the
projector is a lengthy and complicated oper-
ation for them. They are afraid they will
not be able to handle a delicate machine.
It must be admitted that the manufac-
turers have given little thought to this state
of things. In fact, until recently, they seem
to have tried to give their machines a dif-
ficult and forbidding look. Today, fortun-
ately they are simpler.

Then again, there a number of villages
without electric light, which makes it prac-
tically impossible to give class-room pro-
jections.

Then there is the question of physical
safety for the children and teachers. It is
not possible to project inflammable films
before a class of children. Accidents due to
celluloid catching fire, are alas ! numerous.
There is no doubt that the solution of the
problem lies in the use of incombustible
rather then non-inflammable film.

To overcome this difficulty it will be
necessary :

(a) to persuade the manufacturers to
produce a very simple, strong machine
which will be easily portable, not require
complicated handling for changing of films,
and be cheap and easy to run ;

(6) proper preparation for darkening
the class-room by means of dark curtains.
There is no need for absolute darkness,
which helps to reduce the cost somewhat ;

(c) the installation of a moveable screen
which can be rolled up with cords and run-
ners over the blackboard. In this way, the
screen will be in front of the pupils and the
projector at the rear of the class-room.

(d) The switch-board with button for
cutting off the light in the class-room will
be installed on the back wall near the pro-
jector. Close to this wall car be a bracket
or shelf for supporting the projector.

In my opinion, the following is the best
arrangement :

A cupboard attached to the rear wall will
contain the apparatus, which will be at-
tached to a moveable shelf in the cupboard
that can be swung out when the machine
is in use. When the projection is finished,
the shelf can be returned to the cupboard
and the projector kept clean from dust and
preserved from the risk of jolts. I have
this method in my class and have found it
tried very successful.

Scarcity of Scholastic Films. — The use
of the cinema in teaching as we understand
it includes the projection of films in the
class-room and during the lesson to the

436

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

pupils. It takes for granted the fact that
the films will remain at the teachers' dis-
posal, so that they will not find themselves
obliged to alter the order of the lessons or
the time-table.

It generally happens that the same cur-
riculum will be given in different schools
at the same time. This may mean that
the teachers will require the same film at the
same moment, which will not be possible
to arrange.

It is always tiresome to have to lose prec-
ious time to obtain films. The trouble is
less serious when we are dealing with post-
scholastic projections or educational soi-
rees, which are generally much less crowd-
ed than ordinary class-rooms. It is pos-
sible to arrange the programme with great-
er calm and wait ones turn for the picture
more tranquilly.

The case is different when we are using
teaching films for primary education. The
film is as much an instrument of the teach-
ing as the textbook or the drawing or the
school museum. The school has its li-
brary its museum and its laboratory.

It Ought also to Have its Film Repository. —
This may seem an Utopian wish today,
but it means safety and certainty, freedom
to work as experience has shown.

I cannot give any figures, but there
are thousands of schools furnished with
film archives. It is true that many of them
are only for 9 mm. and even 5 mm. films!

I do not intend to discuss here the value
and merits of the various reduced size films.
It is to a large extent a question of price
for the teachers, who are glad to be able to
possess a collection of films which they can
use at will.

Unfortunately, the school film archive
cannot be supplied with normal 35 mm. size
films in view of their high cost, even when
the schools receive subsidies. These are
insufficient to meet the expense.

We must therefore look to the sub-stand-
ard film to solve the question of supplying
films for the teaching cinema. The re-
duced size film is less expensive, less cum-

bersome than normal size film, and the
advances in technique have made it com-
parable with the 35 mm. film from the point
of view of faithfulness of reproduction of
image and sound.

Nevertheless, though the reduced size film
was the second in the field, it enjoys a
favourable treatment in comparison with
normal size film.

Reduced size film, owing to its relatively
limited use, cannot enjoy state subventions.
For some years many teachers and many
children have has to complain of this state of
things. They have asked for a settlemeut,
a ruling on the matter of reduced size film.

It is only the teachers who can officially
bring about the normalization of sub-stan-
dard film. It is question for the state which
certainly needs a careful study but it time
some definite conclusion was arrived at on
the matter by now. If primary school
teachers are going to use the cinema in
their daily teaching, a great number
of films will be required. The question
of school films has a twofold aspect, with
affect funds and the price of films.

Governments ought to furnish funds for
the purchase of teaching films. Such
credits would enable the cinema archives of
the schools to be refurnished with films,
each archive having the greatest number of
copies possible. The cost of film ought
to be reduced, and the trade experts ought
to aim at this by trying new support methods,
new printing systems and uniforming the
reduced size film output.

Quality of Films. — We have here perhaps
the most serious of all the obstacles which
hinder the use of the cinema in primary
schools. This is the pedagogic quality of
many scholastic films.

It is generally a case of the defects which
are noted during projections. The titles
are either too long or too difficult, important
scenes are not made long enough or are
taken from a point of view which affords
little opportunity for observation. Some-
times the scenes are little more than fixed
projections which distract the attention

THE USE OF THE CINEMA IN PRIMARY TEACHING

437

from the true object of the picture. Often
there is a lack of order in the succession of
the pictures, or there are omissions, lengthy
pauses and inaccuracies.

I do not want to appear to be making a
regular accusation against anyone, but the
fault lies with those film producers who have
not left their regisseurs sufficient initia-
tive in the matter. Some firms have
sought to improve their production, feeling
that there was ground for complaint from
the pedagogic point of view. We could
refer to a certain picture on the movements
of the earth. Here the absence of the
professional pedagogue is clearly felt. Such
a man knows instinctively what caution must
be used in demonstrating with artificial
means natural phenomena such as the mo-
tions of the stars and planets. This is a
fruitful source of errors of interpretation
and fact.

On the other hand, there does not exist
a series of films arranged according to the
regulations of the elementary scholastic
curricula, and such films must be made if
useful progress on these lines is to be made.
I propose to deal later on with important
question of the preparation of scholastic
pictures.

Usefulness of the We cannot state that
Cinema in Prim- the motjon picture
ary Teaching. constitutes of itself a

perfect teaching process. If this were the
case, it would suffice to substitute a cinema
operator for the teacher, which is obviously
absurd.

The film is only an auxiliary for the
teacher, and it is necessary to define the
task of the aid and to decide under what
circumstances it can best be employed.
It is generally recognized today that the
film facilitates the acquisition of cognitions,
fixes the attention, develops the memory,
and excites the imagination.

In this connection, the replies from
teachers using the film at the National
Educational Cinema Congress of Paris in
1931 are interesting. Here are some of them :

" The film is a precious auxiliary, which
makes teaching alive and lends precision to
the notions being imparted ».

" The children retain the smallest de-
tails of a well made film ".

We will also quote the following charac-
teristic passage of the report sent to the
first commission of the Congress by M. J.
Artibotte :

' The child possesses an insatiable cur-
iosity and a deep need of emotions. He
cannot live on the past, that is on what he
knows. He is for ever casting his ardent
imagination out towards the universe which
surrounds him. The cinema supplies an
appropriate nourishment for his needs .

From all these observations and daily
experiences we may conclude that the film
is not inferior to the other means employed
by the teacher for instructing his pupils.
It is not the case to affirm that it is superior.

The Spirit of Observation. — It is in this
way that the spirit of observation is devel-
oped through experiments made in the pres-
ence of the pupils. Properly organized,
such experiments constitute a perfect exer-
cise which is certainly not inferior to the
use of the film. The experiment has also
the object of developing the faculties of
observation and judgment in the child
more even than increasing cognitions.

These faculties cannot be exercised on
all phenomena, and since it is a question of
exercises and practice, it is best to arrange
them with the use of real things which the
child can touch and feel. In this case, the
motion picture has no advantage over ex-
perience It only costs more.

The Attention. — If the film arouses
" a lively and continuous attention it is
not the only process which offers this ad-
vantage.

The attention of children can be aroused
and maintained in hundreds of ways. Is
not the interest in the film due in great
part to the novelty of the projection in the
class-room ? If its use becomes general
can we not state that in the end a certain
slackness will not be observable among the

438

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

children ? Can we be sure that the use of
the motion picture will not bring in time
that bugbear of child instruction — indif-
ference ?

To tell the truth, owing the mere fact
that the motion picture arouses the atten-
tion, we cannot place it on a higher plane
than other modern pedagogical processes.

Memory. — If the film tends to develop
the memory, it does not surpass the value
of fixed projections in this respect. The
following extract from the report of M.
Artibotte goes to prove its.

"At the age of 13, some children, sub-
jected to a written examination on a histor-
ical subject taught them five years before,
with the help of fixed projections, remember-
ed the titles of 17 scenes out of 24 in the
correct order of projection ".

It is therefore clear that as regards the
development of the intellectual faculties,
the motion picture presents the same ad-
vantages as other teaching processes (direct
observation, experiments, fixed projections).
From this point of view, the film is not su-
perior, and has the disadvantage of being
expensive).

Acquisition of Cognitions. — The real
value of the teaching film lies in the possib-
ility it offers of moving visual representa-
tions in time and space, of showing the pu-
pils an exact picture of something the teach-
er cannot show, and of providing a substi-
tute for oral demonstration which is often
insufficient and suggestive of false ideas.

It is indeed impossible to represent with
fixed projections moving objects and ani-
mals or men at their work.

If we look at the curricula of primary
elementary schools — and the curricula
must be respected since the certificate of
having passed certain examinations is based
on a study of such curricula — we shall
find obligatory subjects which can only be
studied with difficulty in the ordinary way,
without the use of the motion picture.
Such are descriptions of rare animals,
general natural phenomena and everything
connected with motion.

The representation of life by means of the
cinema and the convincing truthfulness of
the film make the motion picture useful even
for the child of from 10 to 12 years in
the study of the various regions of our
country, in acquiring a knowledge of what
are called " the provinces ".

According to Paul Valery, " it is not
sufficient to study on the map or by direct
vision the physical conformation of one's
own country ; one must get to know the
men in it. For such a study, the film is
an incomparable aid. Thanks to it, the
students take part for some moments, in
the life of the inhabitants. They see, either,
the reapers at work in the Beance, or the
mountaineer in his winter refuge ; the Breton
gathering sea-weed or crustaceans, the var-
ious aspects of rural and city life of their
own and other peoples ".

This is only an example ; the field of ac-
tion of the film is very extended.

It is this possibility of supplying fresh
documents which provides the real raison
d etre of the motion picture in the depart-
ment of primary education. It fills a want
in the totality of teaching means, and the
defence of the teaching film ought to be
based on this fundamental principle.

Eye and Intellectual Fatigue. — Projec-
tions are so short (about ten minutes) that
there is no fear of fatigue, either for the
eye or the intelligence. Modern apparatus
is well illuminated and further progress will
be made in this direction with cold light.
The size of the images projected render
them quite distinct for the pupils sitting at
the back of the class. It is generally a good
thing to reserve the seats nearest to the
screen for the short-sighted children. The
teacher can learn about the eyesight of his
pupils at an early stage in their instruction.
He can hold a trial projection, and seat his
pupils according to the result.

Teachers and the Technical and Peda-

Cinema. GOGIC PREPARATION. — ■

— Teachers in normal schools ought to

become acquainted with the use of the teach-

THE USE OF THE CINEMA IN PRIMARY TEACHING

439

ing motion picture. The student-teachers
ought to learn how to use the projecting
machine, both silent and sound, how to look
after it, take it to pieces, remount it, oil
it, etc.

Teachers ought to learn how to handle
film without damaging it, to repair it, clean
it with alcohol, and make joins in it. All this
knowledge can be obtained in a few les-
sons from a technician.

The knowledge of the precautions to be
taken for reduced size film and sub-standard
projectors will have the effect of diminish-
ing the damage to film and apparatus.
The film will have a longer life. A capacity
to handle film would allow teachers a great-
er liberty of spirit in their pedagogic work.
It is useful, again, to warn teachers against
any exaggerated use of the motion picture
in class-rooms. A type or model lesson in
class-room with a projector will show them
the best method to follow in a process which
is really quite simple.

Collaboration in the Production of
Didactic Films. — The production of a
teaching film may be divided into two stag-
es : preparation and realization.

Preparation. — It is not enough to draw
our information from official curricula to
form a rationally compiled list of films.

Even in the restricted field of primary
instruction, it is advisable to plan for three
categories of films, three different catego-
ries, corresponding to the three principal
grades of primary studies, elementary cour-
ses, middle courses and superior courses

The film is like the book. The text-books
used by children of from seven to eight
years are different from those of a few
years older. Therefore we do not want
any " omnibus " kind of film, good for all,
which the same pupils would see year after
year, and which by trying to suit everybody
would be useful for no one.

On the contrary, one must not be afraid
of creating sub-divisions. They corres-
pond to the necessities set forth in the offi-
cial curricula.

This first specialization of films allows

us to study thenijbetter, to render them more
adapted to each individual subject, and to
fit them for specially defined functions.
Every lesson must in general be accompan-
ied by film illustration, even if this be of a
brief nature. It may happen sometimes that
the film will prove a useless form of com-
ment lantern slides being sufficient to sup-
ply the documentaton required.

In order to make a wise choice of a teach-
ing film, it is first of all necessary to define
the exact task which the picture has in the
lesson to be given. This presupposes an
exhaustive study of the lesson and a com-
parative examination of the utility of slides
and motion pictures for illustrating it.

All these things must be taken into con-
sideration in preparing the scenes of a
picture. Each scene must be described
with the greatest precision, pictorial sense,
knowledge of shooting angles, running time,
etc.

At all times, the author of the film, the
real producer, must refer to the technique
of his profession of pedagogue just as the
professional producer refers to his. No de-
tail is superfluous in this connection.

This study, this production is a lengthy
and difficult matter, and this particularly
because the finished picture must have a
certain unity and a certain rhythm. The
author of the film can only be a professional
teacher, but he must also have a proper
practical and theoretical knowledge of cin-
ema technique.

Making the Film. — It is at this point
that the cinematographic work strictly
speaking begins, and this is the most dif-
ficult part of the task.

However precise and detailed the au-
thor's indications are, the producer can
only make a visual adaptation of them. To
adapt is always more or less to betray the
sense of the original, in the cinema as in
literature. The author's expressions and
intentions cannot be strictly respected, and
the fact that the producer and adapter have
great talent does not alter the fact.

Book and film are not without their

440

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

analogies. Each is a strictly personal
work, an expression of thought, a mirror
of the authors observations. There are
many ways of painting a picture. If a
landscape can be a state of mind for a writer
or an observer, so can it for a film-maker.
The so called cinematographic truth easily
accepts the technical processes which place
at his disposal different aspects which the
film producer uses in the same way as a
writer models his phrases and turns of
speech.

At the same time, if the writer has the
privilege of using simple instruments —
pen, paper and typewriter — the film-maker
is the slave of complicated apparatus which
oblige him to have recourse to a number of
collaborators. His work becomes there-
fore more delicate. He may be tempted to
count too much on the work of his una-
voidable collaborators, and this he must not
do if he wants to obtain the best results.

He must interpret the subject and theme
himself, without unnecessary interpolations
or acceptance of mediocre make-shifts.

The charge has often been made against
the film that it is a flight of too rapid im-
ages. The answer may be that the ac-
cused film was not specially made for
the class-room.

In films shown to the public it is neces-
sary to avoid over long scenes, repetitions.
The producers are afraid to interrupt the
rhythm of the picture and diminish its at-
traction.

But when it comes to teaching, there need
be no fear of arresting the rhythm for a
moment, to ponder, examine and go over a
point again. These delays and lengthen-
ings are inevitable. It is essential that
children have the time to see with ease and
comfort. If the action seems to rapid, the
best thing is to repeat the film once or
twice. One must also be prepared to sac-
rifice occasionally a fine scene when the
case requires it in order to insert a sequence
taken from a point of view more favourable
for observation purposes.

Certainly, it is desirable to show the child-

ren beautiful pictures whenever possible.
It would foolish, however to sacrifice every-
thing to this laudable concept.

When making a scholastic picture, it is
a good thing to repeat frequently : " What
instruction will be pupils be able to derive
from this scene ? " The process of mak-
ing the film can be regulated in accordance
with one's own answer.

On the other hand, it is necessary to
avoid dispersing the pupils' attention. Let
us suppose you want to show the pupils
the working of say a piston rod in a steam
engine. I have taken a simple case. The
children will see a whole lot of things on the
screen such as the exhaust of the steam, the
railwaymen, the track, the engine, etc. and
their attention will not be particularly dir-
ected to one object unless it is shown in a
special close-up.

In any case, the use of close-ups should
be thoroughly understood. Children, in-
deed, generally prefer close-ups to long
shots. They are naturally interested in
details as can be seen from a study of their
drawings. It is well to fall in with the in-
fluence of nature in young intelligences.

This and similar considerations should
always be present in the mind of a film
producer during the making of a picture,
and it is impossible for a cineast to go
too thoroughly into such details of his task.
In making teaching films, he must forget
certain habits and mannerisms which he has
learnt in the production of theatrical or
entertainment films. He will find himself
obliged to " shoot " over again scenes that
are didactically imperfect or badly lit.
He will find himself under the necessity
of cutting scenes which would do admirably
for the general public but would be useless
or out of place for scholastic proposes.

When the " shooting " of the picture is
completed, the next step is to mount the
film. This is a matter full of difficulties
and traps for one who is not a teacher,
both as regards the order and duration of the
scenes and the preparation of the sub-titles.

Care must be taken in the matter of sub-

THE USE OF THE CINEMA IN PRIMARY TEACHING

441

titles. Too often they are used too plenti-
fully. They are certainly necessary, but
their number should be limited and they
should be brief. If it is easy to compile a
long sub-title, it is certainly much more
difficult to condense in a short simple phrase
the idea it is sought to express in words.
A good film can be ruined by badly made
sub-titles, and the fact cannot be insisted
on overmuch.

The necessity for so many precautions
clearly shows that only a good teacher can
bring a good teaching film to a satisfactory
conclusion. The true author is the produ-
cer, and it is he who gives life to the film.
He prepares the scenes and effects, directs
the camera work, orders the lighting, the
movements and the dialogue, gives instruc-
tions for the development of the film and
supervises the printing. He and he alone
takes charge of the mounting which gives
the style to the picture.

These conditions for the making of a
picture are the ordinary normal ones in
use in spectacular cinematography, but in the
case of a teaching film, they are at present

only a dream. This is perhaps why the
scholastic cinema proceeds so slowly.

The collaboration of teachers in the visual
composition of a film to be used in lessons
is most important. Every film should be
made under a single individual direction,
that is, under the direction of a profession-
al teacher.

This man must have equal authority and
equal responsibility with the regisseur, or
producer.

This implies on his part a profound
knowledge of cinema technique, and al-
most professional ability in the details of
" shooting " a picture.

It means too considerable knowledge of
the art of mounting and a motion picture
sense. These are things only acquired
with long practice. The teacher producer
will have to go through an apprenticeship
in the course of which more than one film
will be ruined. But such apprenticeship
will in future teach him how to avoid costly
mistakes, and put him in a position to de-
cide quickly and surely at the critical mo-
ment of shooting a picture.

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Editor and Responsible Manager

Rome — ■ [-'Universale » Tipografia Poliglotta.

442

443

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CULTURAL SECTION

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INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

Monthly Publication

of the INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY (L. of N.)

Rome - I-a, Via Lazzaro Spallanzani - Rome

YEAR VI. JULY 1934 N. 7.

CONTENTS

Page

Motion Pictures in Education in the United States 451

The British Film Institute 485

The " L. U. C. E. " National Institute 492

Organization of the Educational and Teaching Cinema in France 499

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING BODY

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of State, Professor of Law at the University of
Rome, President.

LUMIERE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.

BROWN J. W., Director of the British Film Institute.

CARTON DE WIART Count Henry, Minister of State, Member of the Child Welfare

Committee of the League of Nations.
FOCILLON Henri, Professor at the University of Paris, Member of the Permanent Committee

of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.
GANGULEE Nagendra Nath, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor of Agriculture and Rural

Economy at the University of Calcutta.
KOZMA Nicolas de, Ministerial Councillor, President- Director of the Hungarian Telegraph

Agency.
LLOPIS Rodolfo, Deputy in the Cortes, ex-General Director of Primary Education at

Madrid.
MISTRAL Gabrielle, Authoress, Ex-Directress of the Lycee for young girls at Santiago.
OPRESCU Georges, Professor at the University of Bucharest, Member of the Permanent

Committeee of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.
ORDYNSKI Ryzzard, President of the Polish Film Producers' Association.
REYNOLD Gonzago de, Professor at the University of Fribourg, Member of the Commission

for Intellectual Cooperation.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,
The President of the International Agricultural Institute,
The Director of the International Labour Office,

The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the I. C. I. C. Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW.
Dr. Luciano de FEO, Editor.

P. Berne de Chavannes, Ernest Holzer,

Giuseppe de Feo, Edward Storer,

Jose Maria GlMENO,

Maria Elena Apollonio, Secretary.

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION
IN THE UNITED STATES

BY

Cline M. Koon,

Senior Specialist in Radio and Visual Education.

FOREWORD

" He was a wise man who said, ' Let
who will make my country's laws, so long as
I may write her songs, ' and I do not think
song ever had a greater influence upon
the lives and characters of the people of
any country than the picture is destined
to have ".

Right Hon. Lord Asquith.

' I 'HE motion picture has become a powerful force in national life and is exerting a
*• lasting influence in shaping attitudes and ideals. It has a tremendous scope, and
so many problems are involved in its utilization that it seems profoundly important that
another international congress be called by the League of Nations, through the Interna-
tional Institute of Educational Cinematography, to consider its potentialities in the world
today. If the following report contributes even in a small way to the success of the
congress, it will amply repay the time and effort involved in its preparation.

The possibilities of the motion picture in international understanding are limited
only by the ingenuity of man. It speaks to the learned and the unlearned. It is a popu-
lar entertainer of both the old and the young in all parts of the Orient and the Occident.
It carries instruction about other lands and other peoples to millions — instruction that
could not be given in any other way. Audiences of millions of people of diverse nationali-
ties are but a cross-current of humanity that is entertained and informed by this magical
master teacher — a teacher so young, yet so powerful. Its universal emotional appeal
and common language, its geographical spread and commercial interests, its financial
power and propaganda possibilities make it one of the strongest and subtlest integrating
influences in human history.

The whole field of motion pictures is kaleidoscopic. What one thinks today may
be a reality tomorrow and obsolete the day after. But these are kaleidoscopic times.
Perhaps that is the reason the film appeals so strongly to educators, sociologists, motion
picture producers, manufacturers, exhibitors, and the public-at-large. In the field of
formal education our rapidly changing social order has greatly complicated the educ-
ational process. The learner must master and coordinate a bewildering number of
facts. He must explore almost unbounded realms. The teacher needs the aid of
science in this age, which science has done so much to make complex. Potentially, the
motion picture is one of the chief contributions of science to education — if not the chief
— but it is not being fully utilized .

452 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

As we approach the dawn of a new day in industrial life, we realize the worker will
have more time for recreation and self-improvement. How will this time be spent ?
Perhaps in the near future we shall see adult education, with its different ramifications
recognized in a great variety of ways that are not being considered at the present time.
If so, the fascinating qualities of the film will make it an invaluable aid to the new edu-
cation in the days which lie immediately before us.

Many agencies in the United States are interested in motion pictures in education ;
but, as is reflected in this report, there has been a great deal of conflict and duplication
of effort resulting from divergent view-points in the various groups. The lack of uni-
form standards of equipment and films has also seriously retarded the application of
motion pictures in education, even as the lack of mastery of the art of teaching with
motion pictures has. A number of signs indicate that there will be more cooperative
endeavor in the near future, not the last of which is the fact that representatives of the
motion picture industry, various national voluntary organizations, and the Federal Gov-
ernment have cooperated whole-heartedly in the preparation of this report.

As United States Commissioner of Education, I wish to express my grateful appre-
ciation for the generous assistance of many persons whose contributions made possible
the preparation of this report. To those who attended our preliminary conference on
September 25, 1933, we are deeply indebted for their voluntary assistance. Represen-
tatives of various universities, city school systems, motion picture producers and distri-
butors, equipment manufacturers, voluntary organizations, and governmental agencies
contributed the exhibits. We acknowledge our indebtedness to them, as well as to the
hundred or more leaders in the field who read, criticized and supplemented the prelimin-
ary draft of this report. To name all to whom we are indebted would be impossible.

Parts of the preliminary draft of the report were compiled by : Dr. C. F. Hoban,
Pennsylvania State Department of Public Instruction ; Dr. V. C. Arnspiger, Erpi Picture
Consultants ; Mrs. Robbins Gilman, National Congress of Parents and Teachers ; Mr.
William Reid, International Union of American Republics. Valuable contributions to the
the completed draft of the report were made by : former Governor Carl E. Milliken,
Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America ; Dr. Edgar Dale, The Pyne
Fund ; Dr. Worth Tippy, Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America ; Mr.
William Kruse, Bell and Howell Company ; Miss Marian Telford, National Safety
Council ; Mr. Nelson L. Greene, Editor, The Educational Screen ; Dr. W. M. Gregory,
Director of the Educational Museum, Cleveland Public Schools ; Dr. Geo. P. Day and
Mr. Arthur H. Brook, Yale University Press ; Mr. W. H. Maddock, Eastman Teaching
Films ; Canon William Sheafe Chase, Federal Motion Picture Council ; Mr. Roy W.
Winton, Amateur Cinema League ; Dr. John A. Hollinger, Director of the Department
of Visualization of the Pittsburgh Public Schools ; Mr. Frederic M. Delano, Motion
Picture Research Council, and others.

We hope that this report will be of sufficient value to justify the effort of those who
have made its preparation possible. If so, we are confident it will mark the beginning
of closer cooperation among various agencies both in the United States and abroad in the
utilization of motion pictures in education.

George F. Zook,

United States Commissioner of Education.

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

453

INTRODUCTION

a) The Purpose of This report on the
the Report. instructional use and

indirect educational influence of motion
pictures in the United States has been pre-
pared in response to a request from Dr.
Luciano de Feo, Director of the Interna-
tional Educational Cinematographic Insti-
tute, that the United States Office of
Educaation cooperate in the preparations
for the recent International Congress of
Educational and Instructional Cinemato-
graphy which was held in Rome dur-
ing the first part of April, 1934. In addi-
tion to its use abroad, the report is intended
to serve various governmental, educational,
voluntary and motion picture agencies in
the United States which are seeking a con-
cise compilation of factual information and
sources of information about motion pic-
tures in relation to education.

No attempt has been made to present all
possible phases of the subject. The study
has been confined to a consideration of the
principal questions raised by Doctor de
Feo in his original request for the report.
The study emphasizes factual data collected
from many sources, and, even though the
emphasis was not placed on opinions, var-
ious and even conflicting viewpoints are
reflected in the report. Since it appeared
that an attempt to unify the data and re-
concile all divergent elements would reduce
the value of the report, which is intended
to give an airplane view of the situation, it
became a difficult undertaking to evaluate
the data from various sources. Without
doubt the report has errors in this respect,
but years of research and experimentation
would be needed to make an exhaustive
study of the subject. It is hoped that the
present study will be of some service to
interested groups and, incidentally, encour-
age centers throughout the United States
and foreign countries as well to keep the
Office of Education informed regarding
future motion picture activities.

b) Sources and Pro- A preliminary confer-
cedure. ence was held at the

Federal Office of Education on September
25, 1933, at which thirty-five representatives
of governmental, voluntary and motion
picture agencies discussed the major topics
of this report. Later, certain members of
the conference were invited to prepare pre-
liminary statements covering different units
of the report. These statements were
compiled into a preliminary draft which was
submitted to the members of the conference
and representatives of sixty-five other agen-
cies for their criticisms and supplementation.
Members of ten or twelve of the most
interested agencies were interviewed person-
ally in regard to the report.

The suggested additions and revisions
were carefully studied, and the final copy
of the report prepared from them and from
additional data gathered in connection with
the report.

The study had not progressed far be-
fore it became apparent that much of the
source material referred to could be used
as exhibits to illustrate various parts of the
report when it was submitted to Rome.
The list of these exhibits also becomes a
guide from which people who are interested
in various phases of the subject can secure
additional information.

c) The Plan of the Following this in-
Report. troduction the main

body of the report is divided into nine units
as follows : (1) The educational influence
of motion pictures ; (2) The motion pic-
ture in the service of health and social hy-
giene ; (3) The motion picture in govern-
mental service and patriotism ; (4) The use
of motion pictures in vocational education ;
(5) The motion picture in international
understanding ; (6) Motion picture legis-
lation ; (7) The technique of making and
displaying motion pictures ; (8) The sys-
tematic introduction of motion pictures in
teaching ; and (9) Educational problems

454

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

of a general nature resulting from the in-
troduction of motion pictures in teaching.

1. - THE EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE
OF MOTION PICTURES

A clear line of distinction should be
drawn between the theatrical motion pic-
ture and the non-theatrical picture. The
most superficial observer will recognize that
the former exists in the United States prim-
arily for the financial profit of the owners
and the amusement of the public. From a
humble beginning early in the present cen-
tury the theatrical motion picture industry
has grown until it is now a billion dollar
concern. The Motion Picture Producers
and Distributors of America estimate that
there were 22,731 motion picture houses
in this country on January 31, 1931. The
Film Daily Yearbook of Motion Pictures
(1933) reports a total of 18,533 motion pic-
ture theatres in the United States on January
1, 1933. Only 12,480 were in operation.
Weekly estimates are difficult to make, but
it is believed that in 1932, 70,000,000 persons
were attending motion picture performances
weekly in the United States. In 1930,
500 feature films with about 200 prints each
were made (1) p. 208).

Although the theatrical motion picture
is primarily an agency for amusement, it
is no less important as an influence in shap-
ing attitudes and social values. By combin-
ing sight and sound, it commands the con-
centrated attention of those it reaches as
does no other agency. The influence of
motion pictures is not confined to urban
centers. Cinema theatres have invaded
villages, and with improved means of travel
are now easily accessible to rural people
and play a large role in their recreation. (2)

Educators have a responsibility to guide,
in so far an they can, and work with the mo-
tion picture industry in such a way that false
conceptions and improper situations may
not be accepted through countless reitera-
tions to the entire cross section of the popu-
lation (1 p. 790). The attendance of large
numbers of children at motion pictures has
been under scrutiny by various groups.
Children are apparently receiving a con-
siderable amount of their education thereby,
particularly in human relations, and more
specifically in courtship and marriage (1 p.
p. 390). Reviews, State censorship, local
selection and the teaching of motion picture
appreciation are the principal means being
employed at the present time to stimulate
the production and use of educationally
desirable theatrical motion pictures.

a) Raising the Stan- A number of organiz-
dards of Taste for ej groups are working
EntertainmentMo- tQ ra;se ^ standards

tion Pictures. r . <•

ot taste tor entertain-
ment motion pictures. Recommendations
based upon previews, research studies, and
the teaching of motion pictures apprecia-
tion in secondary schools are the most com-
mon approaches to the solution of this pro-
blem. They will be discussed in order.

As a means of assisting community leader-
ship to find out in advance which specific
forthcoming pictures would most merit
their approval and support, the Motion
Picture Producers and Distributors of Ame-
rica instituted a system whereby motion
pictures are made available to volunteer
committees of responsible public groups
for preview purposes.

The following organizations have volun-
teer local committees in Hollywood and or
New York to preview photoplays and make
their selections on the basis of the moral,

(1) President's Research Committee on Social
Trends, Recent social trends in the United States,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1933, 2 vols,
1568 p.

(2) President's Research Committee on Social
Trends, Recent social trends in the United States.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1933, 2 vols.,
1568 P,

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

455

educational, dramatic and artistic values of
films and on their suitability for the enter-
tainment needs of the family :

America Library Association ;

Boy Scouts of America ;

California Congress of Parents and
Teachers ;

Daughters of the American Revolution ;

Federated Church Brotherhoods of
California (Stage and Screen Committee) ;

General Federation of Women's Clubs ;

International Federation of Catholic
Alumnae ;

Los Angeles Branch, American Asso-
ciation of University Women ;

National Council of Jewish Women ;

National Society of New England
Women ;

Young Mens Christian Association.
The committees report to the respective
organization headquarters, and after the
reports have been approved they are made
public through the publicity channels of
the organizations and the monthly publica-
tions.

The organizations themselves, through
their own contacts, and through their own
local groups have disseminated the preview
information throughout the country. The
national Board of Review of Motion Pic-
tures, also, reports on films and encourages
the formation of local better-films-commit-
tees. There are several thousand local
committees at work at present.

Competent opinion regarding the rela-
tive merits of films may have far-reaching
effects upon public selections, but the fun-
damental place to begin a consideration
of the ethical and social values of a motion
picture is at the point of production. One
step in this direction has been taken by the
industry through the Production Code
which was adopted in April, 1930. The
corollary in the administration of this
code is represented by the Studio Rela-
tions Committee of the Motion Picture
Producers and Distributors of America.
In addition to a director, the committee
consists of a motion picture director of

each of the companies affiliated with the
Motion Picture Producers and Distributors
of America. All scripts must be approved
by this committee before production be-
gins and the finished picture must likewise
be approved before being released. How-
ever in the three years this self-imposed
code has been in operation, the criticism of
the objectionable moral tone of pictures has
not materially abated.

The most extensive investigation of the
influence of motion pictures on children
and youth that has been made in the United
States is the Payne Fund studies, which
extended over a period of five years (1928-
1933). Eminent psychologists, sociologists,
and research workers, faculty members of
several leading universities made independ-
ent, though closely related, contributions
to the total findings of these studies. They
constituted the membership of the Payne
Fund Committee on Educational Research
in Motion Pictures under the Chairmanship
of Dr. W. W. Charters.

The investigations included studies to
find out what children learn from motion
pictures and the effects on (a) attitudes,
(b) emotions, and (c) conduct. The report
which has recently been published in nine
volumse shows the following :

1) On an average, each child in areas
where motion pictures are physically avail-
able goes to the movies once a week.

2) Three out of four of the pictures
that are shown are related to sex, crime or
romantic love.

3) The child retains 2/3 as much as
the adult from his attendance at the movies.

4) Motion pictures change children's
attitudes and these changes have a lasting
influence.

5) One measurement of the emotional
effects of pictures was done in terms of the
influence of movie attendance on children's
sleep. Other measurements of the emo-
tional reactions of children to motion pic-
tures were also extensively used.

In summing up the findings of the report,
Dr. W. W. Charters recently stated, " We

456

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

have in motion pictures a very powerful
educational influence both for good and
bad. For children commercial motion
pictures offer an unbalanced diet '.

For five years the National Council of
Teachers of English has been studying mo-
tion pictures. Its members have visited
preview committees and have read the ap-
praisals of films in Selected Motion Pic-
tures. They have considered the feasibility
of utilizing the classics of the screen as a
basis for the teaching of English.

During the past two years they have been
engaged in an interesting experimental
project to determine whether high school
students of English profit more from the
screen than from like material otherwise
acquired. The project is being conducted
under the direction of Dr. William Lewin,
Chairman of the Photoplay Appreciation
Committee. Last year 1,851 pupils in 19
States, 31 schools and 57 theatres in 28
different cities participated.

The procedure followed in this project
has been for the Photoplay Committee to
choose a few of the best current theatrical
motion pictures and prepare study guides
to assist teachers of high school English
classes to teach their students how to appre-
ciate these pictures. Representative English
teachers in various parts of the country are
selected to use this prepared material and
take their students to see the photoplays.
Local theatrical managers usually cooperate
by displaying the pictures at the time desired
by the teacher and by admitting the
students free, or by admitting the individual
students free at any time they care to see
the picture.

The student fills out a questionnaire after
he has seen the picture, with a view to par-
ticipation in a class discussion of the screen
drama. He is expected to have some opin-
ions about the picture as to its type, char-
acter portrayals, story structure, the logic
of its ending, its social value, and so on.

The committee's researches have shown
that high school boys and girls make great
strides in approaching the standards of

appreciation as set up by the teacher and
that English teachers are ready and willing
to use motion picture appreciation material.

During the present school year the Pho-
toplay Committee is preparing study guides
for a select list of pictures, including " Em-
peror Jones ", " Alice in Wonderland ",
and " Little Women ". This material has
been supplied to about 1700 English teach-
ers who will use it in their eleventh grade
English classes.

Doctor Lewin is also very much interest-
ed in high school movie clubs, and has suc-
cessfully combined his photoplay appre-
ciation work with the activities of his club
in Newark N. J..

The most extensive experimental pro-
ject in teaching motion picture appreciation
to high school students is being conducted
in five States at the present time by Dr.
Edgar Dale of the Payne Fund who is
working under the direction of the National
Committee on Teaching Motion Picture
Appreciation. The United States Com-
missioner of Education is chairman of this
committee which is made up of representa-
tives of the National Council of Y. M. C. A.,
National Board of Y. W. C. A., National
Congress of Parents and Teachers, Nat-
ional Education Association, International
Council of Religious Education, Jewish
Welfare Board, The Payne Fund, Nat-
ional Catholic Welfare Conference, National
Council of Teachers of English, the five
State departments of education, and the
Federal Office of Education.

This project, which was launched as a
preliminary experiment in Ohio during the
early part of 1933 is one of the endeavors
resulting from The Payne Fund studies of
the influence of motion pictures on children
and youth. Its purpose primarily is to
raise the standards of tastes of high school
students and adult groups in the select-
ion of the photoplays which they attend.

Doctor Dale's book, " How to Appreciate
Motion Pictures ", is being used as text
in the high school classes and for the vol-
untary adult groups. Radio broadcasts

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

457

on motion picture appreciation may sup-
plement the instruction. The procedure
is flexible at the present time. It is antici-
pated, however, that after further experimen-
tation during the next two years best prac-
tices in teaching photoplay appreciation
will gradually be established and motion
picture appreciation will be taught regularly
in the high schools throughout the United
States. Two States already have included
units in motion picture appreciation in their
high school curricula.

b) Non - theatrical Remarkable engineer-
Motion Pictures. jng advances have
been made in the production and the pro-
jection of films. The technique of produc-
tion to create interest and secure desired
emotional effects has been reduced to a
fine art in the industry, but has only been
partially utilized in the non-theatrical field.
For example, sound motion pictures are
little used in education at this time. With
its present technical excellence, the motion
picture is a tremendously powerful tool
which is not being fully utilized in education.
This applies to silent as well as to sound
pictures.

According to the report of the President's
Research Committee on Social Trends :

Non-theatrical uses of the motion pic-
ture are varied. It is estimated by the
Department of Commerce that over 1 90,000
non-theatrical projectors are in use, includ-
ing home sets. In 51 7 primary and second-
ary schools within one year there were
44,186 showings of pictures, of which 73 per
cent were in connection with curricular
activity. Churches have used motion pic-
tures extensively as a means of attracting
and holding younger members. It is also
used in connection with sales campaigns,
advertising and demonstrations of products,
and an extensive market has developed
for non-entertainment films of this cha-
racter. Films also have value in showing
scientific techniques. Non-theatrical uses
of motion pictures promise to develop

far more extensively in the future ((1),
P. 210-211).

Thirty-two of our forty-eight States have
film libraries of varying qualities under the
supervision of educational directors. Most
of these are in the extension divisions of the
State universities, a few are with the State
departments of education, private univer-
sities, art institutes and museums. There
are approximately thirty registered State
visual educational associations working to
extend the use of visual aids to education
throughout their communities. This is
being accomplished by experimentation,
demonstration and educational propaganda.

In his visual instruction survey, Dr. F.
Dean McClusky found that six city visual
instruction departments spent £ 830,000 in
1931. Twenty-three State bureaus of vis-
ual instruction, located for the most part in
State universities, spent £276,000 in 1931.
The following are a few of the other in-
teresting facts recorded in this study:

1) Thirty-four cities owned 2,579 pro-
jectors.

2) There were 350,000 non-theatrical
projectors in the United States. About
6/7 of the total number were 16 mm. pro-
jectors.

3) The estimated value of non theatric-
al projectors was £ 70,000.000.

4) Sixty cents per pupil per year for
visual instruction would provide an annual
market of £ 12,310,000 ((2) p. 63-64).

More than thirty-five reliable commercial
companies produce non-theatrical films,
and nearly two hundred companies distri-
bute them. The non-theatrical films in-
clude instructional, cultural, technical, in-
dustrial, religious, general information
and entertainment subjects. The 16 mm.

(1) President's Research Committee on Social
Trends, Recent social trends in the United States.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1933, 2 vols.,
1568 p.

(2) F. Dean McClusky. Visual instruction : its
value and its needs. New York City, Mancall pub-
lishing corporation, 7 West 44th Street, 1932, 125 p.

458

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

films are all on safety stock, and the 35 mm.
films that are not already made on safety
stock should be, as it is illegal to run nitrate
films in schools without theatrical booths.
Some non-theatrical films have sound and
talking accompaniment, but most are silent.
They are seldom distributed through
theatrical film circuits, but are generally
available for rent or sale to educational,
religious, civic, and welfare agencies. Sev-
eral universities, city school systems, mu-
seums, departments of the Government, in
addition to commercial companies distribute
non-theatrical films. Perhaps the most
inclusive and extensively used catalogue of
non-theatrical films is " 1000 and One —
a Bluebook of Non-Theatrical Films ",
which is issued annually by The Educational
Screen.

Among non-theatrical films there must
be distinguished the special category of
teaching films — motion pictures made
expressly for classroom, or at least for school
use. Examples of this type are found in
the films distributed by Eastman, Erpi
Picture Consultants, Bell & Howell, and
others. These are usually quite short,
ranging from 100 to 400 feet of 16 mm.
film, and deal with some specific subject
in the curriculum.

Such films enjoy a wide acceptance among
visual instructionists and constitute the
backbone of the school films library. Some
educators consider it a serious shortcoming
that these films are not always closely coor-
dinated with the particular textbook used,
oi at least with the particular methods of
instruction applied, or at least with the
locale where they are sought to be employed.
Other visual instructionists do not allow
such criticisms to stand in the way of the
use of otherwise acceptable films — editorial
changes are readily made in 16 mm. motion
picture films, and supplementary material
can be prepared locally by instructors who
consider this necessary. This is just a
matter of learning to apply a movie camera
and film splicer to school work.

Some schools go to the expense of mak-

ing their own teaching films as a matter
of policy. The Milwaukee Vocational
School, for example, has produced well over
one hundred and fifty educational films in
its own visual instruction department,
each of them approximately 600 feet (16
mm.)m length. Subjects include biology,
general science, health, and civics — with
special emphasis on local conditions.

Another distinctive category of non-
theatrical films worthy of special mention is
the educational film sponsored by some
commercial concern, whose product may
or may not be dealt with in the picture of-
fered free for school use. Most of the
films offered by two of the largest sources
of free non-theatrical film, the United
States Bureau of Mines, and the Motion
Picture Bureau of the National Council of
Y. M. C. A. are of this type. Where the
subject matter is ably and objectively cover-
ed, without any hawking of trademarks
or other advertising, such films may be
used to advantage. Where the film is trans-
cendentally of the sales promotion type
it should be rejected.

In certain State teachers' organizations
resolutions have been adopted denouncing
classroom use of commercially sponsored
motion pictures. On the other hand,
in other States the State university visual
instruction center has encouraged and even
engaged in the production of industrial
films sponsored by local industries to show
local industrial products and manufactur-
ing processes. It would seem that spon-
sored films should be judged on their in-
dividual merits, with lines drawn tight
against objectionable material.

In addition to the present and contem-
plated use of educational films in elemen-
tary and secondary education, it is becom-
ing more and more apparent each day that
they should be used extensively in the field
of adult education with its different rami-
fications. It appears probable that the
near future will see adult education recog-
nized in a great variety of ways not thought
of at the present time.

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

45

Adult education, as distinguished from
formal collegiate education, is not systema-
tically organized in the United States. In
consequence, the Y. M. C. A., Y. W. C. A.,
churches and other voluntary societies,
have undertaken various phases of adult
education and have made some use of mo-
tion pictures. The use of motion pictures
in religious education may be taken as an
example.

c) Motion Pictures The churches of the
in Religious Edu- United States are be-
cation, coming aware of the

value of visual aids to religious education,
but as yet the use of motion pictures is not
at all commensurate with their known value.
Possibly religion is not much behind educa-
tion in this respect. There is need of pains-
taking research into the technical uses of
this form of visual aid for religion, compar-
able to the recent Harvard study directed
by the educational and scientific faculties,
and the experimentation in photoplay ap-
preciation in American highschools under
the National Council of Teachers of Eng-
lish. One such study is now in progress
in the Graduate School of a leading uni-
versity, but no report can be made upon
it at the present time.

Meanwhile considerable experimentation
in the production and use of motion pic-
tures for religious purposes is under way,
but badly handicapped by lack of funds.
Several mission boards and boards of re-
ligious education are producing pictures,
mainly 16 mm. films, and they are being
widely used, although as yet, it must be
granted, witnout a sure technique. The
Presbyterian Board of Christian Education,
the Presbyterian and Methodist Board of
national and foreign missions, the Mission-
ary Education Movement, the Baptist Board
of Missionary Cooperation, and tne Young
Men's Christian Association have been the
most aggressive.

The Religious Motion Picture Founda-
tion, created and financed by the Harmon
Foundation, is producing pictures experi-

mentally and studying their distribution
and uses by churches for missionary educa-
tion, religious education, and Sunday night
showings. They have a list of 1,350 in-
terested churches. In addition to this
Foundation, a half dozen producers are at
work in the field of religious education.
One great difficulty is the lack of a definite
sufficiently large circuit of churches using
pictures to offer an adequate market and to
make financing possible.

The churches are showng great interest
in the spiritual, leisure time, and social
values of the commercial cinema. The
Federal Council of the Churches of Christ
in America, federating the important Pro-
testant communions of the United States
and Canada, has a Committee on Motion
Pictures which is beginning to organize
better church films councils throughout
the country, designed in the main to educate
public taste. It is assumed that the church-
es will participate in general councils re-
presenting the character building agencies
of the community. The Committee con-
templates a national Protestant photoplay
reviewing service and a service bureau to
assist and guide local churches in the use
of pictures. The International Federation
of Catholic Alumnae has conducted a re-
viewing service for twelve years and also
broadcasts from twenty-six radio stations.
They have a circuit of 1 ,000 schools and
parish halls using pictures.

In general, it should be said that the
churches are very restive under the present
moral quality of American films and are
increasingly exerting their influence for
cleaner and better films.

In comparison with the theatrical motion
picture, the non-theatrical picture in the
past usually lacked technical excellence, is
used comparatively little, and with varying
regularity. The principal reasons for this
difference seem to have been first, the policy
of the Federal Government to leave to
private industry and voluntary endeavor
many activities that the typical European
government would assume and, second,

460

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

the educational system of the country which
is not centralized in the Federal Govern-
ment, but, in main, is left to each of the
forty-eight States. In turn, many of the
States grant almost complete autonomy to
cities and in some instances to other local
school systems within the State. It is
obvious that these practices greatly restrict
centralized national activity in the non-
theatrical film field and complicate this re-
port because of the diversified and some-
times conflicting activities by certain organ-
izations in various parts of the country.
Commendable efforts are being made in
many places to overcome these difficulties,
but there is great need for a strong national
films institute in the United States (1) to
assemble, edit, classify, publicize, and catalo-
gue non-theatrical film material in existence,
and to set up a convenient and economic-
al distribution system ; and (2) to stimulate
the production and effective utilization of
educational films. Notable progress is
being made already, especially in cataloguing
non-theatrical films, but centralization of
activity and coordination of effort is lacking.

d) Amateur Cine- In addition to the
matography. educational influence

of theatrical motion pictures and the direct
instructional value of non-theatrical films,
a third approach should be made to the
place of motion pictures in education, the
educational value of amateur cinemato-
graphy. There are many local clubs of
amateur motion picture makers in various
cities and metropolitan areas, and thousands
of amateur photographers take, develop, and
display motion pictures as a recreational
activity or hobby. There is an internation-
al organization of home motion picture mak-
ers with headquarters in New York City.
This organization, called the Amateur Cin-
ema League, Inc., is not affiliated with the
various national or local amateur clubs,
but has individual members all over the
world. The Amateur Cinema League pub-
lishes the Movie Makers and various bul-
letins, offers a technical consulting service,

and maintains a film exchange for its mem-
bersv The educational value of amateur cine-
matography as a means of individual self-
expression is generally recognized. It also
has many useful applications. During the
decade in which personal motion picture
making has developed, there has been noted
a definite and important increase in the
practical and non-recreational employment
of this medium for such purposes as surg-
ical film recording, scientific filming and
the preparation of films for industrial pro-
cess instruction.] Personally made films
are also used by business men as sales aids.

In conclusion, the motion picture has
been a most successful means for public
recreation, but it is preeminently a device
for public education, and as such belongs
also to the educator. The entire education-
al system in the United States is apparently
on the verge of reorganization and advance-
ment. The development of visual aids to
education and especially the motion picture
mechanism is a vital causal factor back of
new educational processes which are both
evolutionary and revolutionary. Visual
presentation of subject material has long
been considered important, but with motion
and sound added, educators have a method
and a technique unsurpassed by any pre-
vious invention or discovery in human
history.

The motion picture is an educational
medium. It interests, it influences and it
informs. It reveals new facts for action.
It creates new thoughts for the mind and
provides new worlds in which to dwell.
It gives vicarious experience. It informs
more rapidly than other media, gives greater
detail, and produces retention and matur-
ing effects. Manners, customs and attitudes
are learned from motion pictures. Social
sanctions, religious precepts and legal stand-
ards are basic subjects for motion pictures,
and when correctly presented become per-
manent sources of information. These
facts have been established and evaluated by
experimentation and demonstration.

A former U. S. Commissioner of Educa-

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

461

tion declared, " For the purpose of making
and influencing public opinion and thought,
the motion picture in its present stage is the
most powerful influence now known, and
as its use increases and its field of operations
develops, its power to influence the public
will increase ".

Dr. Wesley C. Mitchell, speaking for
the Motion Picture Research Council, sum-
marized the influence of motion pictures
by stating :

Moving pictures are one of the most
powerful influences in the ' making of mind '
at the present time. They affect the great
masses of people and they affect these mas-
ses during the impressionable years of
childhood and youth. The industry has
developed on a strictly commercial basis
into one of our most conspicuous branches
of business, demonstrating that moving
pictures meet an intensely felt interest.

Obviously moving pictures are do-
ing things to our thoughts and feelings.
It is high time that we discovered what
these things really are. There is no problem
that could be of greater concern to those
who are interested in the quality of our
future citizens.

2. - THE MOTION PICTURE IN THE SER-
VICE OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL HYGIENE

The importance of educating the public
regarding public health and all that is a
menace to health is recognized. Motion
pictures have opened up new opportunities
in the fields of medicine, health and social
hygiene. Films on these subjects naturally
fall in two groups : (1) scientific films in-
tended for the use of the medical profession,
and (2) films intended for general school use
and for the public as a whole. There are
many valuable films in both of these groups.
By means of close-ups, microcinematogra-
phic films, and other special adaptations,
films become an invaluable tool in medical
colleges, hospitals and the in-service train-
ing of physicians. The Carl Henry Davis

Library (425 East Wisconsin Street, Mil-
waukee, Wisconsin) has a good list of pro-
fessional films on obstetrics and gynecology.
The medical films of the Eastman Teach-
ing Films, Inc., (Rochester, New York),
have been approved by the American Col-
lege of Surgeons. Other films for the med-
ical profession have been issued by various
national associations, hospitals, commercial
companies, and practicing physicians.

a) Films of the Uni- There are many med-
ted States Public ;ca]) health and hy-
Health Service. gjene fi,ms for the

lay public, and for use in elementary and
secondary schools. Public health depart-
ments, universities and colleges, the Amer-
ican Social Hygiene Association and var-
ious other national societies, the Eastman
Teaching Films, Inc., the Metropolitan
Life Insurance Company, and various other
commercial companies maintain libraries
of films in this group. The activities of the
Federal, State and local government in the
production and distribution of public health
films are practically centralized in the Pub-
lic Health Service of the United States
Treasury Department. A more detailed
account of the use of motion pictures in
public health education follows :

Congress has made available to the Unit-
ed States Public Health Service only very
limited sums for the preparation of ex-
hibits for use in public health education.
The amount available during the current fis-
cal year is $ 1 ,000. This money is utilized in
the preparation of exhibits for scientific meet-
ings and of other material which will pre-
sent to the medical profession and to the
public at large the recent advances in pub-
lic health and scientific fields. A small por-
tion of this amount has been devoted to the
preparation of certain films dealing with
special phases of public health work. Such
films are not suitable for general distribu-
tion but are to be used for special audiences.
One of the films, entitled " Trachoma Work
of the Public Health Service ", deals with
trachoma, an eye disease, in the moun-

X

462

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

tainous sections of the United States.
Another is entitled " The Work of the Na-
tional Negro Health Movement in Kent
County, Maryland ". This film deals
largely with the activities of the County
Health Officer among negroes in Kent
County, Maryland, and is intended to il-
lustrate the work of the county health offi-
cer in this particular field.

In addition, the Public Health Service
has a film which was prepared by one of its
officers, dealing with the technical phases
of malaria prevention and mosquito con-
trol. This film is intended primarily for
health officers. There is also a film en-
titled " The Science of Life " which is suit-
able for presentation before high schools,
civic organizations, and various other groups.
It deals in a broad way with the biology of
human reproduction.

b) Other Health Films. Various State health
departements have purchased from the
producers films dealing with health sub-
jects. A few of them have made their
own films. These films are used by the
representatives of the State health depart-
ments in presenting talks on health subjects
to audiences throughout their several States,
or they are lent to local health officers for
similar use.

A few city and local health officers have
films ; but, in the main, when they wish to
utilize the motion picture as a form of health
instruction, they procure such films from
the State health department or from one of
the voluntary health agencies, such as the
National Tuberculosis Association, the Met-
ropolitan Life Insurance Company, or the
American Social Hygiene Association.

It is felt that both silent and talking pic-
tures have important places in public health
education, but so far the limitation of avail-
able funds for this work has been a serious
handicap, applying equally to Federal,
State, and local health authorities.

Mr. William F. Kruse of the Bell and
Howell Company (1801 Larchmont Avenue,
Chicago, Illinois) has compiled an excellent

catalogue of medical and health films avail-
able to the profession and the lay public,
it will serve to illustrate the wide variety
of available films in these fields. He has
also prepared a booklet on the motion pic-
ture as a professional instrument to assist
physicians in making their own films. In
his book entitled " Taking the Doctor's
Pulse ", Montague has discussed the pro-
duction and use of professional medical
films.

3. — THE MOTION PICTURE
IN GOVERNMENT SERVICE

a) Films of various Eleven agencies in
Departments of the seven 0f tne executive
Federal Govern- departments of the
Federal Government
in Washington, D. C, are active in the pro-
duction, distribution or use of motion pic-
tures that are educational in the widest
sense. A list of these agencies follows :

(1) Department of Agriculture :
(a) Office of Motion Pictures.

(2) Department of Commerce :

(a) Motion Picture Production Sec-
tion, Bureau of Mines.

(b) Motion Picture Section, Bureau of
Foreign and Domestic Commerce.

(3) Department of the Interior :

(a) Branch of Research and Education,
Office of National Parks, Buildings, and
Reservations.

(b) Division of Reclamation Econ-
omics, Bureau of Reclamation.

(c) Radio and Visual Education Sec-
tion, Office of Education.

(4) Department of Labor :

(a) Division of Publicity, The Wo-
men's Bureau.

(b) The Children's Bureau.

(5) Navy Department :

(a) Bureau of Navigation.

(6) Treasury Department :

(a) Division of Venereal Disease, U. S.
Public Health Service.

(7) War Department :

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

463

(a) Armv Pictorial Service.

The Bureau of Foreign and Domestic
Commerce of the U. S. Department of
Commerce, collects and supplies data as
to motion picture subject matter and statis-
tical information. The Federal Office of
Education of the U. S. Department of the
Interior serves as a national clearing house
for the exchange of information about the
use of motion pictures and other visual
aids in education. The Children's Bu-
reau of the Department of Labor is inter-
ested primarily in the effects of motion pic-
tures on children.

In view of the fact that these various
governmental agencies do serve the people
in a manner conductive to national apprecia-
tion, a more detailed account of the work
of some of them is included here. By far
the most extensive motion picture service
of any Federal agencies is carried on by the
United States Department of Agriculture
and the Bureau of Mines of the United
States Department of Commerce. A des-
cription of the work of these agencies and
of the United States Public Health Service
is included elsewhere in this report.

For thirteen years the Women's Bureau
of the U. S. Department of Labor has been
preparing and circulating as an important
part of its program, motion pictures deal-
ing with the problems and employment
conditions of wage-earning women together
with standards advocated by the bureau to
promote their welfare and progress. At
present the Women's Bureau is circulating
four motion pictures, varying in length
from one to three reels.

Because of the constant demand for and
great interest displayed in its films by many
groups of the public the Women's Bureau
has found its motion pictures an extremely
valuable educational feature. Through its
films it has been able to give information
about the problems of wage-earning women
to many persons who otherwise would not
learn such facts. A graphic presentation
of these matters makes a much stronger ap-
peal to and impression upon the average

person than does a written discourse. A
much greater human interest is lent to the
whole subject of the needs of women work-
ers through the filming of women engaged
in industrial processes.

The Educational Branch of the Office
of National Parks, Buildings and Reserva-
tions has employed motion pictures during
the past several years for both educational
and publicity purposes. The use of motion
picture films to illustrate lectures in many
parks at lodges, campfires and community
centers has gained much impetus during the
past two years. The urgent public demand
to increase this popular service lacks ful-
fillment because of inadequate funds for
the preparation of suitable film material.

There are now available 77 reels of 16 mm.
and 66 reels of 35 mm. films. These are
in constant use by schools, churches, civic
organizations and clubs. To meet more fully
this need it is hoped that in the near future
the number of loan films illustrating national
parks may be greatly increased.

In addition to those films prepared by the
former Park Service, there are on file for
loan purposes a number of films illustrat-
ing many of the national parks and monu-
ments which were prepared by interested
railroads, concessionnaires or individuals.

The Bureau of Reclamation of the U. S.
Department of the Interior has 30 reels of
35 mm. stock in circulation. These reels
for the most part show the engineering,
agricultural, and economic development of
the various Federal irrigation projects.

The purpose of the film stories is to
acquaint the public with the western irrig-
ated lands. They are used extensively in
schools and colleges.

As a rule, Federal Government films are
available to responsible organizations upon
payment of transportation costs. Most of
the Government films are 35 mm. silent.
There are many also available in the 1 6 mm.
width. A list of the films available from
the various government agencies, including
those from the United States War and Navy
Departments is enclosed. In addition to

464

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

the circulation of films, various departments
of Governments occasionally use films at
important expositions, such as the Century
of Progress at which six departments
used films.

b) Other Sources of ln the non-theatrical
Films dealing with f^y there ;s a w^e
governmental Func-variety of films deaJ-

tions and Patrio- • -.i • • 1 •

ing with citizenship,

tism.

government, patrio-
tism, American history, geography, litera-
ture, travel and other subjects that tend to
stimulate national unity and patriotism.
Perhaps the best-known films in this group
are " The Chronicles of America Photo-
plays ", an authoritative, scholarly series,
made by the Yale University Press to depict
important episodes and outstanding person-
alities of American history from Columbus
to the end of the Civil War. Even in
industrial films, not primarily of a patriotic
nature, patriotism will out.

ln the theatrical field there are probably
50 pictures released in this country each
year that present some phase of national
life or historical development. Among
these might be mentioned major theatrical
attractions such as " Cimarron ", " Alexand-
er Hamilton ", " Wild Boys of the Road "
and " Washington Merry-Go-Round ".
But the most constant and significant med-
ium in this patriotic movement is the news-
reel, which keeps all of the people in the
feeling that they are acquainted with the
personalities that are making the history
of the time.

Newsreels and short films are being used
very extensively at the present time to stim-
ulate patriotic support of the national re-
covery program. Hardly a week passes
that the newsreels do not carry some item
about the activities of the Government.
In response to a patriotic appeal, eight of the
largest motion picture companies in the
United States recently volunteered to pro-
duce at their own expense and to supply
gratis 1,000 prints each of short featurettes
as a means of disseminating motion picture

propaganda in behalf of the President's
Emergency Reemployment Campaign of the
National Recovery Administration. It is
conservatively estimated that each of the
eight featurettes will be shown in 8,000
theatres for a total of 64,000 individual cin-
ema exhibitions within a period of three
months. This is only one example of the
way the motion picture industry is cooper-
ating with the Federal Government.

it is difficult for the theatre owner to
satisfy his audience with a showing of gov-
ernmental propaganda films. People pay
their admissions to the theatre for relaxa-
tion and entertainment, and are inclined to
resent propaganda in any form if they re-
cognize it as such. An attempt to propa-
gandize people beyong the point where pub-
lic opinion warrants it usually produces the
opposite effect.

The motion picture industry has cooper-
ated admirably in the patriotic propaganda
undertaken in the interests of the national
recovery. It should be pointed out, howev-
er, that notwithstanding the efforts of the
Motion Picture Producers and Distributors
of America and various voluntary organiza-
tions to discourage the production of crime
pictures, the consensus of well-informed
opinion indicates that a considerable num-
ber of motion pictures are released each
year that have an undesirable effect on
national ideals and good citizenship.

4. - THE USE OF MOTION PICTURES
IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

a) Vocational Possi- With over 3 million
bilities. families, or 13 million

individuals on public relief in October,
1933, according to Harry L. Hopkins, Feder-
al Relief Administrator and with a large
unemployed population, an urgent problem
arises as to what part the motion pictures
can play in assisting these individuals to
utilize to advantage the 1 00 per cent leisure
time which they have at their disposal.
Were films to be made commercially avail-

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

465

able which had been produced in coopera-
tion with high grade occupational counsellors
and advisors, depicting how an individual
may analyse his abilities and employment
assets and how to get a job, there is little
doubt that such could render a distinct
service in national employment readjust-
ment.

Experience in administering the national
program of vocational education in coopera-
tion with the States has shown the Federal
Board for Vocational Education that a ma-
jor interest of the working man and woman
is how to keep on working and improving
themselves vocationally. Especially is this
economic interest true when they are thrown
out of employment and the paramount
incentive is to get back to work. With the
urge for economic self-preservation over-
shadowing all else, the unemployed indiv-
idual is not usually in a frame of mind to
give much attention to suggestions on the
intelligent use of his leisure time for aesthetic
and cultural improvement until he has seen
a way clear to attain some measure of eco-
nomic security.

Even in normal times of commercial,
agricultural, and industrial activity, with un-
employment at a minimum, working men
and women make extensive use of a part
of their leisure time to attend public even-
ing school classes maintained in communities
throughout the United States, offering in-
struction and training in various phases of
trade and industrial, commercial, agricul-
tural, and home-making occupations. Most
of the private correspondence courses, fi-
nanced directly from the pockets of work-
ing men and women, are devoted to improv-
ing vocational efficiency. The short, in-
tensive, " cooking schools " organized at
intervals in various cities by enterprising
business firms or newspapers are invariably
attended by large numbers of home-mak-
ers, eager to utilize some of their leisure
time in improving their occupational pro-
ficiency.

In considering the possible uses of motion
picture films in connection with utilizing

leisure time of the working man and woman,
the vocational aspect should receive some
attention as well as the cultural and esthetic
values. There need be no conflict of
interests in the various applications of this
new educational medium, any more than
there is in the average public evening school
program maintained in any one of a large
number of cities, which offers subjects
embracing a wide range of cultural, social,
economic, and vocational values.

Museums and expositions sometimes run
free motion pictures for the benefit of the
public. The New York Museum of Science
and Industry, for example, shows motion pic-
tures at regular periods in the museum.TheSt
Paul Institute of General and Applied Science
has a regular schedule of evening showings
in various schools throughout the city.
The Century of Progress Exposition at
Chicago ran many motion picture showings
in connection with various exhibits ; and
the Office of National Parks, Buildings, and
Reservations has many showings of motion
pictures and illustrated lectures, designed
to stimulate greater use of national parks
as recreation centers.

Due to certain limitations, the Federal
Board has not been in a position to coordi-
nate and unify the pioneering work which
has been done in various fields and phases
of vocational education and vocational
guidance through the medium of motion
picture films. Here and there, in certain
cities and States, individual officials in
charge of vocational education have ex-
perimented, largely on an amateur basis,
with the motion picture film. This is also
true of certain educational directors in
industry.

The general purposes of such films as
have come to the attention of members of
the Federal Board staff have been to pre-
sent information and appreciation of voca-
tional training possibilities offered by the
public schools. Films of this nature have
been designed for the information of boys
and girls who, on completion of the com-
pulsory school requirements, will drop out

£ Ice. Ing.

466

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

of school if they do not enter the vocational
courses ; for adult workers who may be
interested in attending the evening school ;
and for the physically handicapped citizens
and their friends who may not be aware of
the public programs available for rehabili-
tation training. Industrial plants have de-
veloped films showing in detail the actual
work of various operatives which would
be valuable for vocational guidance pur-
poses were it possible to make them gen-
erally available. In some cases, films
have been made with a view to serving as
direct teaching aids in connection with
some technical phase or difficult manual
operation.

While the application of the film to the
field of vocational education and training
is as yet experimental, sporadic and frag-
mentary, some of the specific examples
listed in the appendix to this report indicate
the great possibilities offered for future de-
velopment and use. The field for high
grade, professional type films dealing with
various phases of vocational education is
unlimited with the present widespread
unemployment, and this conditio- will
continue as business resumes. With the
sweeping changes and technological ad-
vances, the worker will be more and more
faced with the necessity of devoting a part
of his leisure time to keeping abreast of the
new developments, through attendance on
vocational classes, and the motion picture
film can be of peculiarly valuable assistance
in this connection, for the film is particularly
well-suited for teaching how technical work
is done.

b) Films of the Uni- Many of the available
ted States Depart- njms on agriculture,
ment of Agricul- home economJcs> m.

ture and Bureau j . • •

dustry, engineering
of Mines. , ■ •

and mining are es-
sentially vocational in nature. The Motion
Picture Bureau of the National Council
of Y. M. C. A. has an excellent library of
vocational films. The General Electric
Company, the Western Electric Company,

and many other commercial corporations
produce films on various phases of industry
and engineering. Many of these films are
available free of charge. Since the United
States Department of Agriculture has many
films on agriculture and home economics,
and the Bureau of Mines of the United
States Department of Commerce has many
films on mining, a more detailed report of
their films follows.

The motion picture activities of the
United States Department of Agriculture
are carried on through a unit of the Exten-
sion Service officially known as the Office
of Motion Pictures. This office operates
in Washington, D. C, a small, but complete
motion picture laboratory for the produc-
tion of its own films and maintains an educa-
tional film library of about 250 subjects
(a total of 3,000 reels in all) which are
distributed throughout the United States.
The total shipments of films during the
last fiscal year were 4,756 copies which it is
estimated were shown to ten million people.

This service is designed primarily to
provide educational films on agriculture,
forestry, home economics, and kindred
subjects to the Extension Service agencies
of the States, particularly the county agri-
cultural agents and home demonstration
agents. In harmony with the general pur-
pose of the United States Department of
Agriculture, the objective in showing the
films is to aid in better farm and home prac-
tices. The films are made in cooperation
with several subject matter bureaus of
the Department and are distributed by the
Office of Motion Pictures. No rental is
charged for the films, the borrower paying
only the transportation charges. While
agricultural extension agents have preference
in booking, effort is made to serve also
schools, especially agricultural high schools,
churches, civic organizations and other
worthy agencies. The demand from these
outside users of films, however, is far
greater than can be met with the funds
available for buying copies of films.

In view of this situation, users who have

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

467

occasion to make more or less intensive use
of Department of Agriculture films fre-
quently find it worth while to purchase
prints from Department negatives. The
Government itself cannot sell prints, but
the negatives are deposited with a commer-
cial laboratory which furnishes prints to
authorized purchasers at a relatively low
contract price, established by competitive
bidding.

Among purchasers of Department of
Agriculture films are the Universities of
Wisconsin, Kentucky, Nebraska, Arkan-
sas, Pittsburgh, Missouri, Kansas, South
Dakota, Tennessee, Iowa State College
of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, and In-
diana University ; the Governments of
Mexico, Belgium, Uruguay, Colombia,
Lithuania, Japan, Turkey, South Africa,
Nicaragua, Haiti, Argentina, Peru, New
South Wales, U. S. S. R., Australasian
Films, Ltd., The Australian Cement As-
sociation, The Los Angeles, Kansas City,
NewYork City, and Pasadena Public Schools;
The Rockefeller Foundation and the Na-
tional Automobile Chamber of Commerce.

The Bureau of Mines of the U. S. De-
partment of Commerce has 57 films which
deal with the mining of coal, iron, oil and
copper, and with the industrial processes
connected therewith, especially the produc-
tion of power in all its forms. The main
distributing center for the films is the
bureau s experimental station at Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, where the films are produc-
ed. Thirteen other distributing centers
are located in various sections of the United
States.

These films are available for loan to
responsible organizations upon payment
of transportation charges, as is the practice
in other government bureaus. High schools,
colleges, engineering societies, and various
trade and labor groups are the principal
borrowers of these films. During the fiscal
year ended June 30, 1933, there were 34,638
showings to a total audience of 2,995,898
people. By means of illustrating processes
and skills, these films are of distinct ser-
vice in vocational training.

5. - THE MOTION PICTURE
IN INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING

Motion pictures transcend national fron-
tiers, language brarriers, illiteracy and
ignorance. They are the universal edu-
cators, the Esperantists of the universe.
Upon motion pictures, more than on dip-
lomats depend the people of the world
for their information concerning the lives,
traits of character, and public policies of
people in other countries. The cinema has
important inter-racial implications and
responsibilities. World peace must be
based upon world acquaintance. War must
be depicted as something hideous rather
than something great and important.

In the non-theatrical field there is con-
siderable international exchange of scien-
tific films and teaching films such as the
" Chronicles of America Photoplays " and
the Eastman films. Every available means
should be utilized to facilitate and encourage
the international exchange of instructional
films.

In the theatrical field there is the con-
stant impact of the newsreels upon our own
and other countries, depicting the stories of
the rise and fall of nations and what science
and research are achieving for mankind.
Twenty-five per cent of the make-up of the
average newsreel is foreign. Forty or
fifty feature pictures are produced each
year in the United States that portray the
nationals of foreign countries. Among
some of the recent productions are " Ca-
valcade ", " Broken Lullaby ", and " Pad-
dy . Travel pictures also play an import-
ant part in acquainting children, as well as
adults, with foreign people, cities, customs
and so forth. There is a growing tendency
to produce pictures dealing with interna-
tional topics of interest to Europe as well
as America.

a) Making and Cir- The following ac-
culating Motion count is included here
Pictures. as a means of pre-

senting a clearer picture of the production
and world-wide use of American motion
pictures.

468

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

A famous play is bought off Broadway.
If it played on Broadway so long it must be
good. Studios outbid each other and some-
times pay fabulous prices for a play or
book. Copies of it go to the studio and
in due time are assigned to a supervisor
and writer to adapt for motion picture pro-
duction. Sometimes a year, two years,
sometimes only six months of intensified
labor are required to rewrite this Broadway
play or successful book. Sometimes only
the title remains intact, so complicated has
become the process of transferring from one
medium to another. The casting problem,
and actual production and editing. And the
rough picture is tried out on a preview au-
dience and if they do not laugh just where
they are expected to, or worse still, if they
laugh where they should not, or sigh
with boredom, the picture goes back for
retakes sometimes as complicated as the
first process. The studio takes another
guess, but eventually the finished pro-
duct emerges — a triumph of the cinema
art. It is really amazing how good some
of them are.

We visit Hollywood and we journey
around the world and observe how the out-
put of that famous center of international
workers is received and displayed among
foreign people. In a Hollywood studio we
sit in silence for hours and watch the dir-
ector toiling on a new picture ; we sigh,
we look in amazement at the infinite detail
of production ; the patience of Job is per-
sonified in the director who for a dozen times,
a hundred times, even a thousand times, has
his performers of all races enter or leave a
stadium, utter a cry, or jump from a pre-
cipice. Day after day, the ordeal is repeated.
In time a new picture is released. People
of many nations participated in its produc-
tion, and, if it proves a worthy drawing card
for box offices, it may go into many editions
and languages and eventually be seen by
millions of people. In the films course
about the world for months and years it
carries at least some phases of acquaintance-
ship. It depicts life and conditions in one

part of the world for the benefit of those
in other parts.

Consider the diversity of subject matter
being woven into the movie at Hollywood ;
and Hollywood is only one of the great
picture making centers of the world. Here
are a few topics in the making ; drama, com-
edy , history, travel, agriculture, industry,
hygiene, railroading, shipping, mining,
pastimes, current events.

And where are these American films dis-
tributed ? A correct answer might be the
whole world, including even Little America,
which has a population only once in a while.
European countries, although they manufac-
ture motion picture films on enormous
scales, are among the leading patrons of the
United States film. Even during one of the
depression years, Great Britain and France
increased the importation of American
pictures by more than 20,000,000 feet of
film. The Dominion of Canada and the
twenty Republics of the American Continent
obtain from the United States millions of
feet of film annually ; and each of these
countries has supplied subject matter for
innumerable motion pictures. For Latin
American history alone Hollywood has
provided a library of worthy dimensions
in addition to making researches into the
dress and customs of southern nations from
the days of the Incas to the present time.

The Jivaro Indians of the Upper Amazon
region are among the wildest of the earth s
peoples. But in 1932-33 numbers of these
denizens of the jungles followed trails that
led to an American rancher's home in eas-
tern Ecuador. The object of their pil-
grimages was to see the movies and hear
the radio — those miraculous sights and
sounds that came from nowhere and caused
the widest of the wild men no end of wonder
and amazement.

Is it not interesting to look backward into
the centuries and see how the aboriginals
practiced their handicraft ? No people of
the Middle Americas are more picturesque
in garb or more faithful in following an-
cient methods of spinning and weaving than

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

469

the Indians of Guatemala. Journey along
the highway from the Guatemala capital
to the curious old city of Quezaltenango ;
stop here and there and observe descendants
of the Tultecas at their daily tasks. It
takes time and money to go to Guatemala.
But the motion picture industry has sent
its agents to mingle with the people ; the
results of their labors comprise some of the
most interesting motion picture films ever
" shot ". They present burden-bearers on
wild trails, the pottery makers at their tasks,
garment v/eavers in action, the busy corn
grinders, the husbandman — all following
customs of distant yesterday marvellously
recorded by movie men of today. Such
films make history far more entertaining
than lengthy printed books and records.

In a section of darkest Africa the native
rubber worker has a new urge. He is
employed at a fair wage. Motion pictures
show him how to set out young rubber trees,
how to tap older ones, how to protect him-
self from insects, how modern sanitation
helps him to live in more comfort than he
has known. In short, the motion picture
is educating some of the most ignorant of
peoples. A long time must elapse before
the primitive African learns his letters and
begins to use the primer. Meanwhile this
new kind of education undoubtedly ex-
pands his mind to a remarkable degree.

Conversely, the record of these wild
workers is brought to school and public
audience in the United States where thou-
sands, if not millions of people, learn how
the ignorant African works and begins to
take part in the real progress of mankind.

b) A Means of spread- The Carnegie Foun-
ing Information. dation for y/OT\d

Peace has compiled a list of films on interna-
tional understanding. The Burton Holmes
Travel Films are excellent. The United
States Departments of State and Com-
merce and various other agencies are in-
terested in the use of motion pictures to
create better international understanding.
The lens of the motion picture camera is

peculiarly analytical and quite uniformly
betrays the presence of ulterior motives.
Studied efforts to utilize the photoplay
for international understanding may include
a lot of propaganda. Propaganda, no mat-
ter how ideal the purpose may be, is futile
if it is recognized as such.

The International Union of American
Republics at Washington (Pan American
Union) has long utilized the motion pic-
ture in introducing peoples of American
nations. A division of the organization
gives special aid to club women in arrang-
ing their international programs, and lends
motion picture films to clubs all over the
United States. There is no charge for
this service other than the nominal express
fees. A similar feature is that of supplying
films for university use. Thus, both in clubs
and in institutions of learning the Union
brings features of visual inter-American
progress to thousands of people. A few
titles further suggest the scope of informa-
tion thus provided : After the Government
of Bolivia caused a series of films to be made
depicting her various mining operations
the Union obtained copies and provided
for showing them in the United States.
In the same way the Brazilian coffee film,
that of the banana industry, the Argentine
cattle business, and other motion pictures
were loaned to interested organizations in
this country. Many popular travel films
have likewise introduced the people of the
United States to some of the marvelous sights
in South and Central America. Converse-
ly, the Union has been instrumental in
obtaining industrial, scientific and sanitary
films made in this country which have been
widely displayed in Latin America.

The educational value and good under-
standing features of this work are far-
reaching ; they have developed in many
people a desire to know more of the sub-
ject matter they have seen on the screen ;
they have intensified the desire of tourists
to visit and personally see the wonders of
Latin America.

The motion picture is as susceptible of

470

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

creating wrong impressions and developing
ill-feelings as it is of fostering friendly in-
terest among peoples. The characteristics
that make one group of people a distinct
nation are different from those of any other
nation. The diversity is reflected in the
lives, customs, and artistic conceptions of
the various nationals. Because of their
dynamic qualities, motion pictures make a
universal appeal. Motion picture producers
are put to considerable effort to avoid of-
fending the sensibilities of nationals of
other countries.

There have been many tributes paid to
foreigners in American-made motion pic-
tures. Naturally, such tributes are accept-
ed as deserved. But when a foreigner is
portrayed in an unfavourable light, some
of his fellow-countrymen are sure to pro-
test. Such protests have been of sufficient
economic importance to the American pro-
ducers that they have worked out a pro-
cedure through which responsible officials
such as custom officers, commercial at-
taches, or in some instances, the embassies
of foreign countries are permitted to put
their stamp of approval on pictures dealing
with their interests, prior to release.

The acceptability of American films in
foreign countries is a subject that can be
more appropriately discussed by the re-
presentative of various countries in an in-
ternational conference than by represen-
tatives of the United States alone. Con-
structive suggestions resulting from such
deliberations will be welcomed by practi-
cally all motion picture producers in the
United States, as the utmost precaution
is necessary not to offend the sensibilities
of nations. Citizens of a country do not
like to be depicted in motion pictures as
being backward, stupid, criminal, or ri-
diculous. Photoplay drama calls for jes-
ters, villains, and odd folk. The foreign
villain — oven the naturalized villain —
is disappearing from the American picture.

In conclusion, from a consideration of
the motion picture industry as a whole and
a review of the remarkable achievements

and innumerable ramifications of the sub-
ject matter that concerns the giant industry
one can form an idea of how the photoplay
is introducing peoples to each other all over
the world. It is certain that the exchange
of motion pictures among countries has
contributed to the knowledge of foreign
countries. It does not necessarily follow,
however truthfully these pictures have
represented the countries of their origin,
that this knowledge has resulted in better
understanding, in the sense of building
friendly relationships.

In the matter of the spread of information
about the nations, their people, customs
and institutions, for which the motion pic-
ture has been responsible, it is difficult to
improve on the words expressed by Sir
Phillip Gibbs some two years ago. He
said, reviewing changes since the World
War:

" The ordinary people whose lives were
at stake in this game of international poli-
tical intrigue were deeply and profoundly
ignorant of the world beyond their own
frontiers. They had very little interest
in the world problems because their imagi-
nation was bounded by their own parish
and their little local affairs. They disliked
' foreigners ' whoever they might be. Their
ideas about life — I mean the ideas of pea-
sants, small shopkeepers, city clerks and
the middle-class masses who make up the
bulk of a nation — were traditional, paro-
chial and national. They lived behind
walls of prejudice, intolerance and ignor-
ance. Their minds moved slowly. Even
their bodies did not get about much beyond
their own cabbage patch or workshop, in
spite of railway trains. Before the war in a
small country like England I met elderly
men and women who had never made a
railway journey. They followed their
fathers' footsteps no further than the vil-
lage green. Now youth goes careering
about the countryside, and families no longer
shut themselves up in mental fortresses,
as they used to do in Victorian England.
The moving pictures, and now the talkies

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

471

are making a change in the mentality of
mankind.

6. - MOTION PICTURE LEGISLATION

a) National. Motion picture leg-
islation in the United States may be clas-
sified as Federal, State, and local. Being
a highly decentralized nation in which educ-
ation is left, in main, to the various States,
Federal legislation has only an indirect
bearing on the production, distribution and
exhibition of educational films. There
exists no Federal law obliging theatres to
include educational films in their programs.
In fact, educational, religious, scientific
and philanthropic agencies may import
films free of the duty charged on the im-
portation of theatrical motion pictures,
provided the films are for the agency's
non-commercial use. Even the recently
approved Code of Fair Competition for the
Motion Picture Industry (No. 124), exempts
non-theatrical motion pictures from the
provisions of the code.

In the field of theatrical motion pictures,
it has been the past policy of the Federal
Government to leave to private industry and
voluntary endeavor many responsibilities
whieh the typical European government
would assume. This policy has met with
the general approval of the industry which
prefers self-imposed regulations to those
imposed by the Government. The Code
of Fair Competition for the Motion Picture
Industry was prepared with the assistance
of various representatives of the industry.
Excepting the code, the only Federal mo-
tion picture legislation is a law prohibiting
the importation of prize fight films, and
their shipment in interstate commerce.

b) State. State motion picture
legislation is of two types, censorship laws
and legislation regarding safety in theatre
operation. Most States have legislation
designed to reduce the fire hazard involved
in the projection of theatrical motion pic-

tures, but only eight States have censorship
laws. Six of the States — Kansas, Mary-
land, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and
Virginia — have State censor boards to
pass on all theatrical motion pictures to be
shown in each State. The Massachusetts
board censors Sunday shows only. Although
Florida has a censorship law on its statute
books, it has not been in operation for sev-
eral years. The purpose of censorship,
as defined in the laws, is to exclude films
which are sacrilegious, obscene, indecent,
immoral, or such as tend, in the judgment
of the board, to debase or corrupt morals.
Educational films usually are exempt from
the censorship provisions applied to theatric-
al films.

At least twelve States, Hawaii and the
District of Columbia, regulate by statute
the projection of motion picture film and
film strips in schools, assembly halls, church-
es and other non-theatrical buildings, ac-
cording to a study being made by Miss Mar-
ian Telford of the National Safety Coun-
cil. The study further shows that eight
of the twelve States forbid the projection
of nitro-cellulose (the so-called " flam ")
film unless fire-resisting booths are provid-
ed. Some States require the employment
of licensed motion picture operators for all
projections of nitro-cellulose film. Other
States do not. Many cities have munici-
pal regulations regarding the projection
of motion pictures.

c) Local. At least thirty-five

cities in the United States have municipal
regulations in the form of censorship or
restriction of attendance at motion picture
theatres. In main, the municipal censor-
ship ordinances are intended to exclude films
that State censorship boards would exclude.
Some of the ordinances, however, enter
into considerably more detail regarding the
films to be excluded than the State statutes
do. In some instances, children are not
permitted to attend the exhibition of films
that are approved for adults. Other or-

472

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

dinances specify that children must not be
excluded from the exhibition of any approv-
ed movies.

7. - THE TECHNIQUE OF MAKING
AND DISPLAYING MOTION PICTURES

The discussion of the international as-
pects of motion picture production in Sec-
tion 5 of this report will serve to illustrate
the great amount of work involved in the
production of theatrical motion pictures in
the United States. From the time the
story is written or selected through the
various stages of its production the choice
of cast, settings, acting, photography sound
recording, and so forth, the production is
carried out with the highest degree of skill
procurable, and aided by the finest technical
resources that science has produced. No
expense is spared to insure that every detail
meets the high standard of art and technic-
al excellence that is set up for the picture.
Practically every feature picture represents
an outlay of a quarter of a million dollars,
and some of them actually reach the million
dollar mark (1) and (2).

a) The Production of The technical re-
Educational Films. sources upon which
the educational film
can draw are practically limitless. Unfor-
tunately, the outstanding craftsmanship
of American cinematographers that is so
evident, even in the least important theatric-
al productions, has thus far found but
limited application in the making of educa-
tional films.

Much of the non-theatrical film now in
use was produced ten or more years ago.
The motion picture industry has made tre-

(1) CoWAN LESTER. Recording sound for motion
pictures. New York, N. Y., McGraw-Hill Book
Company, 1931, 404 p.

(2) Dale Edgar. How to appreciate motion pic-
tures. New York, N. Y., The MacMillan Company,
1933, 243 P.

mendous progress in that time, with the
result that these old educational pictures
look extremely inferior by comparison,
even if only because of their technical date
line. There are a few outstanding films
in the non-theatrical field that may be
useful for many years, and others that will
become valuable as historical records, but
the principle must be insisted upon that
the makers of educational films provide
nothing but the latest and best. The best
is not too good for the school.

Mere labelling of outworn or outmoded
theatrical short subjects as educational does
not fit them for classroom use, although
proper re-editing would make muny of the
newsreel and short feature films valuable
to the teacher. This procedure offers
much promise even with some full length
features. An excellent educational film
on customs in the Middle Ages was cut
out of the Fairbanks feature, " Robin
Hood ". But the major educational film
production of the future should be planned
with the direct needs of the school in mind,
it should involve the closest cooperation
between pedagogue and film technician,
and then be tested and further adapted in
actual classroom use. Films made by such
agencies as the University Film Founda-
tion, Yale University ; UFA ; ERPI ; and
Eastman Teaching Films, and referred to
elsewhere in this report, point the w^y in
this respect.

Though still in its infancy, the field of
the school-made film offers much promise
to teachers and students. The production
of such films involves relatively little special
equipment other than a 16 mm. amateur
motion picture camera so widely used out-
side the school. So-called " photo flood
lamps, quite inexpensive, that fit any or-
dinary socket meet fully the erstwhile dif-
ficult problem of illumination. If a teach-
ing film is to be made, the scenario should
be worked out in full detail by the teaching
staff, and approved by those in charge, be-
fore a single foot of film is made. In many
schools it will be found that some member

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

473

of the staff is personally interested in movie
making, and consequently proficient in
manipulating the camera.

Besides teaching films, numerous schools
have found it advisable to produce pictures
of a general informational character in or-
der that fellow schoolmen and the general
public also might understand clearly what
is being done or projected, in new methods,
social services, or even regular routine.
Thus New Britain, Connecticut schools
tell the story of the platoon system in film ;
San Diego, California schools tell of their
intimate tie-up with the city museum ;
the Chicago schools tell of their special
work for crippled, blind, and problem child-
ren. The latter films were used most
effectively at the recent Chicago Century
of Progress Exposition.

Still another type of school-made film
is the dramatic venture, engaged in by
students under teacher guidance. Very
creditable productions are to be nofed in
high schools in various parts of the country,
and invariably the screening of these films in
the school auditorium cements more close-
ly the bonds between the school and its
community. In the process of making these
pictures the students get a deeper insight
both into the technique of photography
and the mysteries of movie making. This
stimulates critical study of the cinema and
promotes a richer understanding of pic-
tures subsequently reviewed on the theatric-
al screen.

b) The Projection of There is no national
Educational Films. system for tne d;stri_

bution of apparatus for the projection of
educational films. Occasionally motion pic-
ture projectors are purchased by Federal
or State governments, but, in the main, they
are purchased by local groups from com-
mercial distributors. At the present time,
most of the non-theatrical projectors in
school auditoriums and public halls are
35 mm. silent projectors. Only within
the last two or three years has sound appar-
tus been purchased to any material extent

for school use. Sound reproduction sys-
tems are being installed in many of the new
schools in the more prosperous areas of the
country. Both sound-on-film and sound-on
disc systems are in use. Projection booths
and much other apparatus, such as is listed
in the Film Daily Yearbook of Motion Pic-
tures, are used in non-theatrical auditoriums.

The 16 mm. silent portable projector is
the type most commonly used in classrooms
at the present time. Ordinary window
shades darken the room sufficiently. An
electrical outlet plug in the baseboard at
the rear of the room is the only additional
building facility involved in the introduction
of the motion picture in the classroom pro-
cedure. With the modern high-power
lamps used in the latest projectors, and
adaptable at least in some makes of older
projectors, the same machine will serve
most school auditorium needs.

There is no longer any necessity to pro-
vide a special darkened visual education
room for the showing of slides and motion
pictures. At best this practice was doubt-
ful ; it divorced the visual material from the
subject that it was intended to serve and
disrupted rather than coordinated a full
rounded-out classroom presentation.

The recommended procedure today is
that the compact, light weight projector is
set up in the rear of the classroom on
desk or stand ; the screen is pulled down
behind the teachers desk, just as a map
would be ; the shades are drawn as the
projector is being threaded ; and the pic-
ture fits into the lesson procedure with no
more disturbance than would be occasioned
by reference to map, blackboard, globe or
other customary visual aid.

With the advent of the talking picture the
procedure is little, if any more complicated.
With sound-on-film the projector is but
little larger ; the threading just as simple.
Any teacher, or any pupil of junior-high
age upward, can easily master this. A speak-
er is brought to the front of the classroom
placed beneath the screen, and the lesson
proceeds with the additional advantage of

474

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

vocal or other sound accompaniment to the
motion picture story. With the sound-on-
disc method a third element, the phono-
graph record is introduced and the only
additional feature is the starting of the
film and record together and their running
in synchronism.

8. — THE SYSTEMATIC INTRODUCTION
OF MOTION PICTURES IN TEACHING

The subject of this report divides itself
into two parts : first, the extent to which
motion pictures are used in the schools of
the United States ; and, second, a suggestive
method of introducing the motion picture
as an aid to instruction in American schools.
These two phases will be approached as far
as possible in the light of surveys and ex-
perimental data which have been developed
in the United States and England in the
past fifteen years.

a) The Value of Vis- Preliminary to a con-
ual Aids in In- sideration of the pro-
struction. blems themselves, at-

tention is directed to a series of important
investigations which call attention to the
need of improved instruction in the Ameri-
can schools and colleges, and to the values
and constructive results arising from the
use of visual aids in the classroom.

Several years ago, American educators
were startled by the report of Dr. Henry
S. Pritchett, of the Carnegie Foundation
for tne Advancement of Teaching, which
revealed that the average college senior
knows but 61 per cent of the words in
familiar use by educated people. This pre-
valence of verbalism has been confirmed by
more recent investigations. It is the con-
census of well-informed opinion that there
is a real need for improved methods of
instruction, particularly the use of media
which will furnish meaningful content
to the school curriculum.

Further experimentation in recent years
has brougnt to light tne fact tnat instruction

can be and has been improved through the
use of visual aids. The outcomes of the
investigations conducted by Freeman and
his co-workers at the University of Chicago ;
Knowlton and Tilton at Yale University ;
Wood and Freeman ; Marchant ; Consitt ;
the National Union of Teachers in the
schools of Middlesex, England ; Clarke ;
Arnspiger ; Erpi Picture Consultants ; Har-
vard University ; and the very recent
Pittsburgh study, all reveal that visual
aids have definite values. The results of
these experiments which include the use
of the major visual aids demonstrate that
the proper use of visual material :

1) Increases initial learning,

2) Effects an economy of time in learn-
ing,

3) Increases permanence of learning,

4) Aids in teaching backward children.

5) Motivates learning by increasing :

a) Interest,

b) Attention,

c) Self-activity,

d) Voluntary reading,

e) Classroom participation.

While this report deals primarily with
the motion picture, no one visual aid should
be regarded as covering the entire field,
for all visual aids, namely, apparatus and
equipment, school journeys, objects-speci-
mens-models pictorial and representation
materials, contribute to meaningful in-
struction.

b) The Extent of the Having indicated, first
Use of Motion Pic- the neec[ 0f improved
Tures in Teaching. metnods 0f instruction
in the schools ; and, second, the values of
visual aids in instruction it seems appropriate
to proceed to the analysis of the first problem
of this report : the extent to which motion
pictures are used in the schools of the United
States.

Unfortunately, data on this problem are
few and unreliable. The main sources of
information are the investigations by E. I.
Way of the United States Department of
Commerce, the survey of Dr. F. Dean

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

475

MacClusky, the directory of the Department
of Visual Instruction of the National Educa-
tion Association, the courses in visual
instruction offered by colleges and universi-
ties, and figures compiled by the Visual
Education Bureau of the Pennsylvania De-
partment of Public Instruction.

The Way report of 1929 shows that only
approximately 6,000 of a total of 25,717 su-
pervisory officers replied to the question-
naires sent out in an effort to determine the
number of motion picture projectors in use
in the schools of the nation. Two-thirds
of those replying reported the use of
motion pictures. The steady growth in the
use of 16 mm. films in class-rooms is re-
flected in the reports from six cities in the
United States. During the school year
1931-32, there were 101,070 showings and
during the school year 1932-1933 there
were 1 48,943 — an increase of over 47 % .

Dr. Dean F. Mac Clusky's report of
his survey, published in 1932, touches this
same field as well as several other phases of
the visual education situation. Commenting
on this report, former Governor Carl E.
Milhken says, " It is not so much the number
of schools using visual instruction, the pro-
jection machines discovered active in class-
rooms ; in short, the physical equipment
for visual education, as the general progress
in interest and in understanding and appre-
ciation of the new technique that gives the
survey a sense of satisfaction with what has
been accomplished and an optimistic out-
look for the future " (1).

From these available data, a conservative
estimate of the percentage of schools in the
nation using motion pictures in classroom
instruction would not exceed ten per cent.
However, in a number of city school sys-
tems motion pictures are used effectively
as aids to instruction. For example, sever-
al cities own film libraries for the con-

venient use of teachers. Pittsburgh, Penn-
sylvania, with a school population of a
million has a motion picture library of
about 4,300 reels.

A regrettable feature in all these surveys
is the fact that superintendents and super-
vising principals of schools, either through
lack of knowledge or lack of interest or both,
do not take the trouble to supply informa-
tion of inestimable value to supervising
officers, teachers, parents, and school child-
ren of the entire country. Part of this apa-
thy is due to the technique of investigation,
i. e., the questionnaire, but the total in-
difference of school officials to these surveys
cannot be assigned wholly to this procedure.
In the light of the value of the motion
picture and its contribution to enriched,
meaningful instruction, it is to the discredit
of American school officials and teachers
that its use for instructional purposes is not
more widespread.

c) Reasons for Fai- Two vital weaknesses

lure to use more

are revea

led ii

(1) Milhken Carl E. Visual Instruction its
value and its needs. In " International Review of
Educational Cinematography ", 4 : 799-800, Oc-
tober, 1932.

Motion Pictures study conducted by
the Visual Education
Bureau of the Pennsylvania Department of
Public Instruction. The investigation
covered a cross-section of one entire State
and parts of two others. It had to do with
pictorial materials and school equipment.
The test included sixty-two groups, rang-
ing in number from twenty-five to 1 ,820
teachers. The results showed that only
1 1 per cent knew definite standards for
evaluating still and motion pictures ; and
but six per cent knew the minimum amount
of standard equipment necessary for effec-
tive instruction. This lamentable condi-
tion is probably representative of all parts
of the country. The obvious conclusion
is that teacher training institutions have not
met their responsibility.

Sufficient data are revealed in these sur-
veys to explain the lack of use of the motion
picture in the school rooms of the country.
These causes of lack of use of motion pic-
ture are :

476

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

1) The expense of projectors and films,

2) Lack of instructional films up to the
last few years,

3) Lack of understanding of the values
of the film in instruction,

4) Insufficient technical skill of teach-
ers in the use of motion picture projectors
and films,

5) Failure to correlate films with the
curriculum,

6) Failure of school officials to adapt
available films to the curriculum,

7) Failure of administrative officers
to budget money for film materials,

8) Failure of professional teacher or-
ganizations to give proper recognition to
visual education in their programs.

Data included in several of the reports
touch upon cause number eight. It is the
fact that little or no consideration has been
given visual education in National Educa-
tion and State Teachers Association pro-
grams. Only once in ten years, the reports
reveal has this subject had a place on the
general program of the National Education
Association. In only seven States has
visual education, though it touches all sub-
jects, had even a minor place in the section
programs of the annual State teachers as-
sociation meetings.

The Department of Visual Instruction
of the National Education Association and
similar organizations are seriously endea-
voring to bring before the nation the value
of motion pictures in instruction and the
most effective method of procedure in us-
ing these aids.

If the effective use of pictorial materials
enriches and vitalizes instruction ; effects
an economy of time and money in instruc-
tion ; increases initial learning ; increases
permanence of learning ; aids in teaching
backward children ; increases interest, at-
tention, self-activity and voluntary read-
ing — and scientific data show that it does
— then it is a responsibility of professional
organizations to bring these facts to the
attention of school officials and teachers so
that necessary materials may be made

available to the schools and teachers so
trained that school children may profit by
their use.

d) More School Use Happily, this picture

of Films Probable. 0f tne educational sit-
uation in its relation to the use of motion
pictures has been brightened by definite
trends from various directions. The press,
for one thing, is disseminating information
concerning the value of motion pictures.
Entire issues of educational journals are
being devoted to the use of visual aids.
Several excellent books have recently been
published in this field. Metropolitan news-
papers are devoting considerably more space
to the discussion of the use of motion pic-
tures in classrooms and the particular val-
ues of these pictures. Several excellent
books have recently been published in this
field, and school systems are issuing book-
lets or manuals for the use of visual aids.
The only magazine published in the United
States that is devoted exclusively to the
use of motion pictures in education is The
Educational Screen.

There has been an increase in the number
and complexity of investigations in the use
of motion pictures. Both the talking and
silent pictures are being investigated in their
relation to learning by the leading schools
of education of the country. These in-
vestigations are being carefully and elabor-
ately planned, and the results show in-
creasing reliability. Further-more the in-
fluence of the theatrical motion picture has
been studied by outstanding investigators as
previously reported.

In recent years there has been a growth
of films for instructional purposes. A
wealth of excellent material has been pro-
duced by leading universities and several
motion picture corporations. These films
cover many different subjects taught in
public schools and colleges.

The Visual Education Department of the
National Education Association at its 1932
meeting in Atlantic City made a construe-

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

All

tive contribution in the following resolu-
tions :

Whereas, experimental studies, re-
search, and surveys have revealed definite
and important values for visual-sensory
aids ; and

Whereas, knowledge of these visual-
sensory aids and a technic for their use re-
quires special preparation ; be it

Resolved, That teacher preparation in-
stitutions of the country be requested to
require from every one preparing to teach
in the schools of the country, a laboratory
course in visual-sensory aids ; and

Whereas, We believe that much con-
fusion and duplication of effort will be
avoided by a mandatory course ;

It is Therefore Recommended, That
the core of such a course shall consist of
the following elements common to practi-
cally all subjects : Research, historical back-
ground, psychological aspects and verbal-
ism, projectors and projection, school
journeys, objects, specimens, models, mu-
seum procedure, pictorial materials as
slides, film slides, still films, motion pic-
ture films, stereographs, and proper care
of same, still and motion picture camera
techniques and blackboard and bulletin
board techniques ; and be it further.

Resolved, That we recommend to
school officials of the United Staates that
they encourage teachers in service to take
visual-sensory courses, wherever such cour-
ses are available, and that we recommend
to those responsible for educational pro-
grams, for State organizations and other-
wise, to include the subject of visual in-
struction on their programs.

Furthermore, teachers' colleges are rap-
idly organizing courses in visual instruc-
tion. In 1927, 82 colleges offered visual
education courses during their summer
sessions. In 1932, this number had in-
creased to 212. One State has made a course
in the use of visual aids mandatory for all
preservice teachers, and other States are
undertaking similar movement.

In addition to these indices of progress,

the 1932 Visual Education Directory show-
ed 223 officials in charge of city, district,
and county departments of visual instruc-
tion. Figures for the year 1933 show that
number to have increased to 253.

In concluding the analysis of the extent
to which motion pictures are used in the
schools of the United States, it may be said
that :

1) Less than 10 per cent of the public
schools of the nation make systematic use
of the motion picture for instruction.

2) Increasing attention to instructional
motion pictures is being given by the Amer-
ican press.

3) Elaborate investigations in motion
pictures as aids to learning have been made.

4) Better instructional films are being
made available for school use.

5) Teacher training institutions are
offering courses in visual education.

6) The Department of Visual Edu-
cation of the National Education Associa-
tion has recommended the training of teach-
ers in visual instruction.

7) School districts are increasingly
inaugurating departments of visual instruc-
tion.

e) Some Essentials T.n spite of the val-

in introducing Films ues 0f njm3) tne ;n.

in Teaching. crease ;n jnstruction„

al films, the demand for teacher training
in projection technique, the elaborate ex-
perimentation with motion pictures, the
popularity of films, the influence of films
on American life, and the desire of educa-
tional leaders to improve the quality of
instruction, the fact remains that the film
has not been given its proper place as part
of school equipment. This failure can be
charged to an inexcusable indifference on
the part of both administrative officers and
school teachers. In defense of these edu-
cators, it should be pointed out that the
scarcity of films correlated to subjects in
the curriculum and the expense and diffi-
culty in securing them are important fac-
tors in determining the attitudes of the

478

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

educators. To overcome this inertia several
suggestions become necessary, and these
suggestions have to do with part two of this
report.

A first essential in the systematic intro-
duction of the motion picture in the schools
of our country is the necessary preparation
on the part of teachers. This can be ac-
complished if supervising officials and the
presidents of teacher training institutions
can be aroused to their responsibility in
the matter. State Departments of Public
Instruction can help bring this about through
conferences with superintendents of schools,
through having teacher training institu-
tions offer visual education courses, and by
requiring teachers to take such a course be-
fore they are licensed to teach. In this con-
nection, a summary of the experimental data
on the use of films in the classrooms, tech-
niques of their use, comparative values,
correlation with the curriculum etc., should
be made available for study on the part of
all teachers and school officials in the
country.

A second essential is the adaptation of
films to the various instructional units, i. e.,
establishing the definite relationship of the
film to the unit of instruction and indicat-
ing just where the film should be used.
Various producers of educational films have
encouraged experimentation by educators
to integrate films with various units of
instruction. Freeman and Wood gave this
problem considerable attention. Later,
Arnspiger made a valuable contribution on
the usefulness of sound pictures in teach-
ing certain units of instruction in natural
science and music. A recent publication,
" Modern Trends in Education " — A Syl-
labus for a Teacher Training Course Utiliz-
ing Educational Talking Pictures, can well
serve as a model for those who undertake
the work.

A third and very important essential is
the matter of appropriating money in the
annual budget for the purchase of films for
the use of school districts. It is ridiculous
to expect parent-teacher groups, civic

organizations, or philanthropic citizens to
supply necessary equipment for the schools.
The responsibility belongs to the school
boards. The public schools are the most
important enterprise with which the State
is concerned, and steps should be taken to
have the legislatures appropriate sufficient
money so that this material can be supplied
for instructional use.

School systems that make systematic use
of classroom films frequently find it more
economical to purchase than to rent them.
The late Dr. Tnomas E. Finegan, president
of Eastman Teaching Films, Inc., and former
superintendent of public instruction in
Pennsylvania, points this out in his article
on " Classroom Films " which appeared in
the April, 1931, issue of the Harvard Teach-
ers Record : " The amount paid for a few
rentals of a film ", said he, " is sufficient
to purchase it for permanent use.

If film service is to be made effective,
films must be available for daily use in the
classroom as maps, charts, textbooks, re-
ference books, and scientific apparatus are
now available for the purposes which thev
serve ". Dr. Frank E. Spaulding, Sterling
Professor of Education at Yale University,
adds, " Just as books needed for continuous
study and reference should be in the per-
manent library of an institution, so should
films be in its permanent possession ready
for use at any time and as many times as
may be desired ".

Every visual education program should
be organized according to a definite plan.
Its administration will require a trained per-
sonnel. Mrs. Anna V. Dorris sets up an
acceptable plan in her book on " Visual
Instruction in the Public Schools ". Dr. F.
Dean McClusky outlines a workable plan
in his book " Visual Instruction — Its
Value and Its Needs ". Colonel F. L.
Devereux in his recent book on " The
Educational Talking Picture " sets up an
excellent plan.

Regarding distribution, various agencies
have undertaken the circulation of films in
different States. Colleges and universities

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

479

have rendered a valuable service in this
respect. Teacher training institutions here
and there have undertaken the circulation
of films in the areas which they serve. In
several cases, adjacent school districts have
combined as an economical measure to
supply their schools with films through the
circulating method. The spirit of these
agencies is to be commended, but this me-
thod will never supply the needs of the
schools. There is a strong feeling that
State departments of education should un-
dertake to supply films to the schools of
their respective States. This procedure
is especially valuable as an introductory
device and for films not extensively used.
An objection to this is that courses of study
are very similar, and the simultaneous need
for a particular film by a large number
of schools would make such a plan very
expensive and possibly not feasible. An
approach to this objective might be a pic-
torial service by State teachers colleges in
their respective areas since these institu-
tions prepare teachers for the public schools
and are deeply interested in the type of ser-
vice their graduates render the various com-
munities.

In the last analysis every school district
should own the materials which its teachers
require for effective instructional work.
School officials generally make a per pupd
allocation for textbooks, pencils, tablets,
laboratory supplies, etc., but only in isolated
cases does the budget include money for
visual materials. Why this is so, is a pro-
blem that should be solved. Here again
is there a need for a committee to study the
subject and recommend a specific per pupil
allocation that should be made for these
important instructional materials.

What has been discussed in this part of
the report is regarded as essential to the
systematic introduction of the motion pic-
ture in teaching — and the motion picture
is considered one of the greatest educational
inventions of modern times.

The dominant note in education today
is the improvement of the quality of in-

struction. If money can be supplied for
the purchase of necessary visual materials,
if these visual materials are definitely related
to the units of instruction, if the preparation
of teachers in the techniques of visual mat-
erials is made mandatory, and if these
visual materials are used effectively in the
school rooms of America, there will result
one of the greatest contributions to the
improvement of instruction our country
has ever witnessed.

The whole problem resolves itself into
one of cooperative effort. If the United
States Office of Education, State depart-
ments of public instruction, county and
district superintendents, the National Edu-
cation Association and State teachers asso-
ciations join forces, their concerted action
may bring about the desired results.

9. — EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS OF A GEN-
ERAL NATURE RESULTING FROM THE
SYSTEMATIC INTRODUCTION OF MO-
TION PICTURES IN TEACHING

a) Methodology of Although the ad-
the Use of Motion minJstrative program
Pictures in Schools. has tQ allowfor some

minor technical changes in order to accom-
modate a film program, the teaching meth-
od employed with films is quite similar
to that used with other classroom aids such
as maps, charts, slides, and the like. In
cases where the film supplements the or-
dinary classroom instruction, the film has
been used effectively in introducing a unit
of subject-matter. In such instances the
teacher generally gives an overview of the
material before the introductory showing,
thus enhancing the value of the film. Pu-
pils are then acquainted with what they are
to see ; they have positive suggestions con-
cerning the " high-lights " of the film.
A period of discussion should follow the
first showing, at which time all the elements
of the film may be discussed freely and
completely. Then follows a period of
teaching after which the film is presented

480

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

a second time in order to clarify concepts
which are pertinent to the subject. This
second showing has generally been given
at a point half-way through the study of
the unit. As an effective means of crys-
talizing and vitalizing the subject-matter,
the film has been shown again as a cul-
minating activity in the study of the unit.
In this way it serves as a review, tying to-
gether all the elements which have been
studied (1).

b) Comparison of In the experimenta-
the Effectiveness tjon carried on dur-
of Film and other |ng Ae past twQ years

didactic Auxilia- ■ ■

by several agencies,

ries. i /t • r

the effectiveness or

the cinema in teaching has been compared
with the effectiveness of many other aids.
In at least three of these experimental pro-
jects, the control groups, which were com-
pared with the film groups, were provided
with all types of teaching aids other than
the film. These teaching aids have been
still pictures, photographs, lantern slides,
actual specimens, field trips, carefully pre-
pared outlines of study, and the like (2).

The consensus of well-informed opinion
is that all types of visual aids have their place
in education, The film has demonstrated
its efficacy, especially in presenting those
elements which involved motion, growth,
magnification, and sound. The exper-
iments conducted by Doctors Wood, Free-
man, Knowlton, Tilton, and other have
demonstrated the effectiveness of the silent
film. A few comparisons have been made
of the relative value of the silent and the
sound film as teaching aids. It appears
that for some types of material the silent
films with demonstration lectures may be
about as effective as sound films, if sound

is not involved in the elements being pre-
sented. Since pupils have become ac-
customed to sound pictures in theatres,
however, silent pictures without lectures
seem too old fashioned to many pupils to
command respect.

Members of the Department of Educa-
tion of Yale University reported at the
Ninth Meeting of the International Con-
gress of Psychology that experimentation
showed that the pupils studying with The
Chronicles of America Photoplays learned
19 % more than others and learned more
quickly ; remembered 12 % better ; parti-
cipated in class discussion 10% more often;
and, outside of their classroom work, vo-
luntarily read 40 % more supplementary
material in the field of American history.

The most extensive project in the pro-
duction of sound motion pictures as an
integral part of class instruction in the new
educational plan is now being carried out
at the University of Chicago. Eighty sound
pictures are planned — a series of twenty
pictures in each of the University's four
general divisions : physical sciences, bio-
logical sciences, social sciences, and the
humanities. Seven sound films dealing
with specific instructional units in physical
sciences have been produced to date. These
films which are produced by the Erpi
Picture Consultants rank as models in
technical excellence and instructional skill.

used as an Auxi-
liary in accordan-
ce with the Cur-
ricula.

(1 ) Devereux F. L. The educational Talking Picture.
University of Chicago Press, 1933, Chap. VII.

(2) ARNSPIGER V. C. Measuring the e0ectiveness
of sound pictures as teaching aids. New York, Teach-
ers College, Columbia University, 1933.

c) Subjects in which Practically every sub-
orns could be ject 0f the curricu-
lum can be enriched
by the use of films.
Such enrichment may
be direct, such as the
information acquired from a film on the
specific topic being studied ; or indirect
such as the concomitant learnings accruing
from the presentation of a film depicting
the applications of the subject being studied.
In all respects the film tends to broaden
the horizon of learning in that it presents
relationships in clear patterns.

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

481

One essential principle to be followed in
the production of teaching films may be
stated as follows : the film should present
those materials of instruction which the
teacher has difficulty in presenting through
any other medium of instruction. In
other words, the film should not attempt to
do that which can be done as effectively
and inexpensively by other means. There
are many limitations to learning which the
film because of its inherent qualities can
overcome (1). Some of these are : the
inability of an individual to perceive certain
movements in nature because of the rapidity
or the slowness with which they occur ;
his inability to see objects which, because of
their extremely small size or because of
their great distance in space, are beyond
the range of the unaided human eye, or
to focus his thought on unfamiliar scenes ;
and his inability to reach backward into
the past and reproduce objects and ac-
tions which contribute to the conditioning
of his present environment. The film can
overcome these rather obvious limitations
to learning by combining in numerous de-
sirable combinations the inherent advantag-
es of the telescope ; the microscope ; the
moving picture camera with its many de-
vices, such as slow motion, time-lapse pho-
tography, and animation ; and sound re-
cording, amplifying, and transmitting de-
vices (2).

The sound film has proved itself ex-
tremely efficient in presenting science mat-
erials to pupils in the elementary grades,
in acquainting pupils in the junior high
school with knowledge of the instruments
of the symphony orchestra, and in acquaint-
ing adults with the technical construction
and operation of scientific apparatus (1).

(1) ARNPIGER V. C. Measuring the e0ectiveness
of sound pictures as teaching aids. New York Teach-
ers College, Columbia University, 1933.

(2) Knowlton Daniel C. andTiLTON J. Warren.
Motion pictures in history teaching. New Haven, Con-
necticut, Yale University Press, 1929.

d) Collaboration of The production of
Experts in the Pro- tne teaching film de-
duction of Didac- pends upon the CQor-

tic Films. _]• • i • ^

dination and inte-
gration of the work of the philosopher,
the psychologist, the student of method, the
subject-matter specialist, the educational
administrator, and the expert film techni-
cian. The collaboration of these experts
begins with the survey of the subject-
matter field for which films are to be pre-
pared. This survey requires a bringing
together of the contributions of the philo-
sopher, of subject-matter specialists, and
of teaching methods specialists to determine
the guiding aims and objectives of the sub-
ject as well as the subject-matter content
by which these aims and objectives are
expected to be achieved. Further colla-
boration occurs between the psychologist,
the methods specialist and the expert film
technician in the matter of analyzing sub-
ject-matter for inclusion in the film. The
production of supplementary materials re-
quires a continuing cooperation among all
these specialists in order to insure the film's
unique contribution to learning in the field
being presented. After production begins,
the educational expert and production
specialist should maintain a continuing
collaboration until the film is finally com-
pleted. It can be seen, therefore, that it
is only through the united efforts of these
experts that the educational film finds proper
place in the curriculum of the schools.

e) Psychological Ef- Experiments have in-
fects and Pedago- dicated that the
gical Reform in pupi, suffers nQ de-

connection with the . • .. i i_ ■ i •
_.. _ . . tnmental physiologic-

Film in Schools. , _. ,

al effects as a result

of the proper use of films in the classroom.
Psychologically, the film has proved to be
an efficacious medium of instruction because
it quickly enlists the interest of the learning
group, it presents materials in unified se-
quences, and it decreases the number of
verbal transfers the pupil must make in

3 — la ingl.

482

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

order to acquire definite concepts. In other
words, the film can prove a cross-section
of reality which otherwise is beyond the
perception of the average learner because
of the limitations of his normal unaided
senses.

Results of experimentation indicate that
much time can be saved by presenting mat-
erials through the use of films. This may
have a very definite effect upon the curri-
culum of the future. Much curriculum
construction has been carried on without
any definite realization of the limitations
of reading. It is well known that reading
ability varies greatly among class groups,
however homogeneous these may be in
other respects. At the present time it
seems possible to present, by means of
films, many concepts in the first three years
of a child's school life which at present are
held off until the junior and senior high
school. The assumption has been that
these concepts are too complex to be pre-
sented any earlier in school, when as a mat-
ter of fact it is not because they are complex,
but because there is a dearth of materials
out of which these concepts grow. Thus,
the film holds out to those responsible for
the construction of curricula a unique
challenge.

It is interesting to note that there have
been general changes in class size during
the past one hundred and fifty years, even
though much progress has been made in the
construction of textbooks, in improving
methods of teaching, and in the production
of aids to teaching such as the microscope,
the telescope, the phonograph, the micro-
phone, the radio, and silent and sound films.
During the past year, experimentation has
indicated that certain things can be present-
ed effectively in large auditorium groups,
leaving more time for personalized atten-
tion of the teachers to individual pupils
and small groups. The film will not sup-
plant the teacher, but will enable her to
have more powerful means of accomplishing
instruction.

f) The Efficacy of It is obvious that the
the Intervention of act;ve assistance of the
the State. State wouU speed

up materially the general use of all types of
teaching aids. In European countries
where the government sponsors the pro-
gram of visual instruction, all schools have
the advantage of the enlarged acquaintance
with information pertaining to world
events, scientific developments, social pro-
blems, and vocational problems through
the use of carefully developed films. Not
only does the State provide films for use
in schools, but also it provides opportuni-
ties for the education of adults. Probably
one of the most important problems facing
workers in visual education is to determine
means whereby the State can be made aware
of the vast responsibility resting upon it to
make provision for the use of films in all
schools within its domain. As soon as
visual instruction is sponsored by the State,
we can rest assured that we shall have a
much better educated populace.

10.

GENERAL CONCLUSION

a^ The Theatrical Mo- The theatrical mo-
tion Picture has t;on picture is pri-
become a power- marily an agency for

ful Force in Na- . .1

amusement in the

tional Life. , , . , c 1

United btates and

plays a large role in the recreation of the
American people. From a humble begin-
ning early in the present century, the theatric-
al film industry has grown until it is now a
billion dollar concern. In 1930, 500 fea-
ture films with about 200 prints each were
made in the United States. From the time
the story is written or selected through the
various stage of its production the choice
of cast, setting, directing, photography sound
recording, editing, and so forth, the
production is carried out with the highest
degree of skill procurable and aided by
the finest technical resources that science has
produced. No expense is spared to insure

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

483

that every detail meets the high standard
of art and technical excellence that is set
up for the picture. Practically every fea-
ture picture represents an outlay of a quarter
of a million dollars, and some of them
actually reach the million dollar mark.

It is generally recognized that the theatri-
cal motion picture is exerting a powerful
educational influence both for good and bad.
Therefore, a number of organized groups
are working to improve motion pictures
at the production point and to raise the
standards of taste for motion pictures. One
of the most constructive moves in the latter
direction is the experimental project in
teaching motion picture appreciation in high
schools as it is being done by the Photo-
play Appreciation Committee of the Nation-
al Council of Teachers of English and the
National Committee on the Teaching of
Motion Picture Appreciation. In general,
churches and social work organizations are
very restive under the present moral quality
of American films and increasingly are
exerting their influence for cleaner and bet-
ter films.

Educators have a responsibility to guide,
in so far as they can, and work with the
motion picture industry in such a way that
false conceptions and improper situations
may not be accepted through countless
reiterations to the entire cross-section of the
population. The attendance of large num-
bers of children at motion pictures has been
under scrutiny by various groups. Child-
ren are apparently receiving a considerable
amount of their education thereby, parti-
cularly in human relations, and more spe-
cifically in courtship and marriage.

were in the service of industry, religion,
recreation, and education. More than
thirty-five reliable commercial companies
produce non-theatrical films, and nearly
two hundred companies distribute them.
Several universities, city school systems,
associations, museums and departments
of the Government distribute non-theatrical
films.

The educational uses of non-theatrical
films fall in two categories — informal,
educational or cultural uses and systematic
instructional or teaching uses. The film
in the service of health, Government, voca-
tions, and international understanding falls
mainly in the former category ; and the use
of the film in classroom instruction and by
scientific soceities falls in the latter cat-
egory.

c) The Instructional Less than 10% of the
Use of Motion Pic- public schools of the
tures is quite limited. nat;on make systema-
tic use of the motion picture for instruction
at the present time, but a number of hope-
ful signs indicate the probability of more
extensive use in the near future. Among
these encouraging signs are : (1) the Ameri-
can press is giving increasing attention to
instructional films ; (2) elaborate research
studies in motion pictures as aids to learn-
ing have been made ; (3) better instruc-
tional films are being prepared for schools ;
(4) teacher training institutions are offer-
ing an increasing number of courses in
visual education ; (5) school districts are
increasingly inaugurating departments of
visual instruction.

b) Non - theatrical In 1931 there were
uses of Motion Pic- 350,000 non-theatrical
tures are varied. projectors with an

estimated value of 1 70,000,000 in the United,
States. These projectors were owned by
schools, voluntary and scientific organiza-
tions, commercial companies, and individ-
uals. Their major fields of usefulness

d) A strong Nation- In comparison with
al Films Institute tne theatrical motion
is needed in the picture? the non.thea-

United States. • i ■ .i

tncal picture in the

past usually lacked technical excellence,
is used comparatively little, and with vary-
ing regularity. Many agencies have pioneer-
ed in the development of the educational

484

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

film, but the result in the United States
today is chaotic and disorganized. The
principal reasons for this condition seem to
be the past policy of the Federal Govern-
ment to leave to private industry and volun-
tary endeavor many activities that the typical
European government would assume, and
the educational system of the country which
is not centralized in the Federal Govern-
ment, but, in main, is left to each of the forty-
eight States. Private industry is dead-locked
over the fact that producers cannot afford
to make films until a sufficient number of
projectors are sold to make the work pro-
fitable, and the projector concerns cannot
sell their apparatus because there is no
comprehensive library of suitable films
available for their use.

Commendable efforts are being made in

many places to overcome these difficulties
but there is a great need for a national filing
institute (1) to assemble, edit, classify, pub-
licize, and catalogue non-theatrical film mat-
erial, and to set up a convenient and econo-
mical distribution system ; and (2) to pro-
duce and stimulate the production and ef-
fective utilization of educational films. An
entire nation seeks enlightenment — cour-
age to look forward and inspiration to work
for the new social order wherein every human
being would have the chance to enjoy living
and working. The education of tomorrow
should give a new appreciation of leisure
and its usefulness and a new sense of cit-
izenship and cooperation. The vast po-
tentialities of the use of motion pictures in
the nation's education are only beginning
to be generally recognized.

THE BRITISH FILM INSTITUTE

SUBMITTED in connection with the sub-joined memorandum is " The Film in National
Life ", the Report compiled by the Commission on Educational and Cultural Films
and published in June 1932 after a period of two years' investigation into the educational
possibilities of the cinema. It was as a result of the chief recommendation of that Re-
port that the British Film Institute has been established.

Establishment of Commission. — The
Commission on Educational and Cultural
Films was established in November 1929
by the unanimous vote of a conference of
some one hundred educational and scien-
tific bodies who recognised the film as a
powerful instrument for good or for evil
in national life. The Conference was
aware that other countries were alive to the
potentialities of the cinema in the field of
education and culture, and that they were
considering the film apart from its purely
entertainment value, while in England there
had been no concerted attempt on the part
of a representative body to consider the
matter on this basis. „

Objects of the Commission. — The
Commission was therefore set up to under-
take the following work :

(a) to consider suggestions for im-
proving and extending the use of films
(motion pictures and similar visual and au-
ditory devices) for educational and cultural
purposes including documentary records.

(b) to consider methods for raising
the standard of public appreciation of films.

(c) to consider the desirability and
practicability of establishing a permanent
central organisation with general objects
as above and among its particular functions
advice on the production, selection and use
of films.

Government Departments. — The fol-
lowing Government Departments were
represented upon the Commission :

Board of Education.

Colonial Office.

Scottish Education Office.

Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

War Office.

Research Committees. — Five Re-
search Committees were set up to survey
the proposed field of work :

Adult Education.

Children and Adolescents.

Film Production and Technique ; Dis-
tribution & Circulation.

Foreign Relations and Documentary
Films.

Science, Medicine and Public Health.

Report of Commission. — After two
and a half years' work the Commission em-
bodied its findings and recommendations
in the Report " The Film in National Life "
which was most favourably received in
all quarters. On June 9th 1932, the Prime
Minister received a deputation from the
Commission, accepting a copy of the Report
and expressing great interest in the work.
The connecting line of the Commissions
Report was the need for the establishment
of a central co-ordinating body which would
bring together all branches of film work.

486

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

Finance for Central Organisation.
— The Commission was aware, before the
publication of the Report that strenuously
as it advocated the necessity for the estab-
lishment of a Central Organisation, it
could not legitimately expect that Govern-
ment monies would be available for such
a purpose. It did, however, seem permis-
sible to anticipate that some percentage of
the monies received from the Sunday open-
ing of cinemas, which was in any case to be
diverted from normal trade profits might
be allocated to such a central organisation.

The Commission sought and gained
support amongst M. P. 's of all parties and
was successful in securing the new clause
to the Sunday Entertainments Act which
would provide a Cinematograph Fund to be
used " for the development of the film as a
means of entertainment and instruction '.

Negotiations with members of .the
Cinema Industry. — From the beginning
of its work the Commission was in constant
touch with members of the cinema industry,
and had amongst its number two represen-
tatives of the Film Group of the Federation
of British Industries. After the publica-
tion of the Report more formal meetings
were held with representatives of all branch-
es of the industry. These negotiations
between the film trade and the commission
were brought to a successful conclusion —
and incidentally have gone far in themselves
towards establishing mutual confidence
between commercial and cultural interests
in the film.

From the educational side, safeguards
were agreed upon which have had the ef-
fect of steering the Institute clear of any
temptation to meddle with the film censor-
ship or interfere in matters of purely trade
interest. From the trade side has come
an increasing understanding of the possi-
bilities which lie before a Film Institute
conducted on enterprising but businesslike
lines.

Establishment. — On September 25th
1933 the Board of Trade granted to the

British Film Institute, licence to be regis-
tered under the Companies Act as an As-
sociation limited by guarantee and not hav-
ing a share capital.

The British Film Institute was therefore
formally established in October 1933. The
Board of Governors has been so constituted
as to give equal representation to the public
interest, the cinema industry (in its three
branches of producers, renters and exhibit-
ors) and educational and cultural interests.

Governors. — Chairman : His Grace
the Duke of Sutherland, K. T. Represent-
ing the public interest are Colonel John
Buchan, C. H., M. P., J. J. Lawson, M. P.,
and Lady Levita.

Representing the cinema industry are
F. W. Baker of the Kinematograph Rent-
ers' Association, T. Ormiston, C. B. E.,
M. P., of the C. E. A. and C. M. Woolf of
the Federation of British Industries (Film
Group).

Representing the educational and cul-
tural interests are A. C. Cameron, M. C,
M. A., Secretary of Education for the City
of Oxford, Sir Charles Cleland, K. B. E.,
M. V. 0., Sub-Covernor of the Glasgow
Education Committee and R. S. Lambert,
M. A., British Institute of Adult Education,
and Editor of " The Listener ".

Officers. — J. W. Brown, late Secre-
tary of the British Institute of Adult Educ-
ation and Joint Honorary Secretary of the
Commission on Educational and Cultural
Films was appointed General Manager, and
R. V. Crow, a past President of the Cine-
matograph Exhibitors' Association Secre-
tary.

Programme of Work. — The British
Film Institute exists generally " to encour-
age the use and development of the cin-
ema as a means of entertainment and ins-
truction ' More specifically, its objects are :
(1) to act as a clearing house for in-
formation on all matters affecting films at
home and abroad, particularly as regards
education and general culture ;

THE BRITISH FILM INSTITUTE

487

(2) to influence public opinion to
appreciate the value of films as entertain-
ment and instruction ;

(3) to advise educational institutions
and other organisations and persons on
films and apparatus ;

(4) to link up the film trade and the
cultural and educational interests of the
country ;

(5) to encourage research into the
various uses of the film ;

(6) to establish a national repository
of films of permanent value ;

(7) to provide a descriptive and critical
catalogue of films of educational and cultural
value ; ,

(8) to advise Government Depart-
ments concerned with films ;

(9) to certify films as educational,
cultural or scientific ;

(10) to undertake similar duties in
relation to the Empire.

Membership. — The Institute is
working to build up a strong body of public
opinion, and to secure the support and
co-operation of individuals and organisations
interested in the film. It has framed a
membership scheme as follows : — - Indi-
viduals pay an annual subscription of
Ll.l.Od, Corporate Bodies, L 5.5.0d.
Membership secures free copies of all
publications including the quarterly maga-
zine, monthly bulletin of educational,
instructional, and entertainment films, re-
ports on progress, news bulletin etc., and
the right to vote at annual and other general
meetings of the Institute.

Information. — The British Film Insti-
tute believes that one of its most important
functions is to provide information oh
every side of the film movement. Teachers
especially have been handicapped by lack
of knowledge as to the suitable films on the
market and the practicability of installing
apparatus. The Institute is bringing the
teaching and trade sides into touch with one
another, so that they may know each other's
needs and opinions. In constituting itself

a channel of information in this way, the
Institute is benefiting both the industry
and education.

The need for this information department
is clearly proved by the large number of
enquiries which reach the Institute daily
covering a wide variety of subjects. The
Institute is dealing with these queries as
they arrive, and in order to make its records
complete and comprehensive material from
all sources is being collected with reference
to apparatus and films of every kind, educ-
ational needs, planned investigations, en-
quiries and experiments conducted under
the auspices of local Education Authorities
and pther educational bodies.

Technical. — An important question is
receiving attention by the Technical Com-
mittee of the Institute. At present there
exists a large variety of sub-standard ma-
chines, and the potential purchaser is at
a loss when making a choice.

The Technical Committee is therefore
examining all types with a view to reporting
and submitting definite recommendations.

Advisory Council and Panels. — In
order to secure the widest possible contacts
the Governors of the Film Institute have
constituted an Advisory Council of repre-
sentatives of all the main interests (techincal,
commercial, educational, social, scientific,
literary and artistic) concerned with the
development of the film. The first meet-
ing of this Advisory Council took place in
February when Colonel John Buchan,
C. H., M. P., took the chair, and gave some
indication of the work before the members
of the Council.

Panels are being created from the mem-
bership of the Council to advise on special
subjects. The following are already at
work or in active process of formatton.

Education Panel which will concern it-
self with the viewing and approving of
films specially produced for educational
purposes ; the obtaining of services of
recognised experts to assist in the produc-

488

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

tion of educational films, the obtaining of
opinions from experimentors in the use of
the cinematograph in the various educat-
ional spheres ; it will determine the respec-
tive values of " silent " and " sound "
films for the classroom ; appoint committees
to deal with Science (Biology, Physics,
Mathematics) History, Art, Language and
Literature.

Entertainment Panel which will deal
with the following ; a special film for child-
ren ; obtaining of opinions from the public
as to the types of film required and the set-
ting up of the machinery whereby this would
become avadable to producers ; the ques-
tion of giving approval to films which por-
tray national characteristics.

International Relations Panel to establish
machinery whereby films showing national
characteristics can be freely circulated be-
tween Great Britain and other countries,
to arrange for the exchange of opinion re-
garding films of entertainment and educat-
ional value.

Dominions and Colonies Panel to consider
the use and development of the film as a
means of entertainment and education in
all questions relative to the Dominions and
Colonies.

Social Service Panel which will view and
approve films of value for social welfare and
allied purposes, render assistance to organ-
isations and others wishing to produce
such films ; establish machinery whereby
the film can be brought into service in all
social institutions.

Medical Panel which is concerning itself
with all questions relating to medical films ;
collecting information as to what films of
this kind are in existence, advising as to the
production of further medical films, and
collaborating in the compilation of a cine-
medical encyclopaedia under the auspices
of the International Institute of Educational
Cinematography.

Scientific Research Panel which will
discuss means whereby films can be used
for the advancement of science, arrange for
the services of experts in their various

spheres to be available for producers,
frame schedules of subjects and appoint
the appropriate committees.

Library Service Panel to consider to
what extent the film can encourage read-
ing ; in this connection to consider the pos-
sibility of collaborating with Librarians in
experiments on the lines of that conducted
by Marylebone Public Library, and to col-
late the results of investigations with a view
to publishing reports and carrying out re-
commendations.

Amateur Cinematography Panel which
will discuss the possible collaboration of
amateurs in production, establish machinery
whereby films already made may be utilised ;
explore the possibilities of embodying the
services of amateurs in connection with
the making of scientific and other films,
requiring protracted camera work.

Production and Planning Panel which
will co-ordinate the whole field, making
contact with all firms producing document-
ary, educational and instructional films,
and by acting as a central consultative body
ensure that duplication of production does
not occur.

New Educational Films. — At the re-
quest of one of the largest British producing
firms, the Institute has nominated experts
to advise the company upon the production
of a series of educational films for the class-
room. In this way the Institute will ensure
that the films will be suitable for the pur-
pose in mind. The series includes Botan-
ical, Language and Literary films. Dis-
cussions are taking place with reference to
the production of films showing the geo-
graphical backgrounds of Shakespeare,
Wordsworth, Hardy, and Kipling, a Ma-
thematics film and a series of films on phy-
sical education which will interpret the new
Board of Education syllabus of Physical
Education for schools to teachers who are
required to teach the syllabus. It will be
seen in this way how the Institute is link-
ing up the trade and educational interests
to their mutual benefit.

THE BRITISH FILM INSTITUTE

489

Publications of the British Film In-
stitute. — The publications of the Institute
are issued free of charge to its members.

Sight and Sound is the official organ of
the British Film Institute. It contains ar-
ticles on every aspect of the film movement,
reviews of current films and records and
general information on developments.

Monthly Bulletin. A large number of
' interest ' or background films exists,
and in order that the films and information
concerning them shall be more easily ob-
tainable by teachers and others who want
to use them in their work, the Institute is
issuing a Bulletin which appears monthly,
and which is forming the basis for a com-
prehensive catalogue of educational and
instructional films.

In order that the Bulletin shall be au-
thoritative, arrangements are made for
panels of viewers who are expert in their
own particular subjects to examine the films
and report. Their annotations and crit-
icisms should prove of the greatest value
to teachers, who cannot, of course, judge
from the title alone the content of the film
or estimate its possible use to themselves.

NEWS LETTER. The Institute also issues
a monthly News Letter which contains
notes of developments abroad as well as in
this country. In this way it is hoped to
link up the various movements in cinema-
tography abroad with the work of the Insti-
tute and its associated bodies. The News
Letter will be circulated to members and
branches who will be invited to send in to
headquarters all items of local news which
would be of general interest. Thus this
News Letter will not only make it possible
to maintain contact with other countries,
but will provide a channel of information
which will enable the various parts of the
movement in this country to keep in touch
with one another, and to understand the
general trend of development.

Viewing of Entertainment Films. —
The Institute includes in its bulletin notes

on entertainment as well as educational
films. These are viewed by a voluntary
panel of interested film goers who in effect
make their views of films likely to be of
general interest known to their fellow
members. The Institute is here aiming
at supplying to its members and branches
information which will lead them to take
a more informed interest in the cinema,
and in their turn to give expression to their
own views.

Film Institute Societies and Bran-
ches. — Even before the establishment of
the Film Institute, interest in different
parts of the country was considerable and
bodies known as " Film Institute Societies
were set up. The first of these to be
established was that known as the Mersey-
side Film Institute Society, and the main
features of the scheme which are also being
adopted by the other Societies are as fol-
lows :

(1) A wide combination of all types of
interest which are likely to bring together
a large group of people interested from dif-
ferent angles in the serious possibilities
of the film.

(2) The largest possible membership
based on a small subscription of 2/6 per
year, entitling the members to receive in-
formation and enjoy certain other privi-
leges.

(3) The establishment of immediate
contact and development of friendly rela-
tions between the Society and the local
film trade.

These Societies are formed on a fully
representative basis.

Meetings and Conference to consider
the possibility of forming branches are
frequently held in different parts of the
country, and a special pamphlet has been
printed to suggest to interested groups the
lines to follow in establishing such branches,
and to indicate the work which they can
undertake in order to forward the general
objects of the Institute.

490

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

International Contacts. — The Insti-
tute is co-operating with the International
Institute of Educational Cinematograph in
Rome which is the institution charged by
the League of Nations with the duty of
studying and exploring the educational
possibilities of the cinema. Mr. J. W.
Brown, the General Manager of the Film
Institute is a Governor of the Rome insti-
tute and a member of its Executive Com-
mittee . The British Film Institute and In-
ternational Institute are working in colla-
boration in connection with the following
conferences and exhibitions :

International Congress of Educational and
Instructional Cinematograph, Rome. At the
request of the International Institute and
with the approval of the Board of Education
invitations to educational associations in
this country to participate in the congress
were conveyed through the British Film
Institute. The programme of the Confe-
rence was divided into three sections re-
lating to Visual Education, Adult Education
and International Life.

International Exhibition of Educational
Cinematography, London. In conjunction
with the International Institute of Educa-
tional Cinematography, arrangements were
made for this exhibition to take place in
London on May 9th in association with the
British Film Institute's inaugural dinner.
The finest examples of the film used as an
instrument of education were collected
from various countries, and this exhibition
was the first of a series to be organised
in the capitals of Europe.

Second International Exhibition of Cinema-
tograph Art. The films to be presented
must be theatrical (Drama, Comedy etc.,)
and their production as much as the sub-
ject they treat must be the best possible
expression of art (scenic and aesthetic)
of the nation which has produced them.
America, France, Germany, Austria, Hol-
land Sweden, Italy, Japan, U. S. S. R. are
taking part and British firms have been ap-
proached through the British Film Institute
and this county will be represented by

London Film Productions which are en-
tering " The Private Life of Don Juan "
and by Gaumont British with their film
" Man of Aran ".

Convention for Facilitating the In-
ternational Circulation of Educational
Films. — The British Film Institute is also
actively interested in the recently held Con-
ference of the League of Nations which
recommended the abolition of import du-
ties charged on films of an international
educational character. The International
Institute will decide as to whether the films
submitted to it under the terms of the
Convention are of an international educat-
ional character, but it will be the sole right
of the competent body in the countries con-
cerned to judge whether they are education-
al from the national standpoint. The
British Film Institute is the appropriate
body in Great Britain to undertake this
task.

Tasks before the British Film Insti-
tute. — The British Flm Institute has
been in existence scarcely six months, but
it has made a good beginning upon the
work which it set itself. It is building up an
information service, it is providing criticism
upon current films of cultural and education-
al value by the publication of bulletin where
such films are reviewed, and upon the basis
of this it will compile a permanent critical
catalogue. In addition it is giving attention
to the formation of a Film Library or Reposi-
tory to preserve current films of value from
the risk of passing out of circulation.

Much remains for the Institute to do.
When it turns to the work of directly pro-
moting the cultural and educational in-
fluence of the film, the Institute will find
itself faced with claims from many quarters.
The part that the film can play in religion
is one ; the adaptation, for educational use,
of industrial films, which though made
primarily for advertisement, are often

THE BRITISH FILM INSTITUTE

491

highly instructional as well, is another ;
a third is the encouragement of education
authorities, schools and educational asso-
ciations, to consider the film seriously as a
medium of teaching. The Institute will
probably also take up the question of the
use of films for recreational and educational

purposes at centres for the welfare of the
unemployed.

In these ways, the British Film Institute is
endeavouring to achieve its general purpose
of increasing the appreciation of the film

as a means of entertainment and instruc-
tion ".

THE "L.U.C.E. " NATIONAL INSTITUTE

Beginnings. • I 'he value of the cinema, both
* in its artistic aspects and
for its specific capacity as a powerful means
of propaganda and an agent of cultural
ideas and instruction of the people was
appreciated in the very first years of the
Fascist regime. The latter, with its pro-
gramme of national renovation, was anxious
to make use of all means that were available
to it to illustrate the work of reconstruction
it was engaged on, preparing the young
generations for the tasks awaiting them in
the development of national life.

The earliest origin of the L. U. C. E.
was a Sindacato Istruzione Cinematografia
(S. I. C.) the objects of which were to
produce and distribute didactic films. A
few months after the constitution of this
syndicate — te be precise in September
1 924 — L' Unione Cinematografica Educativa
(The first letters make the word LUCE)
was created. It was formed as a limited
liability company, the capital of wnich was
subscribed by various semi-governmental
bodies including the General Commissariat
for Emigration, the National Bank of Social
Assurance, the National Insurance Institute,
the War Veterans Association and the Bank
for Workmens' Accident Insurances. The
President of the new association or, strictly
speaking, company was Senator De Michelis;
Vice-President Marquis Paulucci de Cal-
boli Barone and Dr. Luciano de Feo act-
ing respectively as Vice-President and
Director or General Manager.

In this way, the first educational cinema-
tographic organization under the direct
control of the State was founded.

On July 14, 1925, the Head of the govern-
ment, having taken cognizance of the results
which had been arrived at during the initial

period of the LUCE's activity, wrote a
letter to the ministers of Public Instruction,
National Economy, the Colonies and the
Interior instructing them officially to use
the LUCE films for purposes of education,
instruction and propaganda, The ministry
of Public Instruction was especially invited
to go into the question fully with the object
of fixing a proper scheme for the introduc-
tion of the film into the middle schools,
while the federations, syndicate and com-
munal film repositories being in a position
to handle the question of using the motion
picture as an auxiliary in the primary schools.
On October 7, 1925, the Head of the
Government communicated to the various
ministries his decision to accentuate the
character of the LUCE as an institution of
public importance rather than as a company
with limited liability. The same month
the cabinet approved a measure and a
decree thereon was issued on November 5
1925, whereby the National LUCE Institute
was recognized as a body for the preparation
and distribution of educational and cultural
films.

Juridical Position. The institution has
thus a character differentiating it from all
other similar organizations in the world.
This depends on two principal facts. The *
LUCE is not a private organization with
ordinary business aims. It is a public body
having a moral purpose. It is also a techn-
ical organ of the State and of all institutions
controlled by the State for the spread of
culture by means of the motion picture.
The scope of the LUCE's work and the
circulation of its first films (we may mention
especially The Wheat Battle and Forests,
Sources of Wealth, which from 1 925 onwards

THE « L. U. C. E. » NATIONAL INSTITUTE

493

were shown in popular cinemas in the chief
cities of Italy and abroad) drew the atten-
tion of the industrial class. Thus, owing
to the initiative of the Federation of Cinema
Owners and Exhibitors a resolution was
unanimously approved on March 27, 1926
to the effect that the projections of the LUCE
films should be made obligatory in all
movie halls open to the public in Italy. The
Head of the government, who was in com-
plete accord with the terms of the resolution,
placed the proposal before a cabinet meeting.
The suggestion was approved, and a decree
authorizing the proposal was issued on
April 3 1926 (N° 1000), and afterwards con-
verted into a law on June 16, 1926. This
law, recognizing the urgent and absolute
necessity of carrying on a constant and in-
tensive programme of civil and national
education by means of public film projec-
tions of a varied cultural character in the
public cinemas, ordered that such projec-
tions should henceforward become obli-
gatory on all Italian exhibitors in all the
cinemas in the country.

The internal constitution of the LUCE
had to be altered by increasing some of the
powers and authority of the directive
council. A Superior Council was estab-
lished by Royal Decree on December 24,
1926 (N° 2210) and its powers, attributes
and constitution were defined. Other de-
crees followed defining the functions of
certain specialized film repositories in the
various departments of cultural and edu-
cational film production. The film repos-
itories established were the following :
National Agricultural Film Repository
(Decree of March 18, 1926); Industrial
Film Repository Law of August 6, 1 926) ;
Art and Religious Instruction Film Reposi-
tory (Law of September 21, 1926) ; National
Culture Film Repository (Decree of Decem-
ber 26, 1926); Military Film Repository
(Decree of January 30, 1927), Tourist and
Maritime Film Repository (Decree of
January 30, 1927); Social Previdence and
Hygiene Film Repository (Decree of January
30, 1927) ; Film Repository for Foreign and

Colonial Propaganda (Decree of June 2,
1927).

The practical working of the Institute,
and particularly the coming of the sound
film which introduced new possibilities for
the cinema and revolutionized its working,
made a revision of the decree of foundation
of December 24, 1926. necessary. A new
legislative measure of January 24, 1929,
modified by a decree of June 29, 1933 gave
authority to the LUCE to use the sound
and talking film. The idea of the unique
character of the LUCE Institute as a techn-
ical cinema organ of the State was reaffirmed,
and the obligation on all state or semi-state
bodies to apply to the LUCE for photos or
films was insisted upon.

The present board of directors or adminis-
trative council, of which the Marquis Paulucci
de Calboh Barone is President or Chairman
is composed of official representatives —
nominated by royal decree — of the Natio-
nal Insurance Institute, the Fascist Institute
for Social Thrift, the National Fascist Party
the Ministry of the Interior, the Ex-Soldiers
Association and the Fascist National Insti-
tute for Workmen's Accident Insurance.

Administrative In accordance with

Working. j-]^ legislative measures

already referred to, the object of the
LUCE is to encourage (see art 2 of the
decree of January 24, 1929) " the spread of
popular culture and general instruction by
means of cinema projections or photographic
reproductions commercially distributed for
the purpose of national propaganda in
Italy and abroad and also through the talking
and synchronized cinema.

' To this end, the Institute will see to the
production, publishing and distribution
of films and photographs, both of its own
and other firms' manufacture having a
didactic, educational, artistic, cultural scient-
ific, character, and also films of a social,
economic, hygienic, agrarian, professional
or national nature, or in fact any films or
photos tending to the instruction or general
cultural improvement of the masses. The

494

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

Institute must also engage in coordinating
the various activities of a public character
concerning the educational or propaganda
cinema .

In conformity with the policy and plans
before mentioned, and in order to carry
into effect the principle of making the
LUCE the technical organ of the minis-
tries, the Fascist Party and all dependent
organizations and bodies, all the institutions
which for the purposes of their creation
or in the general interest of culture and
historical documentation or for works of a
national or Fascist character intend to
make use of the motion picture and photo-
graphs must entrust the LUCE with their
work, entering into special conventions
with the latter on the matter of details
(Art. 3).

The capital of the Institute consists of the
foundation capital of Lire 2,500,000 sub-
scribed by the founder bodies and associa-
tions, and of possible contributions or lega-
cies from the State or public or private
bodies or from profits.

The income of the Institute is to be de-
rived from the sale or renting of films, photo-
graphs and apparatus, from contributions
agreed upon with various state administra-
tions through the before mentioned special
conventions for the making and distribu-
tion of films and photographs, from contri-
butions obtained from public and private
bodies for the making and distribution of
films and photographs likely to interest
them, from the profits deriving from the
law establishing obligation on public cinemas
to use LUCE films projections and from
other sources. The officers of the Institute
are the President, who is nominated by royal
decree, on a proposal made by the Premier,
the Council of Adminitration also nomi-
nated by royal decree on the proposal of
the Premier, the Director General who is
nominated by the President and the body
of accountants. (Arts 7 and 9 of the Decree
of June 29, 1933, N° 746).

In view of the direct dependence of the
LUCE Institute and of the film repositories

connected with it on the Head of the Gov-
ernment, the latter must approve the an-
nual programme of work, production and
distribution of films. Such programme
must be presented in December of every
year for the forthcoming year. Similarly
presentation must be made to the Head
of the Government of all drafts of conven-
tions or accords with foreign countries for
the exchange of films or for the expansion
of the LUCE, as also the annual balance
sheet and the annual administrative report.
The functions of the Council of Adminis-
tration (Art 1 1 ) are to see to :

(a) the appointment of the Director
General and to fix his emoluments and
retribution ;

(b) the formation of the general regula-
tions affecting the staff and their salaries,
wages and economic treatment generally ;

(c) the establishment of an office working
system ;

(d) the laying down of regulations to
govern the spending of funds ;

(e) the workings of the various film re-
positories ;

(/) the formation of a series of regula-
tions for the various film repositories ;

(g) the creation of branch offices and
agencies ;

(h) the presentation and approval of the
balance sheet and the estimated expenses
for the coming year.

The film repositories must also take it on
themselves to see :

(a) tnat subjects considered useful and
advisable be produced in films by the LUCE
in the general interests of culture and for
the purpose of fulfilling the objects of the
Institute as lay down by various decrees ;

(b) to the establishment of a technical
control over the production of films sub-
titles, copies of scenarios, etc.

(c) that all information or indications
that may be useful for the diffusion of the
LUCE's films are procured.

The following services depend on the
office of the Director General :

(a) Production and Development-Sec-

THE « L. U. C. E. » NATIONAL INSTITUTE

495

tion to take charge of the LUCE's produc-
tive activity in the fields of cinematography
and photography ;

(b) Administrative Section which is to
take charge of contracts and see to their
execution ; at the same time supervising the
financial and administrative working of the
various offices of the Institute ;

(c) Commercial Section, the task of
which is to see to the placing of films and
photographs in Italy and abroad by means
of its agencies and branch offices, etc. ;

(d) Accounting Section. This is divided
into three special offices. One deals with
the business that comes into the hands of the
Secretariat and private matters generally,
the second office deals with the staff and
legal questions and a third bureau handles
the inspection services of the Institute.

Establishments. To begin with, the

LUCE's activity did not require elaborate
plant. Soon, however, the growth of the
work and the demands put on the Institute
and also the coming of the sound film ren-
dered the building of another establishment
necessary for the synchronization of silent
pictures and direct sound film production.

The studio possesses a synchronization
room with moveable two window cabin,
a sound room with recording system, meant
to work during the synchronization process,
a noise room, synchronizing machines for
sound on disc and all the requirements for
an orcnestra This hall, fitted out with noise
protection, contains in a limited space all
the technical outfit necessary and is fed
with a group of alternating electric dynamos
which bring motor power for industrial
use at 48 to 60 periods useful for operating
the record. A disc repository is attached,
stocked with all the musical and vocal ma-
terial required for rapid synchronization.

In addition to the foreing plant, the
establishment possesses a big sound truck
wired on the R. C. A. system which can
also be adapted for studio use. There are
two smaller R. C. A. sound trucks, a Mo-

vietone truck and a considerable number of
silent film machines.

The establishment may therefore be
considered as being not only equipped for
the dubbing of foreign films, but also for mak-
ing original sound pictures on new subjects.

A scientific section, connected with the
establishment, contains the apparatus and
plant required for making pictures of scient-
ific interest. Films of the highest didactic
order have issued from this studio. There
are periodistic machines for making pictures
in micro-cinematography, and for microsco-
pic photographs as well as lamps for the
illumination of infinitely small bodies,
thermostats for maintaining at proper tem-
peratures special cultures of bacilli or for
bringing to development certain micro-
organisms, lenses of every type and descrip-
tion, preparation tables and a host of other
objects required in scientific work.

The LUCE establishment has also rooms
for mounting and projecting while there is
a photographic laboratory and photographic
archive and a garage for the various sound
trucks, lorries, motor-cars, etc., for the
transport of staff and material as well as for
special developing and printing ; travelling
projectors and motorcycles used for rapid
travel and country propaganda service,
especially during the summer time.

The Institute's Acti- The various activities
vitV- of the LUCE Insti-

tute are divided among various services in
both the cultural field and the news reports
both foreign and home. The various ser-
vices which make up the complete activity of
the Institute may be enumerated as follows :
(1) The LUCE news-reel (Giornale cine-
matografico LUCE). — As has been mention-
ed, the service offered in public cinemas
was started and put into effect by the law
of April 3, 1926 (N° 1000). It was ordain-
ed that the LUCE films, which were to
be used for a certain percentage of the entire
length of the performances as a sort of
supplementary programme were to be ob-
tained from the head office of the LUCE or

496

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

one of its agencies or sub-agencies. The
exhibitors were obliged to advertise the fact
that they were showing LUCE films in their
general advertising matter, while the com-
petent police authonthy was not to grant any
licence for exhibiting films unless it was
satisfied that the exhibitor advertised on his
programme the fact of his using LUCE
films. Fines were also to be imposed for
non-observance of the above regulations.

In this way, Italy put into force a new
system of spreading cultural and educat-
ional films which was distinctly different
from any plan in use among other nations,
where films after having been declared by
the competent bureau as being of recogni-
zed cultural and educational value enjoy
special exemptions and fiscal advantages.

It was believed that while exemption
from entertainment tax and state and muni-
cipal dues and taxes etc., might help the
spread of cultural films up to a certain point,
in view of the fact that exhibitors want to
make all their show with their theatrical
pictures, it was more advisable to make the
projections of films of this character obliga-
tory, with the idea of gradually educating the
public taste without entering into any form
of contrast or competition with ondnary
spectacular films or with other systems.

In this way, the LUCE news-reel came
into existence. It forms a rapid news serv-
ice of all the most important home and
foreign happenings. It is, in fact a regular
illustrated news-sheet which requires the
presence of operators engaged in a continuous
service for the making of the pictures. It
can give its " final edition " or " late news "
just like any newspaper with the added ad
vantage that it offers the visual appeal in 1 200
metres of film of new events every week.

The news-reel or " newspaper " does not
confine its pictures to happenings of the
week, but also contains a section dedicated
to didactic or scientific pictures and films
on popular customs and traditions.

(2) The LUCE Review. — The Review
differs from the news-reel just in the
way that the review differs from the daily

paper. The latter is a rapid chronicle of
events made synthetically and with speed ;
the other contains lengthier treatment of
specific events.

While the news-reel is distributed to all
the public cinemas, the LUCE Review
goes exclusively to the Sala Minerva. It
includes, besides the principal world events,
which are reproduced in their complete
version without cuts, cultural and scientific
films which have a special interest ; complete
cinema reports of the activities of national
bodies and institutions, films on the natural
beauties of Italy and on folklore traditions.

(3) Photographic Services. — In 1927, at
the suggestion of the Head of the Govern-
ment photographic service of national events
was begun with the idea of circulating pic-
tures of national happenings. A little later,
and to be precise in the year 1928, the LUCE
Institute was entrusted with the work of
making such a collection of photographs
for a documentation of the beauties of the
Italian country-side and Italian works of art'

Two sections thus came into being in the
photographic department, the Photo-news
Service and the National Photographic
Archive.

The first service consists of a kind of
photographic reporting which was carried
out by the operators of the Institute. The
prints are later distributed to the Italian
and foreign press, to interested bodies and
associations, and to private individuals.
In this way, tens of thousands of copies of
photographs are got rid of every year. The
second section takes its existence from a
convention which was signed in 1928 be-
tween the LUCE Institute and the Ministry
of Public Instruction, whereby the material
already existing in the photographic archive
of the General Direction of Fine Arts was
handed over to the LUCE for safe custody
and distribution of copies.

The nucleus of these art photographs was
formed by 35000 negatives, but the number
of negatives in possession of the LUCE has
increased steadily every year owing to the
policy of the Institute, which has set itself

THE « L. U. C. E. » NATIONAL INSTITUTE

497

the task of making a complete documentation
of the artistic life of the nation.

The distribution and sale of this material
which in the matter of quality and quantity
may be considered as unique takes place
by means of sales, exchanges, catalogue
editions and small illustrated volumes of the
history of art in the various regions of Italy.

(4) Publications. — Among the various
publications of the LUCE Institute, the
following are worthy of notice :

(a) Fascist Italy on the March, published
on the occasion of the tenth anniversary
of the March on Rome, with a foreword by
the Duce. The volume contains 256 pages
and 5 1 6 photographs, and presents a regu-
lar picture of the political social and eco-
nomic life of the country in all its aspects ;

(b) Art for All, a collection of mono-
graphs intended to illustrate fully the do-
cumentation made by the National Photo-
graphic Archive. It is divided by artists
and schools of art, and each volume con-
tains a biographical note on the chief masters
or outstanding works of art contained in it.
The collection has a high cultural quality,
and contains 50 volumes at present ;

(c) in order to make use of the collec-
tion of negatives possessed by the Photo-
graphic Archive, a regional publication of
Italian works of art has been started. The
intention of the publishers is that when the
publication is completed, it will form a gen-
eral catalogue of Italian art. Volumes dealing
with the Abruzzi, Molise and Apulia, the
Marches, Tuscany, Umbria and two vol-
umes on the museums art galleries and monu-
ments of Rome have already been published ;

(d) Among minor publications, there is
also a photographic documentation of the
Concihation(between Church and State in
Italy) in six languages and catalogues of the
films issued by the LUCE.

(5) Projections Service. — The projections
service organized by the LUCE includes the
travelling cinemas and the Planetarium.

With regard to the former, this service
was started by the will of the Duce as far
back as May 24, 1 926. The service posses-

ses automobile projectors installed with ap-
paratus enabling them to give projections
anywhere and in any circumstances. These
motor-cinemas have carried out a splendid
work of social agricultural and hygienic
propaganda in places where cinemas did
not exist in the farthest off rural centres of
the nation where the agricultural life devel-
ops most intensely.

In accord with the Ex-Soldiers Associa-
tion, the travelling cinemas belonging to the
latter association were handed over to the
LUCE which for a time carried on the work
of propaganda formerly pursued by the
soldiers' Association.

All projections given by the travelling
cinemas are commented by experts in the
various branches of life, being illustrated
often by travelling professors holding the
chairs of various sciences. The projections
have an exclusively popular character, and
are intended especially to spread in the
furthest off centres representative pictures
of the nation's life.

Two auto-cinemas carry out projections
of a gratuitous nature in squares of the city
of Rome, in rural towns and in the scholastic
centres of the region of Latium (including
the province of Rome).

As regards the Planetarium, it was through
the proposal of the Head of the Govern-
ment that a planetarium was purchased from
the firm of Zeiss in 1928. Its operation was
entrusted to the LUCE as an association
having an educational scope which made it
the most suitable custodian and operator.

The instrument was installed in the Min-
erva Hall, which forms part of the ancient
Baths of Diocletian. Here astronomical
shows are given and through the LUCE
Review also film spectacles. The popular-
ization of astronomical knowledge followed
here permits a reproduction of the move-
ment of the stars and the reconstruction of
celestial phenomena, thus giving the public
a practical illustration of the fundamental
astronomical laws.

All the projections of the Planetarium,
which take place three times a week, are

4 — /« in,l

498

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

accompanied by conferences. Other con-
ferences connected with astronomical ques-
tions or on scientific subjects are also given
in the Hall and are generally accompanied
by lantern slide projections or motion pic-
tures. Experts in the various subjects
address the public.

During the winter of 1933-34, there
took place in the Minerva Hall an elemen-
tray course of astronomy given by teachers
of the Rome Observatory.

(6) Production Service. — The chief acti-
vity of the Institute and that for which it
was in fact created concerns the production
and distribution of films of a cultural didac-
tic and scientific character. The output
of the Institute in this connection is without
parallel in Italy, while the LUCE's films
occupy a high place in the world production
of pictures of this nature.

The films produced deal with all branches
of industry and agriculture whether scien-
tific or cultural. The pictures are made
under the directorship of first class experts
of all nations. Some of the sections have
produced films which could with difficulty
have been surpassed by films made under the
very best technical conditions possible.

All the usual forms of cinematography
are used : ordinary picture-making, accele-
rated and slow motion camera work, X-ray
cinematography, micro-cinematography, si-
lent, sound and talking pictures, suitable
for a.11 programmes and kind of public.

We may mention among the various type
of pictures produced and included in the
Institute's general catalogue, the films on
ocean abysses, on spiders, bees, ants,
butterflies, mosquitos, plant and animal
parasites, studies and cinema researches of
a biological physical and scientific charac-
ter, the cinema collection of Italian provinces
and colonies and folk lore and traditional
pictures.

Together with these pictures, there is
another complete series dealing with public
works, labour questions, agricultural work
and popular propaganda films.

For the films in the first group, the LUCE

has enjoyed the advice and collaboration of
scientists like Alessandri, Bastianelli, and
Cinncione of the University of Rome, for
the second type of picture ; it has on its
own initiative produced films such as " The
Wheat Battle ". " The Life of the Forest ",
" With Iron and Fire ", which latter illus-
trate the working of steel from the moment
of its extraction as iron ore in the mines to
finished product.

Statistics. — A synthetic notion of the
work carried out by the LUCE Institute in
various departments not directly connected
with production of cultural and scientific films
may be gathered from the following figures :

LUCE news-reels (silent) produced up to
Dec. 31, 1933 1027

LUCE news-reels (talking) produced up to
Dec. 31, 1933 391

The total meterage of the negatives of the
sound news-reels has reached the total of
119,024 metres.

Photo News Service. — Negative produc-
ed at December 31, 1933 : 52146.

Astronomical shows given at the Plane-
tarium : 73 with 4854 spectators in 1931;
26 shows with 3448 spectators in 1932 ; and
160 shows with 12409 spectators in 1933.

LUCE Review. — At the date of Decem-
ber 1933, 3075 shows had been given to •
320,000 spectators.

The LUCE Institute, as an official organ
of the Fascist National government may be
considered as the first of its kind to be formed
anywhere. It cultural and educational acti-
vity carried out by means of the motion
picture make it the best possible instrument
for popular propaganda of national and in-
ternational ideas and ideals. Like other
institutes of the kind which have come into
being or are coming into being in various
parts of the world, it carries on its pro-
gramme with the greatest confidence in the
belief that the film, which has become a
means of pure entertainment for the crowd
today, may return to the ideal of its origin
and become the incomparable teacher for
the human mind and spirit.

THE ORGANIZATION OF THE EDUCATIONAL
AND TEACHING CINEMA IN FRANCE

IN France, the desire to utilize the cinema
in teaching followed very quickly after the
invention of the motion picture camera. In
fact, though even in the early days a number
of fantastic pictures were made, almost as
a proof of the versatility of the cinema, in
the opinion of its inventors, the brothers
Lumiere, it was chiefly intended for scien-
tific research, for popularizing science and
for providing a documentation of various
aspects of life.

In 1906, the principle of the scholastic
utility of the film was definitely asserted.
Among the pioneers in this work, we may
recall the names of G. Michael Coissac,
Edmond Benoit-Levy, whose nephew
Jean Benoit-Levy has so brilliantly followed
in his uncle's steps, Leopold Bellan, for-
merly President of the Paris Municipal
Council Colette, Bruneau and others.

As far back as 1907, a primary school in
Paris utilized the motion picture for illus-
trating lessons. In 1911, M. Brucker,
teacher of natural history in tne Hoche Ly-
cee at Versailles used animated projections
to improve his teaching. In 1913, several
Parisian lycees imitated the example of the
Versailles school, and both in the capital
and in the provinces numerous schools
established motion picture apparatus and
the use of film teaching at their own expense.
Most of the pictures were supplied by the
firms of Pathe and Gaumont.

The teaching cinema had already made
some considerable progress in France just
before the outbreak of the World War. The
general cataclysm which followed inevitably
delayed the development of the teaching
film, as it did for many others things.
Even during the war, though, we can find

instances of legislators concerning them-
selves with the possibility of the film for
teaching purposes. In November 1915,
M. L. Breton laid before the Chamber a
series of resolutions which urged the Min-
ister of Public Instruction to nominate an
extra-parliamentary commission to be en-
trusted with examining what were the best
means for generalizing the use of the cin-
ema in various branches of teaching. In
1916, the commission was duly nominated.
It issued a report signed by M. A. Bresson,
which was published only in 1920, but in
the following year the educational and
teaching cinema entered into a definitely
organized phase.

The development later on proceeded
particularly owing to the initiatives taken
in the world of teachers, incited thereto by
an official bureau, the State Pedagogic
Museum.

The State Pedago- This institution which
gic Museum. aates fo^ to 1879,

had a distribution service in 1881 with free
loans of books from its circulating library,
a section of the Central Library of Public
Instruction. Since the year 1896, it has
also engaged in a loan service from its rich
collection of slides belonging to the ministry
and including some 500,000 examples. Con-
sequently, when the Ministry of National
Education decided in 1921 to form a service
of motion pictures, the Museum was nat-
urally chosen to see to the work of distrib-
ution. Forty years' experience and a
continually increasing success guaranteed
the proper organization of a film repository
while it became possible to assure the best
possible utilization for the film, together

4 — la ingl.

500

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

with a sense of security for their safeguard-
ing and preservation.

From 1921 to 1926, the Central Service
of luminous projections of the Pedagogic
Museum looked after the work of distribut-
ing the films which increased from 54 films
lent in 1921 to more than 29,000 films
in 1926.

This vast increase in loaning out pictures
did not, however, satisfy the teachers'
requirements in the various branches of
learning. It was necessary to create a fresh
system which should be better suited to the
needs of the time, which should involve
decentralization of distribution, and at the
same time should multiply the centres of
propaganda and cine-educational action.
The Pedagogic Museum assumed this task
admirably organized by its director Mon-
sieur Lebrun, who is especially responsible
for the Central Service of Luminous Projec-
tions.

Experience has shown that this system
was the best possible since it allowed of the
progressive and spontaneous development
of an organization which, though faced with
difficulties, was not in any way confused or
chaotic. Moreover, the regional and depart-
mental bureaux which form the framework
of this organization tend continually to
coordinate their efforts and to seek in a
common programme the solution of the
various problems of a pedagogic, technical,
practical and economic nature which arise
from the use of the motion picture in educa-
tion and teaching.

Keeping to chronological order, however,
and going back to the starting-point of the
organization of cinema education in France,
we must examine again the work done by
the Pedagogic Museum.

Since 1925, on the request of this insti-
tution, the Ministry of National Educa-
tion sent out a circular encouraging tne
creation of associations among cinema users,
associations intended to act as regional or
departmental repositories entrusted with
the work of distributing locally the ministry's
films lent temporarily, and to be renewed by

other films from the film library of the Cen-
tral Service of Luminous Projections.

The Pedagogic Museum was soon encour-
aged to collaborate with these associations
of film users, which were known by the name
of Bureaux of the Educational Cinema. It
also helped to establish them and assist in
their development.

In 1932, the system was definitely decided
upon by a circular dated August 10, inviting
the Academic authorities to examine the
best way of forming regional and departmen-
tal film repositories. As we shall see, the
present situation shows that the heartiest
reception was accorded to the suggestions
of the ministry.

The Pedagogic Museum makes a propor-
tionate division of the films of the Education
Ministry, using as the criterion for such
distribution the number of apparatuses in
use in the schools served by each library
or repository. The repositories must be re-
stocked once or twice during the scholastic
year. Their importance varies in propor-
tion to the film resources of the cinema
repository of the Pedagogic Museum. To-
day, the films available in this library reach
the total of some 10.000 examples in normal
35 mm format, with non-inflammable sup-
ports, since the projection of inflammable
films is now rigorously forbidden in public
schools and in buildings connected with
them.

The repository of the Central Film Library
was formed by means of purchases made by
the Pedagogic Museum on behalf of the
Ministry of National Education. Since
January 1933, when the first primary grade
teaching picture accompanied by a brochure
was presented, efforts have been directed
towards making films which meet the require-
ments of the school and its supplementary
institutions. It is well to note that there is
a general tendency towards a wider use of
explanatory leaflets or brochures.

Though organized for the specific purpose
of running the film repository of the Minis-
try of National Education, the Pedagogic
Museum places its services at the disposal

EDUCATIONAL AND TEACHING CINEMA IN FRANCE

501

of other administrations and ministries
such as the ministry of Agriculture and the
ministries of Post and Telegraphs, Na-
tional Defence and Physical Education.
This year it has engaged in some experi-
ments which go beyond the strict limits
of the teaching film, publishing big docu-
mentary pictures like La Croisiere Noire,
Calais, etc.

Another recent initiative of the Peda-
gogic Museum consists in the creation of a
numerous series of slides on 35 mm film,
which permits the utilization of the films
for cinema projection apparatus fitted with
special devices.

The wide development of the services of
the Pedagogic Museum has obliged this old
and excellent institution to renew its organ-
ization and extend its work. In its new
offices in the Rue Ulm, the Museum has
been able to provide extensive and well
fitted out premises for its projection services
that are kept properly up to date. Besides
the general business offices, there is a large
stock of films kept in modern metal covers.
Several rooms are reserved for cinemato-
graphic studies. The cabin of the handsome
hall for projections and lectures is well
worth noticing. This cabin, built and
fitted out according to the personal ideas
of Monsieur Lebrun, has a special electric
feed equipment for light and energy and an
installation of moveable canvass frames
which permits any producer or manufactu-
rer to show his films and machines under the
best technical conditions possible. It would
take too long to describe the new offices of
the Pedagogic Museum in detail, or even
that part reserved only to the Central Ser-
vice of Luminous Projections. It will
be enough to say that premises, installation
and organization are worthy in every way
of an institution which, while it succeeds in
remaining youthful in spite of its age, has
an important and prominent task for the
spreading of the educational and teaching
cinema in France, and can be considered
both in this matter as well as in everything
which refers to teaching in general as a

centre of studies and documentation of the
first importance.

The Offices of the Today the Central
Educational Cin- Service of luminous
ema* projections of the Pe-

dagogic Museum only serves five depart-
ments. Forty-seven other departments are
served by twelve regional bureaux of the
educational cinema, not including the bureau
for Algiers, and the other 37 departments
which have their own bureaux.

These bureaux, wherever they exist,
operate under the control of the rectors or
Academy inspectors as decentralized stores
of the Pedagogic Museum.

Created by teachers who make use of the
cinema in their work these bureaux are,
from the juridical point of view, free asso-
ciations created according to the regulations
laid down in the fundamental law of 1901
on associations. They receive subsidies
from the State, the departments and the
communes, and collect other funds from the
subscriptions due from their members.

They may be considered in a way as
branch offices or bureaux of the Pedagogic
Museum, and some of them carry out
equivalent functions for the central film
repositories of the ministry of Agriculture
and the General Direction of Technical
Instruction. The films entrusted by these
public bodies to the regional and depart-
mental bureaux can be divided for the year
1933-34 in the following fashion :

Pedagogic Museum . . . . 59 %

Agriculture 32 %

Technical Teaching .... 9 %

The bureaux possess a certain number of
films of their own. In the majority of cases
these are recreational pictures of normal
35 mm size and educational films in various
reduced formats which meet the require-
ments of the various members. In addi-
tion to the 4050 normal 35 mm machines
in use, there are also at least as many more
reduced size projectors in the schools.

This question of the diversity of formats

502

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

has come to the attention of the bureaux,
which have perceived in it a serious draw-
back to a wider diffusion in the use of the
scholastic film. The question does not only
concern the school and post-scholastic or
perischolastic institutions, but affects in a
general way all institutions, the object of
which is to teach, instruct, educate and divert
the people. It especially interests Work-
men s Leisure Time associations with which
organizations these bureaux ought to col-
laborate closely.

In the meanwhile, the bureaux have pract-
icaly expressed their desire to cooperate
among themselves by the constitution on
October 25, 1933 of the French Union of
Bureaux of the Lay Educational Cinema
(UFOCEL) under the presidency of the
ex-senator, Monsieur Brenier. This as-
sociation is connected with the Frenh
Teaching League, a general confederation
of lay works recognized as a body of public
utility by the decree of May 31, 1930.

The organization of the educational
cinema in France which began under the
auspices of the Pedagogic Museum and was
backed up by the individual and collective
efforts of the teachers themselves has found
its full development in the UFOCEL, as a
section of the French Teaching League.
Museum and League, are, we may say, like
the two poles of this organization which is
fully equipped with everything at present
for introducing the educational and teaching
cinema into the programme of official
institutions except an adequate supply of
films. While the films belonging to the
Pedagogic Museum may be considered nu-
merous, and the importance of (those in the
film repositories of the Ministry of Agricul-
ture and the General Direction of Technical
Teaching may be admitted, neither these
pictures, nor those in the film collections
of the Public Health, National Defence,
Marine or Colonial ministries and agencies
can now meet the requirements of film
users. Films which are purely didactic,
documentary or recreational are in continual
demand. The cinema bureau of Paris, for

instance, had to work wonders of speed-
ing up in organizing the circulation of its
260 films in order to be able to meet re-
quests for 11,903 loans from October 1932
to April 1 5 1 933. Of these loans, 8795 were
entirely gratuitous, while in 3108 instances
a small fee was charged. The activity of
the other bureaux was not greatly dissimilar.

All this is certainly due to the growing
increase in the number of apparatuses in use;
the state subsidizing their purchase through
the ministries of Education and Agriculture,
while the General Direction of Technical
Teaching looks after the supply for the prin-
cipal schools in its care. We may well ask
what is the future going to be when, accor-
ding to the forecast of the UFOCEL, we shall
arrive at the use of one standardized format
for educational films, which will greatly
reduce cost of apparatus and stock.

We should remember that the National
Committee des Loisirs Ouvriers (Workers
Leisure Time Movement) tends constantly
to make a wider and fuller use of the motion
picture, while the French League for Cin-
ema Education is ready to enter the field.
This body was formed to supply the soldiers'
barracks with cinema apparatus and educat-
ional and instructive films. Besides these
organizations which are more or less con-
nected with official bodies, we must remem-
ber the various religious organizations,
among which many film users for teaching
and education are to be found.

This sketch of the progress and spread of
the educational cinema in France would be
incomplete without a few brief words on
the organ which represents these various
associations and bodies at the International
Institute of the Educational Cinema.

The French Commit- This committee was
tee of the I.I.E.C. the nrst correspond-
ence bureau attached to the I. I. E. C.
that was ever formed. Its task is to coordi-
nate and centralize news items, and, when
necessary, to canvas tne opinions of nation-
al personalities and institutions on ques-
tions coming within the proper activity

EDUCATIONAL AND TEACHING CINEMA IN FRANCE

503

of the Rome Institute. The committee
reserves to itself all action in those cases
which require a governmental or adminis-
trative intervention.

The Committee is composed of :

(a) the French members of the Council
of Administration of the Rome Instutute
(Titular or honorary) ;

(b) the President of the French Synd-
ical Chamber of Cinematography and of
personalities known for their special com-
petence in the scientific field or in that of
propaganda, as well as of delegates of organ-
izations which use the cinema as a means of
social education ;

(c) experts in the different questions
likely to come up for decision as well as-
personalities representing certain branches
of the cinema industry ;

(d) representatives of the ministries of
Foreign Affairs, National Education, Com-
merce and Agriculture and of the Under-
secretaries of State for the ministry of Na-

tional Economy and the General Direction
of Technical Teaching ; also representatives
of the ministerial departments interested.
It may be stated that no question which
interests the relations between the Rome
Institute and France, or any question of
international importance has passed without
the French Committee collaborating therein
with the I. I. E. C. Recently, there was
the Rome Congress of the Educational and
Teaching Film, at which the French com-
mittee intervened with a numerous and active
delegation, which brought a series of interest-
ing and valuable reports. It may be recalled
that on this occasion that the French Com-
mittee in order to contribute to the docu-
mentary collections of the Institute, publi-
shed a valuable volume of 300 pages con-
taining the French Catalogue of Educational
Films, which will be followed by a volume
containing all the reports presented to the
Congress by the Frenh delegates or French
sympathizers of the I. I. E. C.

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Editor and Responsible Manager
Rome — < L'Univeriale » Tipografia Poliglotta.

504

Metro

Goldwyn

Mayer

505

So easy; no previous knowledge required.
Just the Agfa Movex with Agfa Reversible Film and

you are ready for taking cine pictures. You don't need a stand,
nor even a cranking handle.

For showing the pictures at home, there is
the Agfa Movector, equally handy and easy to use by
connecting it to any electric supply.

506

If it is

a Paramount picture

it's

the best

show in town

507

ill A l

THROUGHOUT ALL THE WORLD

THE MAGNIFICENT CULTURAL FILMS OF
XT IT A

ARE TO THE FRONT

They are issued in different versions for different languages, and can thus be shown in

any country.

FROM NOW ON WE PROPOSE TO PUBLISH IN THIS SPACE
THE TITLES OF OUR FILMS WHICH HAVE A SPECIAL INT-
EREST IN THE DIFFERENT DEPARTMENTS OF SCIENCE

CULTURAL FILMS PRODUCTION FOR 1934-1935

BIOLOGY
Monkey Business
Ibex and Alpine Goat filmed
In the Obedska Bara
What the submarine camera
shot in the Adriatique

Vagrant plants.

SPORT
The rapids of Drina River

GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY
Kagami

Haruni

Buddhas in the Jungles
Sky - Scrapers in Southern-
Africa

Servians and Turcs in Sou-
thern Jugoslavia

Palace and cathedrals in
Middle Dalmatia

Bosnia, the land of veiled
women

TECHNIQUE
In the movies early days

WE BEG THE PUBLIC TO FOLLOW THE ADVER-
TISEMENTS WHICH WILL FOLLOW THIS ONE

Don't forget our rich catalogue of films containing more than

420 PICTURES
all cultural films dealing with every department of science. The
films are available both in normal and in reduced size (16mm).

UNIVERSUM-FILM AKTIENGESELLSCHAFT ~ BERLIN SW 19

KRAUSENSTRASSE 38 39.

508

Warner Bros. First National Films S. A. I.

Present

THE FILM CLASSICS OF 1934-1935

I HE KENNEL MURDER CASE

From the story by S. S. Van Dine.
Director : Michael Curtiz.

Featuring : William Powell, Mary Astor, Eugene
Palette.

THE HOUSE ON 56TH STREET

From the novel by Joseph Stanley.

Director : Robert FlOREY.
Featuring : Kay Francis, Riccardo Cortez,
Raymond, Margeret Lindsay.

Gene

MASSACRE

From the story by Ralph Block and Sheridan

Gibney.
Director : Alan Crosland.
Featuring : Richard Barthelmess, Ann Dvorak,

Dudley Digges, Claire Dodd.

THE WORLD CHANGES

America

Kneels " by Sheridan

From the novel

Gibney.
Director : Mervyn Leroy.

Featuring : Paul Muni, Aline McMahon, Mary
Astor, Patricia Ellis, Jean Muir.

(More than 65 years of history lived by Paul Muni
in this masterpiece of film classics. The big film
of the season).

EVER IN MY HEART

Based on piece by BETRAM MlLHAUSER and BeULALH
Marie Dix.

Director : Archie Mayo.

Featuring : James Cagney, Joan Blondell, Ruby
Keeler, Dick Powell and Guy Kibbee.

A hundred words, a hundred ideas, a hundred
thrills a minute. That gives you an idea of the
work of James Cagney in this picture which
reveals all the craft of this magician of American
choreo-graphy.

FOOTLIGHT PARADE

On the work by Manuel Seff and James Seymour'
Producer : Lloyd Bacon.

Featuring : James Cagney, Joan Blondell, Ruby
Keeler, Dick Powell and Guy Kibber.

FASHIONS OF 19S4

On the piece by F. Hugh Harbert.
Producer : William Dierierle.
Featuring : William Powell, Bette Davis, Frank
McHugh, Veree Teasdale.

(Holds up the mirror to fashion, satirizes vanity.
This picture appeals to all audiences. It has ele-
gance and gaiety).

FEMALE

On a piece by SeNE MarkEY and CatHRYN ScOLA.
Producer : Michael Curtiz.
Featuring : Ruth Chatterton, George Brent,
Johnny Mack Brown.

20,000,000 SWEETHEARTS

Based on the story by Paul Finder-Moss and Jerry

Wald.
Producer : Ray Enright.

Featuring : Pat O'Brien, Dick Powell, Ginger
Rogers.

(The gaiety of youth the lightheartdness of love,
the love of living are the motive power of this de-
lightful comedy which is considered Dick Powell's
and Ginger Rogers' masterpiece).

I LOVED A WOMAN

By Charles Nenyon and Sidney Sutherland.
Producer : Alfred E. Green.
Featuring : Edward G. Robinson, Kay Francis,
Genevieve Tobin.

GAMRLING LADY

On the novel by Doris Walley.
Producer : Archie Mayo.

Featuring : Barbara Stanwyck, Joe McCrea, Pat
O'Brien, Claire Dodd.

HI NELLIE

Based on the novel by Roy Chandler.
Producer : Mervyn Leroy.

Featuring : Paul Muni, Glenda Farrell, Robert
Barrat.

WONDER BAR

From the Operetta by Geza Merczeg, Karl Farkas
and Robert Katscher.

Producer : LlOYD Bacon.

Featuring : Al Jolson. Kay Francis, Dolores del
Rio, Riccardo Cortez, Dick Powell.

(H^arner Bros who for years have held the first
place as producers of musical films, have attempted
togo one better than their best with "Wonder Bar",
The piece contains scenes of fantastic beauty,
and is full of highly dramatic moments intersper*
sed by the laughable antics and amusing cracks
of Guy Kibbee, Louise Faenza, etc.

CAPTURED

From the piece by Edward Chorodov.
Producer : Roy Del Ruth.

Featuring : Leslie Howard, Douglas Fairbanks Jr.,
Margeret Lindsay.

WAX MUSEUM

A masterpiece of fancy.

Producer : Michael Curtiz.

Featuring : Lionel Atwill, Glenda Farrell and
Fay Wray.

(A film in colours without equal. Unique of its
kind, not only on account of the sumptuousness of
the mise-en-scene, but also on account of the origi'
nality of the story which has smething almost
diabolic about it, and is a source of intense emotion).

MANDALAY

From a story by Paul Henry Fox.
Producer : Michael Curtiz.

Featuring : Kay Francis, Riccardo Cortez, Lyle
Talbot.

BRITISH AGENT

From the autobiography of R. H. Bruce Lockhart.

Producer : Michael Curtiz.

Featuring : Leslie Howard and Kay Francis.

MADAME DURARRY

The biggest film made up to now.

Featuring : Dolores del Rio.

(// Madame Dubarry had not existed Dolores del
Rio would have missed playing the star part oj her
career as an actress. This film will make cinema
history).

BIENNALE i
VENEZIA

II' mostra mternazionale
d'arte cinematograf ica

^

t***t*Witi

111. H I I.I. ,1

GianpQofo

1 20 agosto 1934XII venezia
prime vision ediziom originali
riduziom ferroviane

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

MONTHLY PUBLICATION
OF THE INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY (L. OF N.)

ROME - I-a, VIA LAZZARO SPALLANZANI - ROME

YEAR VI. - N. 8.

AUGUST 1934.

CONTENTS

Henry de Jouvenel

LUDOVIC ZlLAHY

Claude Farrere
J. L. Joshi
Angel Ferran
Frances Marion
Ryszard Ordynski

Germaine Dulac

Mario Gromo
L. d. F. ...

The Seventh Art 515

Literature and Machines 518

The Nationalism of the Cinema 523

The Film in India - An Outline 525

The Censorship and the Censors 529

The Cinema in Art and Education .... 535

Mutual Understanding among Peoples and

the Cinema 539

The Educational and Social Value of the

News-reel . 545

Film Critics 551

Venice and the Cinema 553

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING BODY

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of State, Professor of Law at the Univer-
sity of Rome, President.

LUMIERE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.

BROWN J. W., Director of the British Film Institute.

CARTON DE WIART Count Henry, Minister of State, Member of the Child Welfare
Committee of the League of Nations.

FOCILLON Henri, Professor at the University of Paris, Member of the Permanent
Committee of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.

GANGULEE Nagendra Nath, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor of Agriculture and Rural
Economy at the University of Calcutta.

KOZMA Nicolas de, Ministerial Councillor, President Director of the Hungarian Tel-
egraph Agency.

LLOPIS Rodolfo, Deputy in the Cortes, ex General Director of Primary Education at
Madrid.

MISTRAL Gabrielle, Authoress, Ex-Directress of the Lycee for young girls at Santiago.

OPRESCU Georges, Professor at the University of Bucharest, Member of the Perma-
nent Commitee of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.

ORDYNSKI Ryszard, President of the Polish Film Producers' Association.

REYNOLD Gonzago de, Professor at the University of Fribourg, Member of the
Commission for Intellectual Cooperation.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,

The President of the International Agricultural Institute,

The Director of the International Labour Bureau and

The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the I.C.I.C, Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITEE OF THE REWIEW.
Dr. Luciano de FEO, Editor.

P. Berne de Chavannes, Ernest Holtzer,

Giuseppe de Feo, Edward Storer,

Jose Maria Gimeno,

Maria Elena Apollonio, Secretary.

THE SEVENTH ART

BY

Henry de Jouvenel.

Pictures are needed to instruct children,
and so they are for men too. A Paris
newspaper, through the simple discovery that
at the end of a day's work people like to
look at headings and photographs rather
than read articles acquired in a few months
a million spectators rather than readers.

The simplest and most delightful way to
learn is doubdess to open our eyes, as they
are in fact open during the day and, without
troubling about recalling the past or invoking
the present, to allow facts and men, inven-
tions and voyages to make their impressions
on the retina of our eyes. This is perhaps
one of the motives which have made the
motion picture one of the most fashionable
mechanical means existing.

In an epoch like the present, where, after
bread, the films is the object of widest con-
sumption, the film which allows the lazy
man to loll in a comfortable fauteil and fol-
low the travels of explorers, scientific re-
search and all man's physical and cerebral
work in fact, it is strange that we do not
notice any improvement in the intellectual
level of humanity. It is not the pupils who
are lacking, nor the class-rooms. It would
seem to be the teachers.

Nevertheless, there are any number of
films producers and painters, without there
being evident sign of a superabundance of
masterpieces.

The fact is that the seventh art has barely
begun to collect authors together and find
its proper means of expression. A review of

the motion pictures of 20 years ago would
perhaps permit us to follow the progress
made during the last decennium.

Each new attempt, while it attracts the
creators and men of fancy, opens a new aven-
ue of fallacy to the deluded persons of our
social life who carry into the new branch of
activity the weaknessnes which made them
failures in other fields. Hierarchies are slowly
formed through the mistakes of a public
which has to find its own education, and
can hide unjust defeats and flaunt false
triumphs.

The public is sovereign. Authors, film
producers, etc. have more interest in court-
ing the public than is trying to form its
taste. What is its taste? What fact can in-
form us of its taste? It is the novels or plays
which enjoy a certain success? Adaptations
of Wells or Edgar Wallace will prove less
difficult than a vaudeville of Feydeau, but
we must not forget that authors aim both
high and low. In the end, there is the chance
that merit will be recognized, and origin-
al work distinguished from a copy. Talent
will out, and the new art of the film tends
to come to the front in its own right, with-
out having any longer to seek help from
literature or the drama. It will form its
own models.

This will prove to be the hour of the edu-
cational cinema.

To begin with, we have had to be satis-
fied with cutting out illustrations from text-
books and reproducing on the screen old ex-

516

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

pcriments in chemistry, etc., of illustrating,
as some puerile pictures have done, the ef-
fects of disease and the advantages of hy-
giene. In this way instruction has not been
made pleasant. All that has been done is to
render the cinema tiresome.

Operators have today taken their cameras
to all the five continents, bringing back doc-
uments of the greatest interest on human
geography. Others have gone down into the
depths of the sea to photograph its flora and
fauna. Others again have descended into
the lowest social depths in search of sensa-
tional facts and instances of physical and mor-
al misery. Others again have faced the risks
of the mountains or the sky, so that we have
nowadays a magnificent wealth of facts and
events from all parts of the world which al-
low us to know all countries, to distinguish
physionomies, and to feel the harmony of the
world in our being. It will perhaps be possi-
ble before long to plan a luminous encyclo-
pedia to take the place of those arid volumes
of the past.

Such a work will require careful planning
and method, much time and money, and a
profound sense of international collaboration.

Cinematographic teaching cannot be mod-
elled on other forms of instruction. In des-
cription, respect for the truth of history must
be observed. If we take the case of a teacher
who is explaining the persistence of the lu-
minous impressions which go back to the
origins of the invention of the cinema, his
teaching will have to be prolix in order to be
clear, and will consequently weary the pu-
pils who listen to it.

A film, on the contrary, will render ob-
vious to the least intelligent spectator the act
of that Knight of d'Arcy, that gentleman
of the XVIIIth century who describing the
circle of a piece of incandescent coal swung
around so that the fiery flame of the circle
seemed continuous, was able to calculate
within an eighth of a second the time dur-

ing which the pupil of the eye retains a lu-
minous image. The films will be able to
show the physicist Plateau, in the act of in-
venting his phenafystiscope with its move-
able carboard discs that reproduced the first
animated drawings.

The motion picture could easily show us
Hoorner with the cylindrical box of his zoo-
trope, or Jansen in 1874 while he was pho-
tographing the planet Venus at intervals of
70 seconds with the aid of his astronomical
pistol, or Marey who accellerated movement
with his photographic rifle and succeeded in
fixing 12 images a second on the celluloid,
or Edison who guessed the system of perfor-
ating celluloid, or finally the brothers Au-
guste and Louis Lumiere who made the first
cinema that worked and gave the first lumi-
nous projections on March 22, 1895.

Some hundreds of metres of films which
join distraction with emotion will leave in
the minds of the youngest a memory of a
certain importance which will give a clearer
explanation than a long series of oral lessons.
This is merely one example among thou-
sands.

To seek the best didactic methodology by
means of the cinema, to make an inventory
of educational films which are worth pre-
serving, rejecting all those of evident medio-
crity, to determine the scope of future films,
to look for the teachers of tomorrow among
the new generations brought up with the
motion picture, to prepare a travelling en-
cyclopedia may be the subject matter for
congresses and congressists, but the assistance
of the State is necessary if all this good
work is not to be done in vain.

Teaching is a department of the State's
activity, and it is only the State which can
organize cinematographic teaching properly.
Private initiative has only too often the same
limits as private interest. If only on ac-
count of lack of means, private endeavour
cannot undertake so vast a work as this;

THE SEVENTH ART

517

the application of which we are consi-
dering.

It is not a question of seeking profit or
applause, nor any of the satisfactions com-
mon to ordinary cinema production, even
for those societies which have abolished cap-
italism.

In a report laid before the Plenary As-
sembly of the Union of Russian Art Wor-
kers in 1930, citizen Sutyrin lamented that
neither the best authors nor the best actors
concerned diemselves with artistic films,
even in the country which in 1918 received
from Lenin the famous phrase of inspira-
tion : « Of all the arts the most important
for Russia is, in my opinion, the art of the
cinema ».

It is actually in Russia alone that the
motion picture is capable of instructing the
enormous mass of illiterate people. The
spectators of films in Russia have increas-
ed, according to Bolshevist statistics, from

407 millions in 1928 to 2500 million in 1930.

If a state which is absolute master of its
people and is urged on by an intense will
for propaganda finds difficulty in getting to-
gether the apostles necessary for its propa-
ganda of culture, what single individual, or
what business firm or company can hope to
do better?

In reality, the vastness of the task is al-
most beyond the capacity of any state, and
really requires an association of states. This
is a noble task, especially since we can only
nationalize science by mantaining in the
world contrasting forms of ignorance. Italy,
which has founded the international Insti-
tute of the Educational Cinema, has shown
the path that is to be followed. Other na-
tions must support her without jealousy and
with all the disinterestedness and impartial-
ity which form the atmosphere of true
science, such as can widen and make surer
the vision of mankind.

LITERATURE AND MACHINES

BY

Ludovic Zilahy.

^* ome years ago, when at the invitation of
*■*' an American cinema firm I took posses-
sion of my workroom in one of the Holly-
wood studios, a servant entered and hung up
on the wall in front of my desk an enormous
map. On the map, which showed the five
continents, the cities where cinemas existed
were marked with a red circle, that is the
cities which had cinemas that regularly
showed the pictures made by the firm I
was working with.

It was still the epoch of the silent film.
The red circles pretty well covered the entire
territory of the globe. The reddest patch of
all was naturally America, which was cov-
ered with so many red spots that it looked
like a bad case of cinema measles. Europe
was fairly red too. In Asia, the rosy patches
began to thin out somewhat until they
pratically disappeared in the vast plains ot
Siberia and China. By the sides of the
rivers and in the bigger cities, they cropped
up again, and some few red circles were
to be seen even among the islands of the
Indian Ocean. The situation in Africa and
Australia was about the same, and there
were evidences of red even in the North
and South Polar regions.

The map also showed the number of
cinema frequenters in the past few years
which naturally reached several hundreds of
millions.

The cinema firm has placed this map in
the workrooms of all the scenario writers

with the evident intention that any of the
writers when working and casually looking
up from his desk would immediately see the
map. He would thus be reminded that the
words and thoughts he was putting to
paper to be turned into ribbons of film
would be shown all over the world illumi-
nating public opinion.

The immeasurable vastness of this pub-
licity, this world marked with red circles,
this fantastic pulpit from which it is pos-
sible to speak to all humanity astounds a
writer even though he is anxious to make
his ideas known to his neighbours. It is a
piece of knowledge which makes one giddy.
It affected me so that I found it impossible
to work while the big map was on the wall
staring at me. So I took it down, and hid
it in a cupboard so that I could escape the
glare of its thousands of red patches, which
seemed to reprove me and keep my brain
under a sort of continual menace. A magic
force seemed to exhale from those red cir-
cles. Even when the map was shut up in
the cupboard, it seemed to cast off sparks
and set up a disturbing atmosphere. I cal-
led the servant and begged him to take
it away altogther and to hide it somewhere.

Even this did not help. A few months
later, I was obliged to abandon Hollywood,
and to return to Europe, to Hungary be-
cause I could not get the glimmer of an
idea for writing. I might very well have
been alarmed at this state of things, but

LITERATURE AND MACHINES

519

I succeeded in calming myself, for I was
able to convince myself that in the neigh-
bourhood of the big film producing houses
there is not a living soul whose brain has
not been turned into lemonade.

This can easily be explained. The larger
the mass of people for whom a writer
works, the lower must he come down from
the pure lucid heights of literature. The
poet who dreamed of addressing himself
one day to all mankind has been badly
served by the century of technical progress.
Science has given him a magic instrument
to address the millions, at the same time
ordering him to obey the dictates of the
most commonplace business intelligence.

I see in this the cultural tragedy of a
humanity played out in the souls of the
writers working around the electrical mach-
inery of the big American cinema houses.

To attack the American motion picture
business is being done by a great number
of people every day at present. In my opin-
ion, I do not think the task is especially
suited to us Europeans, and I should like
to quote the opinion hereon of the distin-
guished American professor Fred Eastmann :

« The American film », writes Eastmann
in his study entitled, « The Next Move for
better Movies » conceals a danger in two
points. Inside the country, it has a poi-
sonous effect on the minds of children, and
abroad it does much damage to the good
name of the spiritual level of the United
States. The effect exercised on the minds
of the children does not lie only in fact that
the plots of the pictures are to a large extent
based on sensual themes, but they also tend
to cast contempt on the highest ideals of
human life, since they exalt the instincts
which hunger for money. Virtue is always
rewarded with material things instead of
moral benefits. The « happy» ending is al-
ways synonomous with ascent into a para-
dise of material well being. The run of

plots is generally around the way certain sets
of imbecilles comport themselves before sim-
ilar imbecilles. The American child becomes
nervous and irascible. He is distracted
from school work. He begins from quite a
tender age to consider the marriage bond
as a thing of slight importance, and his
young mind has a consciousness of all the
feelings of sin ».

This is what all the outstanding Amer-
ican psychologists state.

The most popular hero of the modern
cinematographic epopee is the gangster arm-
ed with machine guns. During my stay
at Hollywood* when Al Capone was still
at liberty, a member of the firm with which
I was working entered, with all seriousness,
into negotiations with the big gangster for
the playing of the principal part in one of
our films. The affair was not concluded
only because Ai Capone, who knows all
about where dollars are to be found, wanted
a million of them as his fee.

According to Professor Eastmann, the
luxury of Hollywood, its empty sensuality
and its lack of moral sense give an abso-
lutely false picture of American life, while
the life of other nations is shown in a lying
and offensive fashion. This latter characteris-
tics of Hollywood, for instance, has come to
point that in China, Italy, Spain and France
the public demonstrations have often been
made against American films, while in
Turkey children under 16 have been for-
bidden to witness the films of Christian
America.

Nevertheless Hollywood irradiates so po-
werful a light throughouth the world that it
has succeeded in exciting the destroyer of
literature — Bernard Shaw. All the Euro-
pean writers invited to Hollywood — and
among them, Maeterlinck, Pirandello and
Reinhardt — - entered the gates of Hollywood
with the secret belief that they at any rate
would show that it is possible to make a

520

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

really artistic film. We have in the film
the divine play of light and sound. Only
the soul, the soul of art is lacking. It was
not to easy to perceive that for writers
coming from Europe there was written the
following phrase : « Abandon hope all
you... ».

Here too, as in the Divine Comedy the
lion of pride and the world of greed prevent
the free movement of the poet who has his
eyes fixed on the radiant heights of art.
To the invocation for help there comes
the voice of Virgil, hoarse from over long
silence, promising that he would accompany
the poet through the hells of the damned
up to the gates of the City of God. The
cinema portal is here too, and if you like,
you can find an allegory in the famous yawn-
ing lion of the M.G.M. On the other side
of the door, though, the courtyards of the
American movie houses are filled with mu-
tilated corpses. If you look carefully over
them, you will recognize the remains of
Tolstoy, Dostojevsky, Flaubert and Daudet.
The studios, brisding with enormous streaks
of light, palpitating and rumorous, the mech-
anism which can make the tenderest of
sighs come from loud-speakers like the voice
of the hurricane, the wires, the tubes, pipes,
machines, the crowds of actors and actresses,
the hangars crowded with enormous pieces
of scenary as big as towers, all give the im-
pression of another planet, an immense dis-
tance away, all pervaded with a marvellous
solitude utterly different from our own where
man used to work by simple candle light
and do his writing with a quill. Or the hut
in a forest of a Knut Hansum of our epoch
occurs in contrast to us where we heard the
cock crow and watched butterflies flying by
the windows.

Oscar Wilde wrote (before the American
film was even thought of) that the human
fantasy had undergone vast modifications.
The arid historians of the antique epoch

wrote marvellous romances under the guide
of history, while novelists of modern times,
out of a wild tangle of fantasies, labour with
their sweat to produce stories of the stiff
and boring facts of reality. The modern
novel is in the direct line of the American
motion picture, which has brought down
the literary taste of the public in an incred-
ible fashion. Nor it is any justification to
say that it has, at the same time, provided
a form of amusement for strata of humanity
which hitherto lived in intellectual darkness.
The big commercial cinema trade has not
lifted up the crowd to higher intellectual
levels, but, on the contrary it has had a
deplorable effect on their fancy and senti-
ments. To be fair, we must allow the
American film industry some good qual-
ities and merits. It has opened up new fields
in the matter of mise-en-scene, it has made
world famous actors and actresses with new
capacities, though having no just sense in
the matter of publicity, revelling always in
a monotony of superlatives. The material
force of this advertising madness has driven
any fair cinema criticism from the press
of the world, any criticism, that is animated
by serious intentions, and this fact also shows
how the film is capable of subjecting the
spiritual side of a man without any control
or regard. The film has only created two
really useful thing for the masses, the news-
reel and the cultural picture which opens
a marvellous living illustrated book to the
spectactor's eyes, which shows him the mys-
terious face of the world and takes him to
countries and shows him happenings which
are all outside the possibilities of a poor
man's knowledge.

The moral and literary drawbacks of the
American film are to be found almost in
equal quantity in the European film. The
two, in fact are children of the same mother.
In the European film we only find common-
place love stories, psychological problems

LITERATURE AND MACHINES

521

worked out with industrial solutions, out of
date romanticism; all scanty spiritual nour-
ishment for the tired workers.

There is only one critical way to look at
the film. The film is not cultural but reflects
civilization. It stands for something in the
history of humanity, rather like the coming
of the aeroplane or the apparition, three
thousands years ago of the horse on the
plains of Macedonia. The appearance of the
horse completely changed the forms of hu-
man life from India to the Adriatic sea.
Today a similar change is taking place
through the agency of the whirring reels of
film, but this time the change is being ex-
tended to the entire earth. This transforming
power has come from America and its full
manifestation has only developed in the years
following the war.

What has happened in America? Walt
Whitman, the great American poet of the
last century, foresaw, as an old man, the fu-
ture of his country. « Fertile and infinite as
America may seem to us today, it is without
counsel and objects in the matter of its
tremendous future. For me this concentra-
tion of studies, researches and attempts is
much more picturesque than the deeds of
other countries in the past, including those
of Greece. If the empire of the New World
comes and is worthy of this name, it will
certainly not be the empty product of fancy
or a form of sentimentalism.

Time has perhaps never more cruelly
proved a poet's prophecy untrue than in this
case of Withman, who looked at the fu-
ture through the folds of his enormous hat
and his vast beard like an optimistic coffee
planter.

The power of human effort dominated
virgin nature in America in a very short
space of time: «a vast foundry with flying
sparks, incandescent metals, roar of mines
at work, swaying masses of workers passing
from place to another, dark shadows, steam,

quarrels, profit, gain, hideous noises, confu-
sion, clouds of dust». This was the way Whit-
man saw America. This is indeed the state
not only of America, but the whole world
today. This violence of crude human effort
would seem to have buried the pure deep
sources of human spirit, from which art
as we understand it in the European and
Asiatic sense draws its inspiration. Of one
matter we can be quite sure: the form in
which literature and the spirit of daily life
manifests itself today is not the book or the
stage, but the film which draws gradually
further away from book and play.

During the last few years much has been
written and said about the crisis of the thea-
tre. First of all, in accents of superiority,
people said that the cinema and the radio
could not possibly harm the theatres. The
theatre was something quite different, it
had the presence of the human body and
the fascination of its irradiations could not
be imitated. Then it was stated that the
crisis of the theatre was merely a temporary
thing. Today we are no longer under the
illusion that the life of the stage is inde-
pendent of our economic life and that our
economic life will shortly gather up again
its wonted rhythm. The hurts are too se-
rious to be cured in a few years. It may be
that several decenniums will have to pass
before the world will be made quite healthy
again, and see with quite different eyes to
those of our generation.

These different eyes will be given it by
television.

I recendy found myself in one of the
laboratories of the powerful and fantasti-
cally modern building of the Berlin Radio
Central Station. I had a feeling of awe in the
secret dome of the infinitely complex brain
of the 20th century. Wires, lamps, marvel-
lous humming lights, tender throbbing of
invisible motors, while on a table there was
a mysterious cabinet of the shape of a

522

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

tomb with small window of concave glass
not much larger than the palm of one's
hand. The concave window trembling with
shadowy and mysterious lights seemed like
the eye of some enormous bird. Great owls
have large fixed eyes something like this.
I looked inside the window, and I perceived
a picture behind, which was no larger then
a packet of cigarettes, eight centimetres by
ten. In a minute or so the picture seemed
to increase in size. I was left alone in the
strange room, the walls of which were cov-
ered with black cloth so that no exterior
light should disturb the magic. In the next
room, I could hear short orders being given,
and the noise of a motor somewhere. In the
background of the picture in the concave
window appeared the tiny figure of Hin-
denburg taking off his top hat to greet a
commitee. The whole thing only lasted a
few seconds. Then came another picture; an
automobile came racing down a road and
turned off at the last instant. Then came
another picture which showed three pretty

girls playing with a ball in coquettish bath-
ing dresses by the seashore. The pictures
wavered a little, and were not very light, as
if they were inspired by blind men. Still,
this was television, real, authentic television.
I had the sensation that the child was born
whose father was the sound film and whose
mother radio. In a few years we must be
prepared to not only to listen to the lectur-
er's voice but also to see his figure, and to
watch the movements of his lips or see him
scratching his forehead in perplexity.

This will be the highest form of present-
ing literature. The stage and the book will
be reduced to a continually narrowing circle.
The novel and the play will enter into peo-
ple's homes in the form of television which,
with time, will become as indispensable and
usual as the electric bell or the telephone or
even the modern wireless set.

Literature must naturally be prepared for
this great task, for this vast fabulous trans-
formation.

THE NATIONALISM OF THE CINEMA

BY

Claude Farrere.

/"Xne can say anything one likes of the
^-''cinema today. It will probably all be
correct, and there will be reason for saying
it. It seems to me, however, that we have
not yet reflected, nor have we spoken as we
ought to speak of the really unforseen and
formidable revolution which the talking film
has worked all of a sudden in the domain of
what is wrongly called the tenth art.

It is not very long since the internationa-
lists were delighted at having found in the
cinema, which was then a silent cinema, a
universal language as easily accessible to the
public as the dead Volapuk or the dying
Esperanto. Were not the silent moving ima-
ges, in fact, a language which the entire
planet understood, without distinction of
longitude or latitude? A man appeared on
the screen with a knife in his hand. He
killed another man. The Esquimaux under-
stood this simple universal story as did the
folk of Insulind, the American or the Pat-
agonians: Italians and French men under-
stood equally well that a murder was being
shown on the magic screen. A picture of this
kind, universal in character, had to be very
simple to be so universal. The scenario wri-
ters were obliged to indulge in an extreme
simplification of their thought, and were
constrained to remove everything which sa-
voured of fineness, delicacy, personality or
nationality. The moving picture, since it
must be easily understood by all and every

race and nation, in all parts of the world,
was obliged to reject everything which each
race, born, nourished and brought up under
a certain sky and in a certain atmosphere,
owed to that sky and atmosphere. In short,
the silent film which nobody can deny has
produced some admirable things in the pure-
ly material domain, moved towards a sim-
plification, a conventionalizing of the hu-
man race, which was only a negation of a
truly refined civilization.

In fact, if all the men of the earth do not
speak the same language, it is because their
special genius, adapting itself to special local
conditions, has introduced differences be-
tween one race and another. A Chinese and
a Japanese, for instance, are two very differ-
ent persons. Each has progressed by ways
and paths unknown to the other. They have
travelled in different directions, taking them
far apart. They will both go still further
afield. On condition that their personal orig-
inality be safeguarded. A Chinaman should
remain a Chinaman, and a Japanese a Japan-
ese. This is how humanity advances. And
it must go forward or die. Do not tell me
that when they have arrived at a certain point
in their evolution, Japanese and Chinese may
find themselves, some day, at the antipodes
of one another, and that, through their
self-esteem clashing, they will fight. This
is possible, but it would be a pity. Still, it
is better to have the Chinese and Japanese

524

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

as enemies — for a while, after which they
can become reconciled — than indifferent
Chinese and Japanese because diey are amor-
phous and uniform in a way that is without
grandeur or picturesqueness and would inev-
itably lead to sterility. War is certainly a
great evil, but it is an evil which has often
brought forth good. In any case, some move-
ment is better than immobility, which is
the same thing as death.

The talking film, restoring to each film
the language in which it was thought, that
is to say, the climate in which it was con-
ceived, provides a magnificent remedy for
this serious danger which arose with the
silent film. A Latin film will henceforward
be a Latin film, and if an Anglo-Saxon vers-
ion of it is made, far from compromising
the author's originality, it will show an An-
glo-Saxon public how a Spaniard, a French-
man or an Italian reacts under certain cir-
cumstances. This reaction will never be that
of an Englishman or a German.

The pacifists themselves have reason to
rejoice, since a better understanding of one
another is the only real means of learning

to be tolerant. At the worst, if it comes to
a batde, the battle will be among people
knowing and understanding one another,
and therefore capable of mutual esteem and
respect.

I perceive, in all that concerns the talking
film, a great future for mutual knowledge
with immense possibilities for each people
to make its own way, towards its own fu-
ture. Whether this future be good or bad
depends on men and not on the makers of
films. Novelists have certainly never modi-
fied life. They have shown us what life is
like, sometimes opening the eyes of a public
which would rather prefer to be blind.

So much the worse for people who want
to be like the moles, but we need light. Nor
it is a matter of lamps. The thermometer
does not make it hot or cold. It tells the
world what the temperature is, and in this
way it has saved humanity from numberless
pleurisies and cases of pneumonia. This is
a role with which even the most ambitious
people might well be content, it seems
to me.

THE FILM IN INDIA - AN OUTLINE

BY

J. L. joshi.

T^ he first successful feature film in India
■■■ was produced in 1913 by Mr. D. Phalke
who has since been called « the father of
the Indian Cinema ». It related the story
of « Harishchandra », a mythological saga
occurring in the great Hindu epic the Ma-
habharat. The first Indian talkie was produc-
ed in 193 1 by Mr. Ardeshir Irani of the
Imperial Film Co., and the first multi-col-
our production in 1933 by the Prabhat Film
Co., of Kolhapur. The first cartoon film is
in the process of making and expected to be
ready for exhibition within a short while. The
story of the Indian film happens to be crowd-
ed between these years.

It may be noticed that these pioneer re-
sults were achieved in Western India or
more particularly in and around Bombay,
which has always been the foremost pro-
ducting centre till this day. Calcutta, a city
in the East of India, comes in second. Here
attempts at film production were made even
prior to 1913. These attempts do not, how-
ever, appear to have been successful be-
yond the production of some stray topicals.
In the absence of authentic records, it is
difficult to state in detail anything about
them. Though second in point of quantity,
Calcutta often excelled Bombay in point of
quality. « Puran Bhakta », a talkie produced
in 1933 by the New Theatres, Ltd., Calcutta
is still considered to be the best represen-
tative film of strictly Indian production.

Betwen 1913 and 1931, the most out-

standing event for the Indian film industry
was the enquiry conducted by the Indian
Cinematograph Commitee appointed by the
Government of India in 1927. In their re-
port which made several recommendations
for the proper and speedy development of the
industry, all of which have, however, been
shelved to this day on the ground of shrin-
kage of finances. It is regrettable that when
almost all the progressive and civilized states
of the world are actively associating them-
selves with the film industry, the Govern-
ment in India should have done nothing

Mary Pickford

HOLLYWOOD. OAL. -

May 30th, 1934

Executive Committee
Venice Exhibition
Via Lazzaro Spallanzani la ,
Rome, Italy.

Gentlemen;

It is indeed a pleasure to send
cordial greetings to the great Venice Exhibition
which, for the second successive year, is effectively
directing attention to the remarkable progress
made by the motion picture both as an art and
aa an industry.

More power to the Exhibitioni

Cordially yours,

'"*\

526

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

here beyond the establishment of the three
Boards of Film Censors in the Cities of
Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. As a matter
of act, these boards have been always looked
upon by the producers and others who are
qualified in this behalf, as a definite hin-
drance to the progress of the industry.

The growth of the industry has been se-
verely handicapped by several other hin-

drances right from the beginning. After Mr.
Phalke's return from abroad in 1912 and
the production of his first picture in 1913,
the world war closed all opportunities for
Indian producers for technical training in
foreign countries. Those who acquired ex-
perience in pioneer studios, tried to set up
their own establishments, improved their
technique as they proceeded and thus by trial

OLtmpia 1911

walt mw jgpNICnOHS^

umim

?7I9 UYPttyOM

May 29, 1934

Executive Committee,
Venice Exhibition,
Via Lazzaro Spallanzani la,
Rome, Italy.

Gentlemen:

The Venice »»J" W^ur.-X'S HTSJu. ,
of everyone who hoe the best "" lndMd to send you w

gtss/^su-"^ "•as5 the flne- constructlve

work you are doing.

«*• the Exhibition will encourage
I hope the success °f the Exnio 1 the spirit of
you to make it ^ annual affair D ec ln all parts
S^^S^Sl".0".:*:'.^! oV.at.r f^ achieve-
menta.

Very co

Walt Disney

D

L

SILLY SYMPHONY

Sound Ctrtooos

THE FILM IN INDIA - AN OUTLINE

527

and error, ultimately established a success-
ful film industry, suited to Indian condi-
tions. Even today, there is no institution in
the country for technical training in the
various branches of modern cinematography,
no trade or technical library, no research
laboratory. The Motion Picture Society of
India, Bombay, which is perhaps the only
organized and representative association con-
nected with the industry, is urging very
strongly that these facilities be provided by
the state without any delay. It is a cry in
the wilderness. Private initiative is unable
CD take up such an immense task and State
authorities seem to feel no responsibility for
the progress of the industry. It is even doubt-
ful whether they have realized the real im-
portance of the modern film in the life of
the peoples.

The nature and scope of the Indian film
are determined by the existing marketing
conditions in the country. Amongst the civ-
ilized peoples of today, Indians are perhaps
the poorest in the world. There are about 650
theatres out of which not even a half are
wired for talkies, in a land with a popula-
tion exceeding 330 millions. A country as
vast as the whole Europe without Russia,
is cut, both horizontally and vertically, by
differences of languages and religions which
have the effect of narrowing down to that
extent, the available market for a modern
talkie. When the country's literate popula-
tion does not exceed 8% of the total, it is
no wonder that the cinema habit has yet to
grow. Educational or social films, do not

therefore prove a profitable venture, and
most of the Indian productions have so far
been either mythological or historical.

While the factors mentioned above de-
termine the financial returns of an Indian
film, other factors perhaps even more fav-
ourable, determine its cost of production.
All the necessary machinery, chemicals, raw
film and materials required for the purpose,
have to be imported from foreign countries.
Imported goods being proportionately costly,
are subjected in addition to a heavy import
duty. The heat of the tropical sun necessi-
tates the installation of specially elaborate
equipment. And finally, the vagaries of the
Censoring Authorities have often ruined a
whole picture. No wonder then that capital
is shy and the pace of progress compara-
tively slow.

In spite of these difficulties and short-
comings, the attainments of the industry as
a whole are still worth being proud of and
the level of its technique can, in the opinion
of foreign experts and competent observers,
very well compare with that of the best of
the advanced countries of the world. The
industry is entirely indigenous, in its origin,
control and development, a rare phenomenon
in a country like India. When it is consid-
ered that no foreign films can ever take
the place of Indian production, since her
highly developed arts and culture could nev-
er be adequately expressed otherwise than
through an indigenous medium, the future
of the industry appears to be hopeful and
assured.

528

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

CHAMBRE SYNDICALE FRAN£AISE
DE LA CIN£MATOGRAPHIE

ET DES INDUSTRIES
GUI S'Y RATTACHENT

13s... Rue des MATHURINS <»•)

T&U CENTRAL ao-aa

^J-aruy, le/-l

_22_juln__1934

CABINET OU PRESIDENT

Monsieur le Comte VOLPI di MISORATA

Ministre d'Etat

President de la "ESPOSIZIOEE BEESiLS
OTrERHAZIOflALE D'ARTE " de Venis©

lion oher President,

An moment oii va commencer le deuxieme festival
international d'Art cin^matographique, J'ai l'agr^able devoir
de venir vous renouveler 1'expression de la gratitude de toute
l'industrie oinSmatographique frsncaise, ,pour la tres noble
initiative que vous avsz prise en introduisant des aout 1932
le Cinamatographe dans le oadre de l'Exposition biennale de
Venise.

En donnant ainsi au Cin6matogra.ph.e ses lettres^de
noblesse, vous awz grandement oontribue" a faire reconnaitre,
par tous les milieux intellectuels, artistiquea et moraux,
t* importance obaque Jour grandissante de l'art cinematogra-
ph i que .

Le grand suoces du festival de 1932, le triomphe
qui deja s'annonoe certain pour le festival de 1934, sont la
preuve <5vidente de la surete" de votre Jugement-.

Permettez-moi, mon oher President, en vous
adressant ioi, a nouveau, mes tres vivos et tres sinceres
felicitations, de voua exprimer, avec tous mes remerciementa,
1* assurance de mes sentiments devoues.

THE CENSORSHIP AND THE CENSORS

BY

AngeS Ferran.

The Educational One of the problems

Cinema. that arise when we

come to regard the cinema as something
more than a factory producing articles for
trade with the negroes of Central Africa
is its force as an instrument of education
and the possibilities and ways of utilizing
this force to the best advantage.

Like any other active matter — and the
cinema by definition is essentially active —
it tends to modify in one way or another
everything that comes under its influence,
everything, that is, which for any reason
— and the chief reason is the receptivity of
the subject — comes into its sphere of
action. Practically immobilized, the spec-
tator at a film projection is subjected to
the influence of the picture in an atmos-
phere the sole purpose of which is to shut
him off from any other influence but that
coming from the screen. Sitting in his chair
in the dark, the spectator suggests a patient
on an operating table.

Thus the cinema, an essentially active
force, works on the spectator in the same
manner, but more confusedly and myster-
iously, as traffic signs work on the passer-
by, more confusedly and mysteriously, but
none the less effectively. The spectator does
not feel compelled, he feels persuaded; or
rather, he does not feel persuaded, he is per-
suaded.

Thus the whole cinema is educational.
Why then should we speak of the educa-

tional cinema, referring to films of a partic-
ular type, precisely those which can least
influence education, because they neither
compel with the warning of an immediate
danger nor with the threat of a concrete
penalty, nor can they persuade just because
they wish to compel, and immediately awak-
en a hitherto dormant resistance by mak-
ing an open attack and thus exposing their
subject matter to argument and objection.
Films that are not cunningly prepared and
consist of long pedantic reels, can have
very little influence on the mind, except as
a soporific or as a medium arousing antag-
onism.

The whole problem is to find some
merit in these productions and secure State
protection for them. They are teacher-films;
they teach the lesson directly, as a lesson,
not indirectly, as life does; and they will
therefore be hailed with enthusiasm by all
teachers, whose work they will simplify
without depriving them of their posts. It i*
obvious that these films can play a part in
schools; but outside the atmosphere of moral
or material compulsion which exists in a
school, the description « educational » is a
label often unjusdy attached to a film,
which, causes people to regard with suspic-
ion excellent films which if presented as
ordinary production, would be duly appre-
ciated, and would amuse, entertain and edu-
cate.

Were it not for this distinction — which

2 - Ice ingl.

530

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

as a matter of fact, is merely a bureaucratic
trick — we could realize that the whole of
the cinema is education, like the whole of
nature and the whole of life. All that would
be necessary would be to teach the way of
using it and to learn how to do so, in the
same way as we learn to open oysters with-
out cutting our fingers.

The cinema is an industry, and, while na-
ture and life are of such vast proportions
that it would be absurd to set up committees
on educational nature and educational life,
the cinema, being an industry, can have as
many committees as it likes, and among
them one, or more, on the educational cin-
ema.

If, however, we admit that there is an
educational cinema, then we mast admit a
cinema that is not educational, and we shall see
that, in all the films which are not regarded
as educational, account is only taken of what
is reputed harmful. In principle, the cinema
has come to be regarded, if not quite as a
disaster, at any rate as a minor evil, always
excepting that educational cinema which we
hear so much about, but which every spec-
tator secretly abhors.

This view of the matter has led to the
appointment, as film-censors, of the very
persons who are the worst enemies of the
cinema because they see with the greatest
lucidity the evils which can emanate from

lCo» J\noslca. (0 aiifxxnxux
&7 31, 1934.

Executive Committee,
Venice Exhibition,
Via Lazzaro Spallantaal la,
Borne, Italy.

Gentl emenJ™

It is a privilege to congratulate the Venice
Exhibition on its second birthday and to extend with
deepest sincerity best wishes for its flourishing
success*

In focusing world-wide attention on the motion
picture, both as an instrument of education and as a
medium of entertainment, the Exhibition is performing
an invaluable service to the public at large, as well
as to every person engaged in the film industry*

Very sincerely yours,

THE CENSORSHIP AND THE CENSORS

531

every kind of film. The censors, therefore,
obliged to choose between an unbearable edu-
cational cinema and an another kind of cin-
ema which may be pernicious, were obliged
to conclude that this latter was an invention
of the devil and a kind of plague of Egypt
outside Egypt and outside its time, forget-
ing that the creator of these plagues was
not the devil but Jehovah.

But, plague or not, the cinema was an
accomplished fact, and they were censors,
and therefore they had to get to work. So
they did their best to preserve the spectator
from evil and keep him to the right path,
in dealing with the various films which
were offered to them. Since these films were
already in a finished state, the censors could
not add anything to them, they could, how-
ever cut out as much as they liked. And
then began the refinements of censoring.
Morality became a kind of technique; kisses
were measured by the foot; the public were
prevented from seeing what they read daily
in the newspapers; films were ruthlessly
mutilated in order that they might do as
little harm as possible.

But to whom were they to do as little
harm as possible? To the spectators of
course. But to what spectators? Naturally to
all of them.

Does that mean that all spectators are
equally susceptible to the influence of films?
The censors care nothing about that; what
they want is to make films as innocuous as
possible, and as everyone goes to the cinema,
from children to old men, from imbeciles to
intelligent people, the censors of course had
to cut down everything with the same knife
to the level of children in some cases, and
of imbeciles in others.

The result is that films which were meant
for adults, having been cut down to the in-
tellectual level of children, are rejected be-
cause in reality they are films for imbeciles,

if not sub-imbeciles, and we see how im-
possible it is seriously to make a cinema for
children and forbid them to go to halls
for adults because the censorship has simply
brought down to the level of the weakest in-
tellects, in order that they may understand
them, all sorts of things, which may harm
them because they are weak in intellect. It is
as if the fruit of the tree of the knowledge
of good and evil were placed within the
reach of everyone.

Does this mean that the censorship should
be abolished?

We must assume that film-producers are
not wicked and irresponsible people. It is
possible that they may be wicked, because
everything is possible. They are free to be
wicked if they like, but it is a luxury they
will have to pay for in responsibility.

The exhibitor, when he presents a film,
ought to know to what he exposes himself,
as the writer knows when he publishes an
article. Criticism which is true, post-release
censorship can give guidance to the public
exhibitors and authorities, and this respon-
sibility will dignify it in the eyes of others,
and, what is more important, in its own
eyes.

It would be possible to divide the cinema
into different categories, so that each spec-
tator could choose without any compulsion,
what suited him best and what he was best
able to understand. There would be cinemas
for children and cinemas for adults, cine-
mas for the people and cinemas for the
intelligentzia, and there would be an end
of the spurious imbecillity of many films
which is due to the mutilations of a censor-
ship that is an enemy of the cinema.

One of the gravest preocupations of pre-
sent day moralists is undoubtedly the in-
fluence of the cinema. Naturally, being
moralists, they say « the pernicious in-
fluence of the cinemaw. The cinema, gran-

532

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

diosely styled the seventh art by those who
have money in it, is it to a large extent guilty,
according to the moralists, of the moral crisis
through which the world is going; and hence
all their efforts are directed, if not to destroy-
ing this influence, at any rate to reducing
it as much as possible. In doing this, the
censorship is their chief weapon, and they
endeavour to make as much of it as they
can, being convinced that the scissors, like
the cross long ago must be the instrument
of our redemption.

But it is as difficult to be a good censor as
it is to be a good surgeon (perhaps a little
less difficult, and at any rate less dange-
rous — for others of course). To cut out the
malignant tumour of a film in exactly the
right spot without leaving it scarred cannot
but be a most difficult task.

That is why the censor does not perform
it, because he is a moralist and not a film-
technician. He is one of those doctors who
confine themselves to diagnosis and rely on
another doctor for the treatment. The cen-
sor will denounce, in a way which will
make you think he must have vast and
profound experience, a gesture which will be
fatal to the salvation of your soul or a scene
which will disturb the regularity of your
organic functions; but it is no use asking
him how the film can reveal its meaning and
keep its artistic life if so mutilated, because
he well certaindy reply that the best thing to
do would be to bury the film entirely.

This special conception of the censorship
means that, to begin with, the censor is an
enemy of the cinema, but that gradually he
gets to like it. Nevertheless, jealous of his
funcdons as he is, and extremely selfish, his
liking tends towards exclusiveness. Person-
ally, he wants to see the most scabrous
films — at first for the pleasure of cutting
them, but later mainly for the pleasure of
being the only person to see them. Gradually

the virus of the cinema gains a footing in
his soul, and, while seeking to preserve the
public from infection, he poisons himself
without knowing it.

Of course he does not realize this for, if
he did, he would shrink with horror from
the path of evil; but this apparent inno-
cence is even more pernicious, particularly
since Freud has supplied the surrealists (and,
we were going to add, criminals, but we rea-
lize the redundancy and do not make the
addition, being sure that both will ap-
preciate our courtesy) with instruments of
such precision. There can be no doubt that
if we add to the profound though theoreti-
cal knowledge of evil, which moralists may
be supposed to possess, a secret liking, how-
ever unconscious for that same evil, we
run the risk, as a result of a moment of
absent-mindedness on the part of a film-
censor, of finding the most dreadful crimes
transformed into the highest virtues, be-
cause the moralist will certify them to be
such and against a moralist's verdict there
is no appeal.

The gravest problem of the cinema, then,
is not that of the censorship, but that of the
censors. Modern Society, which, although
it does not advertise the fact, is as anony-
mous as a joint-stock company, has paid
too much attention to the protection of the
public against films, and has lamentably
neglected the protection of censors. It is a
very convenient argument that the public
constitutes the majority and the censors a
minority. This argument used to have some
weight, but the League of Nations has put
it in its place. It is fitting that society should
give its protection to those responsible for
censorship in proportion to the effectiveness
of their work, because, when the censor-
ship has suceeded in making angels of us all,
from gangsters to the members of the So-
ciety for the Protection of Animals and

THE CENSORSHIP AND THE CENSORS

533

the Little Sisters of the Poor, we shall
find ourselves helpless in the hands of
a body of censors who, through no fault of
their own, have absorbed all the evil which
would otherwise have been evenly distri-
buted, and it would be unfair if the State,
when rewarding worthy and conscientious
officials for long years of service should find

itself obliged to tack 20 years hard labour
on to their pensions.

A less strict censorship, on the other hand,
would be more human and more just, since,
when it came to th*: point, we should be
able to meet each other on an equal foot-
ing and deal with each other on equal
terms.

MESSAGE TO THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION
OF CINEMATOGRAPHY VENICE, 1934

The importance of the International Exhibition
of Cinematography to those concerned in the making
of films cannot be overestimated.

Every event of this kind is a step forward in
the recognition of the growing importance of the
cinema both as an art, and as a social and economic
world force.

These Exhibitions not only stimulate a healthy
striving towards the pinnacle of world film prestige,
but also add to international understanding.

I most cordially congratulate the organisers of
the exhibition on the great work they are doing, and
wish the exhibition the splendid success it deserves.

U. E. BALCON /

534

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

Association Professionnelle
de la presse cln£matographique

Paris, ce 2$.. Mai 1934

Sicoc Social , ioj. nut oi rickclieu it

Tti_ OVTUUH S1-E4, «1-6» «<•»«, (1 87, Si-la, S

*•

PRESIDENTS DHONNEUR i

Charles patht, Leon OAUMONT, loui* lumiEre
lin.lt DEMARIA, JEAN '3APENE, E.-L. FOUQUET
PRESIDENT HONORAIR1 > G.-M. COISSAC

PRESIDENT; JEAN CHATAlONER

— — SECRETAIRE GENERAL I ORUHOT —
SO, RU< BERGERE. PARIS. TtLt.HOMI PROVINCE 18-SO
TRESORIERi HENRI LAFRAGETTE 10. R - ■ FUSAAT UA'

Monsieur le President du Comite

Executif de la 2eme Exposition d'Art

Cinematographique de la XIX Biennale

de Venise

I.C.E. I a Via L. Spallanzani

ROME

Monsieur le President,

La Federation Internationale de la Presse
Cinematographique me charge de vous feliciter de
1' initiative que vous avez prise en organisant 1 'Ex-
position internationals d'Art cinematographique.

Cette importante manifestation cinemato-
graphique mondiale est appelee a provoquer partout
des resultatB precis, non saulement dans le develop-
pement futur de l'Art des images mouvantes, mals en-
core dans la facilite d'echanges internationaux sus-
ceptlbles d' avoir la plus haute signification.

Hous ne manquerons pas d' examiner de tree
pres votre magnifique effort et de collaborer aussi
etroitement et aus3i efficacement que possible aux
consequences heureuses qu'il doit .avoir.

Avec no3 compliments renouvelles, recevez
Monsieur le President, l'assurance de mes sentiments
tres distingues.

esident de la FTPRESCI.

THE CINEMA IN ART AND EDUCATION

BY

Frances Marion.

T^he inclusion of an International Exhibit
"** of Motion Picture Art in the 19th
Biennial Exposition at Venice — surely the
most beautiful and appropriate place to
honor this modern medium for artistic ex-
pression ■ — indicates the Italian govern-
ment's recognition of the importance of the
cinema as a national art and as a means
of education, and, also, forecasts the arrival
of the Italian film industry at a high place
among the film producing nations.

The place and power which the cinema
holds in the world today is indicated by
the fact that every week 70 million persons
go to see the films in 60 thousand cinema
theatres, and that at least five hundred mil-
lion pounds is now invested in the cin-
ema business. The people of the United
States, who attend the cinema about five
times as often as do the rest of mankind,
pay a billion dollars a year to their cinema
industry, which in turn pays millions of
dollars to the government.

Although film production was first con-
ceived solely as an industry, it has become
an art, — an art limited by the necessity
of producing pictures with as nearly uni-
versal appeal as possible. As an art form,
it is the natural medium of the end of the
Twentieth Century, and it is available to
artists in many lines as a means of expres-
sion adapted to modern needs. For too

long, cinematography was considered an ex-
tremely technical science; actually, first and
foremost it should be regarded as an art of
the people; a channel for the presentation
of ideas that are of interest to the majority
of mankind.

The necessity of working within the tech-
nical limitations that govern cinema pro-
duction has not prevented its artists from
producing work of great merit, and the
sound film, reaching the public through an
additional avenue of sense, has increased
the range of dramatic appeal. The fact
that many films are obviously below ac-
ceptable standards of art has not been due
to any inherent difficulty in the medium,
but because, especially in America, there is
too often an infantilism of theme and a
puerile or ignoble subject coupled with su-
perb direction. Under all the technical pro-
ficiency, there is little evidence of high aim
or purpose.

It seems probable that the cinema will
more and more offer opportunity for the
particular type of genius which each coun-
try possesses, so that the films produced by
each nation will express something of the
artistic patrimony of each race. Unques-
tionably, the films that have received in-
ternational approval have been consummate
expressions of national genius.

Italy has grasped her opportunity in this

536

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

7th June, 1934,

The Venice Exhibition has aroused inter-
national interest and appreciation and its importance to
the World Film Industry cannot be too highly stressed.

In sending my very best wishes for its
success, I anticipate that it will greatly encourage
international co-operation and create greater understanding
and good feeling amongst the participating countries.

Mm^

fJohn W. Brown,
sneral Manager.
'British Film Institute.

connection, and undoubtedly through her
determination to use the cinema construct-
ively, she is creating a new cinema art, a
Fascist art, which will evince the national
spirit and energy. The race that produced
Michaelangelo, Dante, Galileo, and a host
of masters in all the arts, has genius at
its command, and will surely evolve it own
type of cinema artistry.

In addition to being a popular and easily
available form of entertainment, it is evi-
dent that the cinema, under proper control,
may exercise a most beneficent influence
upon a people. Its cultural possibilities are
unlimited, and nothing else is as effective as
an instrument for depicting governmental
progress and the history and growth of a
nation. It has become perhaps the most
influential medium of expression, and it
seems probable that it equals if it does not
surpass the press and the radio as a means
of reaching the populace. It offers an oppor-
tunity, although litde advantage has been

taken of it, for developing the mass intel-
ligence of a generation.

Educators and administrators are just be-
ginning to realize the tremendous possibili-
ties of the cinema as an educational me-
dium and to see that perhaps the first use
of the film should be to show life truthful-
ly to those who are beginners in the art
of living; in other words to educate the
child. The present picturizations of crimi-
nals and sex maniacs should have no place
in his education. Fortunately, an increasing
number of schools are acquiring their own
projection machines for pictures and are giv-
ing their own programs of pictures planned
to advance the education of youth. In place of
merely reading or hearing about places, events,
actions and processes, the children are able
to see them, with an especially helpful ef-
fect upon the great number whose memory
is of the visual type. School administrators
who formerly were opposed to the use of
the films in their classes now admit that

THE CINEMA IN ART AND EDUCATION

537

the films stimulate thought and originality,
and that, perphaps even more unexpectedly,
the response of the children has revealed
the soundness of their criticism and the fun-
damental wholesomeness of their tastes.

While, of course, films cannot and
should not be expected to take the place
of home, schools, or church, in the upbring-
ing of the child or in the structure of so-
ciety, they do offer, under proper supervis-
ion, an unexcelled medium for the disse-
mination of general information and edu-
cation. More alert than the educators, in-
dustry and science have been quick to use
the film to record processes such as micro-
motion and time studies, and various tests
and reactions, while the medical profes-
sion, beginning with the use of the film
in studies of biology and surgery, is now
developing a cinematography of its own.

Because of its increasingly far-reaching
influence, it is becoming more and more
necessary to insist that the cinema shall be
used constructively; that it shall not be
used as a medium for the dissemination of
ideas and suggestions leading to moral de-
generacy. At present, the ordinary cine-
ma aiming at excitement, amusement, and
entertainment, offers not only little of
real value, but in far too manv instances is
actually little doing an immense amount of
harm to adolescents and to undiscriminating
adults by the exhibition of films that are,
at least, untrue to life and, at worst, defi-
nitely demoralizing.

Public and governmental encouragement
of the right type of films is essential to elim-
inate the false and undesirable elements
that make too many films a dangerous in-
fluence. At present, in no country do the
people have any voice in the selection of

films which shall be presented to them. In
the absence of some governmental agency
which exercises some sort of control, the
commercial interests which produce the
films control the selection and treatment of
their subject matter. Italy is wisely pro-
viding not only for artistic and economic
strength, but also for constructive whole-
someness in film production, and is giving
further thought to the advancement of her
people through the provision that at least
ten minutes of each cinema program shall
be devoted to films giving items of infor-
mation concerning Italian progress.

The problems arising in connection with
the proper use of the motion picture are in-
ternational as well as national. The Uni-
ted States has had the misfortune to be
judged and condemned by unrepresentative
films which it has sent abroad, yet the exhi-
bition, throughout the world, of films made
in the United States has resulted in an
extremely valuable stimulant to its foreign
commerce. For years, the United States
has very subtly pictured its commercial pro-
ducts in its films and has made even the
ends of the earth familiar with the interiors
of its factories and the workings and pro-
ducts of its great industries, with the result
that it is now clearly recognized that « trade
follows the film ».

Far more important, however, than the
chance for increased trade which the use
of the cinema may bring, is the better un-
derstanding among nations which can be
brought about by the free exchange of films
that truthfully depict the particular cus-
toms, culture, scenery, art, music, and na-
tional interests of each country. Italy has
been one of the first nations to see the

538

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

value of such an international use of
films, and through the generous support of
the Italian Government the International
Film Institute (under the League of Na-
tions) has been established at Rome.

Just as great painting and great music
appeal with equal force to the people of all
races and languages, the art of the cinema
is rising above the language barrier. Theme

and treatment have proved to be far
more important than language. It is clear
that the film is destined to become a maj-
or influence in moulding the mentality of
mankind and, as His Excellency, Premier
Mussolini has said, « it can bring the world
together; it can settle all differences; it can
become the international medium, educa-
tor and adjustor; it even can prevent war ».

SAMUEL GOLDWYN INC.Lm

STUDI03-72I0 SANTA MONICA BOULEVARD
LOS ANCEXES, CALIFORNIA

Kay 21, 1934.

Executive Committee,
Venice Exhibition,
Via Lazzaro Spallanzanl la,
Rome, Italy.

Gentleman :

I am sure that I echo the
sentiments of all Hollywood when I say that the
Venice Exhibition is an inspiration to every one
of us. '

There can be little doubt that
the net result of the Exhibition will be to raise
the standard of quality and to establish new levels
of excellence in all departments of the motion
picture.

I sincerely wish you gentlemen
all the luck in the world. May the Exhibition enjoy
many more happy birthdays!

Sincerely yours,

Ci

Anna Stc

MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING AMONG PEOPLES
AND THE CINEMA

BY

Ryszard Ordynski.

71 mong the most important lessons which
the world war has taught us is the
ideal or watchword of peace through mutual
understanding among the nations. Since the
cannon ceased its roar, this watchword has
not failed to echo round the world, penetra-
ting into the minds of the people as the
projectiles formerly penetrated into the flesh
of the soldiers.

It would be unfair not to recognize that
humanity, despite the renewal of nationalist
tendencies, has made notable progress in the
domain of international problems and their
settlement, and has excogitated some new
methods for resolving differences and con-
trasts of opinion which for centuries have
not only impeded ideas of ideal fraternity
among nations, but have even rendered good
neighbourly relations difficult.

Until humanity, in the best meaning of
the word, has reached the highest grade
of that reciprocal benevolence which is
friendship among peoples, it is necessary to
explore the sectors of international coopera-
tion and understanding. This is the first
stage of our efforts.

At the base of all collaboration, whether
among individuals or peoples, there is reci-
procal understanding which is the prime
condition of all progress in the department
of international relations.

The grave error which caused so many
political and strategic mistakes during the
war, and which consists in basing one's de-
cisions and acts solely on one's own psycho-
logy and the knowledge of one's own ego
is still an evil that is widespread in our time,
especially in the field of friendly relations
between nations.

The history of the war shows us how
many errors that were disastrous for human-
ity could have been avoided, if, instead of
having a blind confidence in their own way
of thinking, the persons responsible had
considered certain political and strategic
questions from the point of view of their
enemies.

Post-war humanity does not appear to
have abandoned these errors. An exact ap-
preciation of both enemies and friends re-
quires a precise knowledge of the one and
the other, whether one wants to injure or
to be useful.

We come back then to the first concept
in the field of fraternity between peoples,
which is reciprocal understanding.

This truth has been recognized for a long
time in literature, and radio broadcasters have
stressed it also. We have an example of the
latter in the following extract of Comman-
der C. F. Atkinson taken from his work
<( Broadcasting and Peace », published by the

540

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

International Institute of Intellectual Coo-
peration :

« From the international point of view,
the peoples need to become better acquainted
with the characteristics of their civilizations,
arts, the geography of their countries, their
beliefs, and the questions which are agitat-
ing them... ».

Today's watchword then is for a mutual
understanding among peoples which is the
best starting-point for a world future found-
ed on international friendship.

« In any case — says Atkinson — any
effort in favour of reciprocal understanding
must be dynamic in a certain sense and not
static. This dynamism may take the form
of a positive propaganda in favour of the
League of Nations and its ideals. This pro-
paganda is, however, far from being suffi-
cient. Society wants more; it wants real con-
tact and desires truth. We do not understand
one another if we do not take account of
our feelings and reasons. Peace itself may
be considered threatened if, instead of being
anxious to know one another, we summarily
state that another's acts are disloyal and
egoistic. Moral disarmament comes from
mutual understanding and not from ignor-
ance ».

There is no other technical process which
can produce such excellent results in the
field of propaganda for fraternity among the
nations as the motion picture. The film is
the most popular and most complete form
of amusement for the people. Besides its
descriptive virtues, which are analogous to
literature, the modern film has sound pos-
sibilities equal to radio and offers us in con-
sequence a double sensation, visual and au-
ditive. In other words, the film is in a po-

sition to give a truthful rendering and pre-
sentation.

If we consider the films destined to invoke
a better understanding among the nations,
we shall see that truthfulness is an essential
condition for them. We must therefore pro-
vide ourselves with some pictures which
illustrate the life of a given people, its habits
and customs, especially in so far as they
vary from our own. The great and truly
important thing is to understand other
people's mentality. It is a very extensive field
this, since it implies the revelation of the
very soul of a people in a comparative study
of emotive or purely speculative reactions,
and in an examination of the profound dif-
ferences in points of view, manifestations of
family life, material existence, national and
race solidarity, observation and phenomena
of daily life. There is also the need of making
ourselves familiar with the culture of other
nations which are not familiar to us, their
artistic and musical feelings, with glimpses
of their popular traditions, such as folklore
dances and costumes: all subjects which
come into the sum total of the actual life of
peoples, and should therefore be studied
without any theatrical artifices.

We all of us know, and especially those
among us who belong to national groups
far away from the great world centres, how
false and strange are often the notions of
the life and habits of a country which is
out of the main track of tourist traffic.

In my capacity as representative of Poland.
I have often met in different parts of the
world persons not lacking in culture who
had the most fantastic notions about the
daily life of the Poles. Yet one can travel
from Paris to Warsaw today in 24 hours,
and to Berlin or Vienna in the course of a

MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING AMONG PEOPLES AND THE CINEMA 541

single night. Given these facts, what is likely
to be the idea of a Frenchman of an Italian
of average culture regarding the life and
mentality of the inhabitants of the middle
of the United States, such states as Georgia
or Nevada, for instance, without mentioning
more distant peoples such as the Persians or
even Bulgarians or the Turks?

How many mistakes are made every day
through ignorance of the manner of life and
thought of our neighbours? To nail down
these mistakes, show the truth in their stead,
without having recourse to more or less
sensational papers or theatrical artifice placed
at the disposal of a badly organized form of
propaganda is the magnificent task of the

JOSEPH M. SCKENCK. preside*
DARRYL R ZANUCK. vic« "Resic

lOOBESS

TWENTIETH CENTURY PICTURES. INC

7208 SANTA MONICA BOULEVARD

HOLLYWOOD. CALIFORNIA

May 30, 1934.

Executive Committee,

Venice Exhibition,

Via Lazzaro Spallanzani la,

Rome, Italy.

Gentlemen:

On the occasion of the second
anniversary of the Venice Exhibition, I am
delighted to join with my fellow artists in
congratulating the members of your committee.

The Exhibition represents a
fine constructive accomplishment and will un-
questionably prove a tremendous success not only
from the standpoint of popular acceptance but from
the equally important angle of international rela-
tionships.

Very cordially yours,

</C^-^u^c

FREDRIC MARCH

542

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

film, which it has so far only partly accom-
plished and without proper consciousness of
the importance of its work. If the mass of
the people are to be made familiar with the
idea of international collaboration, and it is
not to be left only in the hands of scientists,
specialists and literary men by means of
writings, there is nothing to do but to have
recourse to the film. Broadcasting, despite
its immense popularity, cannot render such
services to the cause of mutual international
understanding as the film. And this on ac-
count of the other purposes it sets out to
serve. It is only the cinema which has at its
disposal throughout the world a vast num-
ber of halls capable of assuring a perfecdy
organized distribution of the kind of pro-
paganda we have in view.

We shall have to analyse briefly the cine-
matographic documentary material existing,
that is, the total of pictures capable of giv-
ing peoples information about other peoples.
The collection of films of this kind is already
very considerable, and it may be advisable
to proceed to a rational cataloguing of such
films, with the eventual idea of filling in the
pictures wanting with new films.

The scientific and educational films always
deal exclusively with certain particular as-
pects of knowledge with the results that the
pictures in this category are purely scientific
and professional in character, and are intend-
ed for definite purposes.

They has had more or less a sporadic char-
acter. Pictures made for scientific purposes
are generally too concise, too arid for popular
appeal. The methods which govern their
production have, nevertheless, a real impor-
tance and the attention of bodies and persons
interested in the study of peoples from the

scientific point of view must be called to
them.

Side by side with the stricdy scientific
films are a large number of documentary
films produced in various countries and
intended chiefly for tourist propaganda.

Though these films are often beautiful and
faithful enough, they need a certain mod-
ification and control if they are to be used
for the international purposes to which we
are referring. Propaganda does not always
concern itself with absolute truth, but looks
out for colour. It seeks to beautify and touch
up the truth for technical cinema reasons, or
in order to amuse and distract.

The news-reels and cine-journals which
register daily events contain a form of doc-
umentation that is most useful for the ends
we have in view. They are superior to the
films in the category we have just discussed
since, generally, they offer a faithful picture
of any given event or fact. They have, how-
ever, the drawback of all ephemeral news-
reels that they do not tend to illustrate the
general daily life and tendencies of a people.

Then we come to the endless production
of the recreational or theatrical films made of
stories from novels, dramas and straight cin-
ema comedies produced with the sole pur-
pose of profit by the various big film firms.
It is often possible to find a useful piece of
documentation among pictures of this class,
for the mounting of a film of this type prov-
ides an occasion for illustrating the habits
and manners of the country where the scene
is laid. As a matter of fact, these films fre-
quendy contain scenes which are very useful
for the work of reciprocal understanding
among the peoples.

We should remember that any employ-
ment of recreational films for the purposes

MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING AMONG PEOPLES AND THE CINEMA 543

we have in view necessitates infinite care and
vigilance on the part of those intending to
make use of them as well as a professional
knowledge of films and a regular acquaint-
ance with the subject treated to avoid the
danger of being unduly impressed by scenes
which imitate reality to the point of creating
confusion, and yet show a reality which does
not correspond to the truth.

In order that the film in its full efficiency
can render those services we expect of it for

the task of bringing the nations together, it
becomes necessary to gather together those
documentary pictures which already exist
in superabundance, and proceed to a rational
classification of them, eliminating everything
superfluous or chaotic or lacking in faithful-
ness. In this way, we could form a regular
catalogue, which carefully kept up to date,
could be at the disposal of all persons inter-
ested in the idea of social understanding.
The first to gain advantage from it would

SAMUEL GOLDWYN INC.. Ltd.

STUDIOS-72IO SANTA MONICA BOULEVARD

LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA

May 27, 1954.

Executive Committee,
Venice Exhibition,
Tla Lazaro Spallanzanl la,
Roma, Italy.

Gentlemen;

It ia both a pleasure and a
privilege to felicitate you on the opening of thle
year's Venice Exhibition.

You have a right to be proud
of the magnificent record you made last year, and
It Is my earnest hope and belief that the second
Exhibition will achieve an even greater distinction
than the first.

In furnishing a medium and
offering an incentive for the various national
film industries to exhibit their products, the
Venice Exhibition is making en Important con-
tribution to the progress and welfare of the

Sddie Cantor

544

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

be the institutions and associations which
are engaged in propaganda for spreading
mutual knowledge of the peoples. They
could use the same films for scientific ends.
Some official institutions and other organi-
zations which have as their object in-
ternational peace could deal with the matter
of renting and distributing so as to help on
their spread in the furthest off parts of the
world.

Simultaneously with this work of collect-
ing and classifying, there should be an active
and intelligent production of new pictures
intended exclusively for encouraging inter-
national friendship among the peoples. In
my opinion, this is a task of the greatest
importance and the maximum urgency. But
is not an easy task. We must prepare a reg-
ular plan of action and lay down a method
to followed in every country for the produc-
tion of the kind of films we have in mind.

This plan should include the cooperation
of all countries, since errors and misunder-
standings of peoples, customs, manners and
ways of living are just as frequent and un-
pardonable in the case of remote peoples as
with neighbours, whom logically we ought
to know better.

The great work I have traced out must
necessarily be centralized. The central body
called to absolve this task would collect the
documentary films already existing and see
to their classification.

It is not too much to hope that such a
central body would be in a position to se-
cure the necessary means for the production
of new films for international fraternity
purposes by means of contributions from the

governments interested and from institutions
and associations.

The cost of production ought not to be
excessive if the organization of the body is
national in character, since it could assist in
the placing of films and act as a distributing
agent for news-reels, etc. and for a service of
official propaganda.

One of the special tasks of international
cinema work consists in cultivating the young
people, who are one of the most promising
grounds for sowing ideas of international
fraternity. All those who are interested in
fraternity between nations and their rappro-
chement ought to be ready to learn not only
what the present generation is thinking but
also the aspirations and ideals of the rising
generations. One often notices the stupor and
sense of amazement which a middle-aged or
elderly man will show when he is brought
face to face with some of the manifestations
of the rising generation. The way the new
generation thinks and considers things is of
great interest to us.

It is always worth while studying the
currents of opinions among the young so as
to able to compare them with other tenden-
cies of young folk in other countries.

With regard to the programme of work
which I have outlined here there is no need
to look for other organs and istitutions apart
from those already existing under the aus-
pices of the League of Nations. These organs
are capable of uniting their efforts towards
the common end. I refer to the International
Institute of Intellectual Cooperation and the
International Institute of Educational Cine-
matography.

THE EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL VALUE
OF THE NEWS-REEL

BY

. Cermaine Dulac.

The cinema is only 40 years old, which
means maturity in the case of a man,
but is only early youth for those inventions
which are always subject in the course of
their evolution, to a rapidity of adaptation
on the part of the intelligences which they
set out to conquer and dominate.

The motion picture, from its very begin-
ning, in the discovery and mechanical and
technical improvements of the brothers Lu-
miere, surprised the world which was not
in any way ready to receive it.

When printing and newspapers were in-
troduced, they certainly created a revolution
in the distribution of thought, but they did
not at the same time introduce a new
means of expression. Rather, they filled a
practical need. They spread the written
word, and substituted a more rapid method
for that of handwriting. In this way, print-
ing rendered the intellectual and sensitive
world available for everyone, without, how-
ever, offering any revelation of it.

It was different with the cinema with
which no one was in a position to deal. No
one felt the need of it when it came. News-
papers sufficed to spread news, and the thea-
tres provided what shows and spectacles the
public required. What contribution could
moving photographs be expected to give in
the domain of knowledge of art? Their ar-
tistic, scientific and social capacities were
neglected since no one knew then the inter-
ior possibilities of the motion picture.

The first apparatus had been produced,
however, and men wanted to copy it. Thus
the era of the engineers began, the period
of the mechanics, the opticians. Again,
since ribbons of film were required, it was
necessary to turn them out, to multiply them
infinitely for all the pictures that had to
be made. So the chemists came into their
own too.

New professions came into being, and
photographers became operators, not only
for making the pictures, but also for run-
ning off the projections. On the literary side,
authors began to write syntheses of films,
and were known as scenario writers who
built up the film story. Then actors were
wanted to act the parts in the films.

Various interests and different spiritual
tendencies gathered round the motion pic-
ture, from its earliest days, and helped to
form its traditional, economic, social and
artistic life. Shop-keepers, businessmen,
scientists, showmen, artists, artisans found
themselves, against the trend of their aspir-
ations, united in a common effort. They
did not at first understand all the vast pos-
sibilities and extensions of the new idea,
though they saw that a new form of bus-
iness and a new activity was opening up
for them.

In the beginning, the motion picture was
too young an invention to be considered in
its early manifestations as an expression of
thought. It became intellectual bit by bit,

3 -Ice ingl.

546

EDUCA TIONAL CINEMA TOGRAPHY

without any definite policy or intention,
while its economic bases grew continually
more solid. .

It reached the zenith of its financial and
popular success before its spiritual character
was properly defined. The businessmen
created the need of the film before the artists
were able to meditate over its possibilities.

There is no use in going into here the
matter of the dramatic films which were
produced by commercial organizations. The
taste of the public sought to elevate these
pieces to the dignity of an art-cinema ex-
pression. There is an error here, which it
necessary point out. The dramatic film is
an application of the cinematographic art,
but not the expression of its inner truth,
which is better illustrated by the scientific
film or the news-reel.

These two kinds of film, one as a re-
sult of its demonstrative capacity, the other
through its social value, have seized the
intimate meaning and essence of the mo-
tion picture much better, giving us images
of life in its various instinctive movements.
Freed from all commercial interference, and
developed in an atmosphere far from cine-
theatrical works, having no limit to their
expression of thought, such films have giv-
en us sincerer models than the regular drama
with a more universally human character.

The dramatic film developed with commer-
cial aid far more rapidly than the educa-
tional film or the news-reel which has al-
ways remained within the cycle of cinema
life as a form of propaganda, teaching and
distributing of news, almost without con-
sidering the question of profit. For this
reason the distribution of such films re-
mains still uncertain. The exhibitors take
little interest in pictures of this kind, which
find favour practically only with the man-
agers of the recently built news-reel theatres.

Notwithstanding this, the cinema news

theatre which we are discussing is really
the great social educator.

Its puts the most opposed mentalities into
communication, and joins in a magnetic
current the most divergent races of the
world. It shows every spectactor the real
aspect of far off countries and men, with-
out the official mask of tradition and historic
fantasy.

Like the scientific film, the news-reel re-
veals the truth of life which one could not
know otherwise than through books, news-
papers and manuals. Thus considered, it
becomes an individual experience which al-
lows everyone to see it, live it and not only
fancy it. The news-reel unites, without any
need of intermediaries, classes and races,
sentiments, joys and happinesses so that hu-
manity is uplifted above its individual char-
acteristics, and through a gradual com-
prehension of life begins to forget and fore-
go its hates.

The news-reel is made day by day, and
cannot therefore be thought of as a preme-
ditated thing. It seizes events of which it
becomes a truthful mirror. It illustrates per-
sons and facts. It even goes so far as to seek
the intimate reason of their moral and sen-
timental motives. It is the mirror of any
country, its pleasures and efforts, its joys and
sorrows, and in this way it can lead to
accord and disaccord. In the farthest off
parts of the world, in all latitudes and longi-
tudes, the news-reel remains what it is,
a fragment of the world's sincerest life,
beliefs, struggles, woes and ideals.

All the news events of the world are,
as a rule, gathered together in the news-reel
programmes, edited in the forms of regular
papers or bulletins composed by a large
number of photographic reporters. They cov-
er all fields of activity national and inter-
national, political, judicial, scientific or ar-
tistic.

THE EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL VALUE OF THE NEWS-REEL

547

Thanks to the news-reels, we are able to
become familiar not only with the outstand-
ing figures of our national world, but with
the figures of the international chess-board.
Cases have occurred where men who have
been unpopular with the public of certain
foreign countries have won sympathy there
owing to a frequent appearence of their
pictures in the news-reels.

The public even comes to recognize chan-
ges in their habits, dress and manner. Sym-
pathy is born from familiarity, and perhaps
an understanding of other peoples' ideas. A

knowledge of men and things teaches us
to reason better, and the walls of ignorance
and hatred fall. The vagueness of words can
be harmful; the precision of the motion
picture image brings clarity and truth.

Thanks to the news-reel, we can penetrate
into the heart of diplomatic debates, see
something of the alliance and disputes of
nations, their ways of living. We can see
how men live in various climates. Little
incidents and observations of small account
which have often nothing to do with the
major problems of the day sometimes help

JOSEPH M. SCKENCK. •.oni,»
DARRYL P. ZANUCK ».ct pucsiock

CABLE AOORESS. TWCNCENT

TWENTIETH CENTURY PICTURES INC

7208 SANTA MOMICA BOUUVtRC

HOLLYWOOO. CALIFORNIA

Hay 28, 1934.

Exeoutire Commltt&e,
Venice Exhibition,
via Lazzaro Spallanzani La,
Home, Italy.

Gentlemen:

Please aocept my Heartiest
congratulations and best wishes for the con-
tinued success of the Venice Exhibition.

We of the screen have a
direct and vital interest in the Exhibition
because we consider it an ideal world agency
for emphasizing la impressive fashion, the
giant strides made by the motion picture in
the various film centers throughout the world.

Very sincerely yours,

ROKALD COUWH

548

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

to create bonds and promote understandings.
Whether we want it or not, owing to
the operation of news-reels, ideas circulate,
sorrows become common, less strange and
less abstract. The news-reel helps by giving
us a wider knowledge of the world to free
the senses of the individual and tune his
spirit with the general universality of man-
kind.

The news film reflects also industry and
arts. We can learn through it the efforts
and skill required in the manufacture of
a certain product which may come to us
perhaps from some distant corner of the
globe. We can place objects in their ideal
and natural surroundings. A sense of frat-
ernity arises from these circumstances.

Hygiene, sport, scientific discoveries, new
educational methods come within the scope
of the news-reel in all countries. It is the
mirror of all civilizations in all parts of the
world. It is an expression of enthusiasm
and misery which every country offers us
in its films. It is life itself.

The news-reels breaks down barriers. By
its nature it must be indiscreet and varied.
It teaches without form or methodology.

All national inventions can be made in-
ternational through the operation of the film
news programmes, as can all the conquests
of the spirit and science. Formerly the latter
were the exclusive property of specialists
and students. Today they at the disposal
of the humblest and least cultured spec-
tator who sits in his chair in the cinema
hall and observes.

The following reflection may be made.
If we tell a story, we surround it with fan-
tasy, and therefore, in a way, we deform it.
In the case of the news-reel, the spectactor
who has paid for his seat in the picture
palace is in direct relations with the events,
beings, ideas and objects of the whole world,
with universal ideas. His relationship is so

direct that often the anonymous spectactor
is inclined to manifest his approval or disap-
proval in the face of certain happenings or
events. He feels that he is part of the
events himself, since it is the whole life of
the world which passes across the motion
picture screen in the brief quarter of an
hour reserved to the news-reels. Regular
currents of sympathy and antipathy are
formed in this way.

The public is today, all over the world,
most anxious to see the current news-reels.
These pictures are not yet sufficiendy
journalistic in their way of presentment,
and are still too bound up with the old
cinema tradidons. They ought to free them-
selves from these links with the past. Gen-
erally the reels are changed once a week
in most countries and often twice a week.
In America, they are fresh every day. With
regard to the important question of ex-
portation, countries sometimes exchange
their news-reels with other countries, while
sometimes the trading is entrusted to spec-
ial agencies or firms. It occasionally happens
that foreign operators may not make new-
reels in foreign countries, but in one way
or anodier, and in spite of obstacles, all the
countries collaborate with one another. These
news films are bought or exchanged from
abroad, on a meterage system, while inter-
nally they are rented by distributors.

The news-reel has not the same news
mobility as the press for obvious technical
reasons. It cannot be made or distributed
as rapidly as a newspaper. At the same
time, the news-reels are aiming at the estab-
lishment of a new kind of rapid journal-
ism. They smack of the technique of the
cinema in the shooting, but their spirit is
the spirit of the newspaper, and as time
goes on, it will become more and more so.

The following are the important desiderata
for the news-reels, in my opinion:

THE EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL VALUE OF THE NEWS-REEL 549

i). Efforts should be made to free the
news-reels from the old formula of cinema
distribution and handling. They should be-
come more elastic. The fact that the old
method of distribution prevails does not
mean that tomorrow's will not prove one of
the greatest attractions for the public.

2). In order to be well informed, a news
item picture or news-reel ought to be able
to receive news pictures from all over the
world without having to pay customs dues
so that the films can enjoy the rapidest

kind of transport. As a matter of fact, cus-
toms dues on films, even on news-reels are
a very heavy item in the cost of offering
such pictures to the public, and cause a
grave interference with this exchange and
sale.

3). A news-reel ought to be perfect and
objective in character in all that concerns
its international aspects. The sub-titles should
be edited in such a way as to arouse the
interest of all classes in all nations.

4). Everything should be done to stim-

GEORGE ARLISS

April 17, 1934

Executive Committee
Venice Exhibition
Via Lazzaro Spallanzani la
Rome, Italy

Gentlemen:

I am delighted to send the Venice
Exhibition the cordial greetings and good wishes
of myself and my fellow associates in the United
Artists Corporation.

The sponsors of this Exhibition are
to be congratulated for making it truly inter-
national in character, scope and purpose. By
attracting visitors from all parts of the world,
it is helping to build international good will
and to promote mutual understanding, mutual
respect, mutual faith among peoples, countries
and governments.

Furthermore, by bringing together
the motion picture industries of the world in
friendly competition, it is furnishing an impor-
tant incentive toward the artistic development
of the screen.

It is ray sincere hope that this
second Exhibition will achieve a wider popularity
and a greater success than the first.

Fait hf ully your 8 ,

550

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

ulate the exchange of news-reels between
different countries, and the agents for this
exchange should be subjects of the contract-
ing countries and not outside speculators
and brokers.

5). Governments should be approached
so that news-reel operators may enjoy the
same facilities for the making of their pho-
tographic newspapers as ordinary journalists,
notwithstanding the cumbersome apparatus
they are obliged to transport.

News-reels form the most successful means
of correspondence and understanding bet-

ween different peoples and different clas-
ses. They constitute the best propaganda
agent of culture and progress, and the e-
vents they show remain much better im-
pressed on the mind than those read in
any newspaper. To see a current happening
means for any of us to witness an event
and live it through. It means participating
in the life of the whole world. It is
therefore internationally and socially that
we must face the questions of the news-
reel which contains the real spirit of the
cinema.

I M SCHENCK
SUIOYL F IANUCK. ¥11

CABLE ADDUCES TWINCINT
TCLIPHONI SAtH>Tt SMI

TWENTIETH CENTURY PICTURES. INC

7208 SANTA MONICA BOULEVARD

HOLLYWOOD. CALIFORNIA

May 29. 1934.

Executive Committee,
Venice Exhibition,
Via Lazzaro Spellanzaini la,
Rome, Italy.

Gentlemen:

Heartiest felicitations

to the Venice Exhibition on Its seoond
anniversary.

The sponsors of this
Exposition deserve the sincere thanks of
every one interested in the screen - picture-
goer es well as picture produoer - for their
enterprising efforts in assembling under one
roof the outstanding film achievements of the
world and showing them under such happy auspies,

Sincerely yours,

I cryi^X^^<-Jz^

■\A-AJ

CONSTANCE BENNETT

FILM CRITICS

BY

Mario Gromo.

^ome years ago, there was a period dur-
*"^ ing which distributors and exhibitors
found things very much to their satisfaction.
The daily papers were starring a regular
cinema column, somewhat like the usual
theatrical column.

A report of criticism of every film that
appeared could be looked for in the papers,
and that without spending anything on pub-
blicity. Distributors and exhibitors smiled con-
tentedly at one another and shook hands.
When some little time later, the critics ap-
peared in the lobbies of the cinema halls and
theatres, these was an aureole of happiness
and delight around the box offices. For ren-
ters and exhibitors, these new critics were
journalists, the same kind of newspapermen
presented on their own films, persons, that
is, who always come into a room with
their hats on their heads, who regularly
spit on carpets, are in the habit of stretch-
ing out their legs on dining-rooms tables,
and receiving tips for 50 dollars or so.
Then they go home and write a page of
tremendous revelations on the love letters
of the governor to the actress.

The reality was somewhat different, how-
ever. The press was behaving very badly;
wickedly even. The critics said that such
and such a film was mediocre, even bad,
even « rotten ». What did this mean the
renters and distribs asked themselves. The

new film critics who dared to say what they
thought received black looks as they en-
tered the theatres and cinemas. The film
folk found that they were in no different
position to their brethren of the theatre. The
latter, however, owing to their long tradition,
have becomed accustomed to critics, and
know that they can be both useful and
harmful. For them the theatrical critic is
a necessary but unknown factor.

Even now, after a lapse of some time,
many cinema merchants have not yet un-
derstood that the critic is not an intruder,
nor a madman, nor an ill-intentioned destroy-
er of other people's work. An unfavourable
criticism may harm a picture, it is true.
Well, no one obliges them to go into the
film business. If they decided to deal in shoes,
or candles, no daily paper would print re-
ports on the excellence or otherwise of their
wares. Criticism intervenes in the case of
a film, and should so intervene because a
film which is shown to the public touches
the domains of taste and morality, and
frequendy also those of art and culture.
The film's influence on the immense mass
of the public is at once gross and subtle,
overpowering and suggestive, and creates the
necessity for some form of public judgment,
which shall be punctual and alert, and pro-
vide the public with concrete and definite
facts. A bad film may be more harmful

552

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

for the public taste than ten or even a hun-
dred bad or ugly books. The book may
remain unsold on the shelves of the book-
seller's shop, while the diffusion of the mo-
tion picture is immediate. It can talk to die
deaf and the uneducated with a visual po-
wer and attractiveness that is far greater
than that of the most fiery and magnetic
orator.

The motion picture, today, after an un-
distinguished past, is looking forward to
a limidess future, following a period of dis-
organized efforts sometimes successful, and
sometimes not. It is the duty of everyone
who feels that the critic's duty is something
more than that of being a mere reporter to
help on, within the limits of his power,
the advent of this brilliant future of the
film.

It is absurd to blame a critic if he has
honestly expressed his opinion and done what
he believes to be his duty. The background
and atmosphere of a film, the style of

the production, the lights and shade and
the rhythm and manner given by indiv-
idual regisscur to a film are all undoubted-
ly elements which contribute to the exis-
tence of what may be called the art of
the cinema. These are things which should
interest cinema critics, and not the offend-
ed or displeased remarks of the business-
men of the motion picture. The former
matters are alone the concern of the disin-
terested film critic.

There are unfortunately critics — cri-
tics in name only — who have nothing but
words of praise and honeyed phrases for
all and every film. Fortunately they are few
in number, and it sometime happens that
pictures which they have foolishly magn-
ified and praised are ruthlessly condemned
to oblivion by the disapproval of those mas-
ses who prove themselves in this way the
masters and instructors of those very cri-
tics whose duty it should be lead public
taste.

VENICE AND THE CINEMA

'TFHE principle that art is universal, that even if it originates in a certain
M country or race as a symptom of spiritual maturity, this does ma\e it
any less the patrimony of the world applies to all the forms in which it is
manifested.

Art cannot be considered as being limited only to the theatre, music,
plastic creations, the products of a sculptor or artisan who can wor\ in clay
or marble, iron or glass, giving the latter forms of grace and beauty. Art is a
documentation and an exposition of things and of thought in manifestations
of pure beauty, however and wherever it may appear.

The cinema then becomes art when it ceases to be a succession of frigid
images, even if they are moving images, and seehj to cast on the screen hidden
elements of the life which surrounds us, those elements which we all \now
or can fytow if they are shown to us, but which we fail fully to appreciate
without the artist's help that brings them into due relief.

The characteristic of universality belongs to all the arts and is a form
of absolute internationality , though art does not for this lose its national touch
which is clear expression of national spirit.

The film is essentially international owing to the suggestive character of
its beauty, its ease of diffusion which brea\s down all barriers, frontiers,
schools, tendencies and theories. It has a universal language which all the
peoples of the earth are capable of understanding to whatever nation they
may belong, whatever their religion, social status or politics. An authentic
manifestation of art will always be the object of admiration everywhere.

Among all the art manifestations which are connected with the theatre
the motion picture is that which better than any other has these characteristics
of universality . Better than the others because it has in it possibilities which
are not to be found in drama or opera. The theatre, even when we are witnes-
sing the production of a great artist, has its limits in the manifestations of a
single actor, who can ma\e or ruin even a wor\ by Shakespeare. The opera
too depends very greatly on the wor\ of individual singers if the music is to.

556 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

become fully expressive. It needs the cooperation of the orchestra which,
though composed of individual members, must \now how to synchronize
itself in the expression of pathos, and unite the various individualities in one
single spirit.

The cinema can do without the actor. The Russian theatre has given us
a typical demonstration that an anonymous mass cinema can obtain scenic
effects far beyond the capacity of any single motion picture star. It can do
without the word, that is, speech, when states of mind are visually expressed
in such a way as to give the sensation and feeling of the creator's idea. It can
do without pure music, or this can become merely a secondary element with
the limited tas\ of creating an atmosphere suited to the better understanding
of the piece.

The cinema proves to be, in fact, the result of the collaboration of a
large number of artists, and not the wor\ of a single artist who prevails over
and imposes himself on all. Those fragments of thought and feeling which
can escape a single author are collected and made worth while by the other
collaborators , and then amalgamated and realized by true author and animator
of the picture who is the regisseur or producer.

When the film becomes a wor\ of art, it is perfect and complete in all
its parts, a definite manifestation of the mind.

The second Biennial Exhibition of the Art of the Cinema is being inau-
gurated at Venice in the most marvellous and luminous setting that poetry
or the fancy of man can imagine. This is a Biennial exhibition which may very
well become a permanent one. It may be imitated in a hundred different cities,
but it will remain in Venice as something than cannot be imitated or destroyed.
In no country of the world will it be possible to give the exhibition so artistic
a framewor\, with such pure lines, all glittering with gold and sun. Neither
are imitations lively to be successful if we remember that at Venice the cinema
draws its inspiration from the other arts honoured in the International Bien-
nial of universal art. Art then among the arts. This is the fundamental value
of the Cinema Exhibition.

We have here then also a consecration of a new most modern art form.
Ten years ago such a consecration of the motion picture would have seemed
folly.

Our art is then, as we have said, especially a universal one. The motion
picture is a representative element of the life of the peoples, a document of
their labour, their thought, their way of feeling and living the life of our
world. From this aspect, which is characteristically national, there comes the

VENICE AND THE CINEMA 557

film's international function, that it to become an ambassador of acquaintance
and mutual knowledge between peoples separated by frontiers, race, language
and spiritual barriers, which are as often as not more dangerous and insuper-
able than the barriers raised by mountains and seas.

When in its early far off days, the cinema came into being, and began
its journey round the ways of the world, it appeared that a simple form of
amusement had been invented which would prove interesting to children. It
seemed little more than a purely mechanical manifestation , an idea which was
limited to exposing the most banal of plots or stories, something that if one
tried to spiritualize it, could not go beyond the barest form of documentation.
There were no regisseurs or film producers. All the fundamental problems of
cinematography were ignored then. Mounting was merely a frigid joining up
of scenes, the camera a mobile machine in front of a relative mobility on the
part of the actors. The illumination was left to sunlight, and there were thus
no contrasts, no light and shade. The scenes were based on the aesthetic of
the old fashioned coloured illustrated post-card. The drama was filmed stage
drama, without any of the vital sense of communication which develops be-
tween stage and the public of the auditorium. The men who were to become
in the future the poets and dreamers of the screen were preceded by operators
who, with more or less ability, concerned themselves solely with showing
clear pictures, photographically correct and « sharp », even if colourless and
without expression.

The few persons who raised their voices to suggest the possibilities and
intimate requirements of the motion picture went unheard. The Great Grif-
fith, who was a real prophet of the cinema did not find many disciples. Only
an exiguous minority followed his lead in view of the fact that the cinema
offered huge profits for any kind of picture owing to the uncertain, unhealthy
attitude of the public.

In the space of ten years two concepts were formed. The one appreciated
the world wide possibilities of diffusion in the film uhich is greater than either
theatre, book or newspaper. The second concept referred to the possibilities
of the cinema in the difficult realm of art.

The first idea was based on fact or facts, and dealt with the film's ca-
pacity for spreading itself through the world. The second idea was of a dis-
tinctly spiritual character.

Books, newspapers, the theatre and wor\s of plastic art have a limited
value in space. Their spectators or admirers are limited in number. They

558 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

cannot exist simultaneously in jar off and contrasting regions of the world.
Their end is in museums, libraries and reading-rooms.

The motion picture, on the other hand, can be shown to crowds all over
the world at one and the same moment. It \eeps no tally of the number of
its spectators, because it counts them by nations in every latitude and longitude.
The same picture can be flashed across the screen in Shanghai and in New
Yor\. It can raise similar enthusiasm in America and in China; it can reveal
to the peoples of the Tar East and the Tar West the same identical luminous
forms of thought.

Zilahy with his picturesque prose, condemns the art possibilities of the
motion picture to failure on account of this very necessity of pleasing everybody
everywhere. The great Hungarian writer is correct in theory, but errs in prac-
tice. He even recognizes this himself, when, at the end of his article, he refers
to the new possibilities which the intellectuals have opened for the cinema.

In any case, as I said before, it is not a question of giving life to universal
wor\s as regards their content and possibilities. Tilms become universal only
when they are real documents of the life and of the thought of peoples, of the
sentient world, when they face some moral or social theme, when, in a word,
they have a definite character.

The cinema of our time is moving steadily forward towards universality
in the matter of its content and towards nationality in its thought and action.

Then we come to the idea of its spiritual value. The cinema has been
able to summarize in a synthesis the various art forms which are present in
the novel, the drama, music and the plastic arts. With the abundant means
at the disposal of the producers and the metteurs en scene, the cinema can offer
all the various manifestations of beauty in a single composition. The emotive
elements which the other arts can use to stir the minds and souls of the readers
or spectators can be harmoniously fused and combined in the cinema, and
can create a reaction which depends on all their appeals. Therefore, the spirit-
ual value of the film is exceptional and universal in character.

The cinema today has become among tne most expressive creations of
the spirit of the century in which we live. It has not yet arrived at its definite
stage, which will come through other technical improvements and discoveries,
by new creations and inventions of producers, from new tendencies which
literature and fancy will furnish. But, as it is today it is a magnificent instru-
ment for the manifestation of thought, for documenting life, and all this
makes it worthy of its place among the other arts.

The international importance of the cinema depends also on another

VENICE AND THE CINEMA 559

element apart from the purely scenic side, or that which depends on the creat-
ive will of the various artists collaborating in it. The motion picture is the
greatest shaper of universal understanding. It is enough to ma\e us realize
this if we reflect that is has the power of presenting to peoples of all races
manifestations of the life of other peoples both distant and near, of showing
how they thin\, and suffer, how they are stirred, and how they wor\. It is
a marvellous means for overcoming misunderstandings and dissipating them.
A film vision of the creative effort of other nations leads us to a better com-
prehension of those nations' lives, and help to demolish prejudices and a priori
suppositions which are the cause of barriers that otherwise seem insuperable
between race and race.

The purely national concept of the film is exalted in this typical inter-
national aspect. To bring forward the good qualities and virtues of the people
among whom the film was made, to find out and illustrate obvious and hidden
aspects of beauty, national traditions, documentary pictures of all that parti-
cular people has done to win its place in the world and establish itself against
the hostile forces of nature is a world form of art, of the purest kind. This is
the appreciation of a national spirit for totalitarian international ends, for a
better comprehension of human needs, for the world is after all, despite all its
frontiers, nothing but one common humanity.

In the domain of social life, and in the department of labour which in-
cludes wor\ in factories, fields and shipyards, on the seas, or in the s\ies
where the spirit see\s the sense of perfect beauty in solitude, the cinema freely
triumphs with the unbounded possibilities for art development given it by its
immense technical resources.

All aspects of social life have been characterized by expressive forms of
art which had their being in time and space at the very moment of their re-
presentation. Every historical period has carried with it in embryo the art be-
longing to it, and the men of that period have felt it and followed it with
feeling, abandoning the traditional forms. Historical periods therefore are
connected with periods of artistic evolution or revolution. When a people 's
life continues tranquilly and serenely, without shocks, art ta\es on harmonious
developments which are almost imperceptible to the people of that time. It
often is only the children and grandchildren of that time who are able to realize
and appreciate the new creations.

When the life of a people has suffered from a violent explosion of a re-
volutionary character, when violence has raged li\e the flames from a volcano,
the soul of the crowd has sought a different social life, a life with a wider if

560 EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

more tumultuous atmosphere, and art has flung itself towards the future with
a wealth of ideas that may not have been all comprehensible at that moment
by fol\ used to calmer times but which have brought with them new lights
and a new flame of life.

So it is with the cinema. In its expression and creation, it is the clearest
indication of the way a people feels. The peaceful life of a nation will appear
in clear cut lines of art without oppositions, on the loo\ out for a more refined
aesthetic in the peaceful framewor\ of a world which has the uniform im-
mobility of things. Nevertheless, it will not cease to inspire art creations. The
tumultuous life appears in visible forms of spirits engaged in combat, in the
anxious words of innumerable throngs, li\e a torrent which falls in giddy
swirlings from a mountain beside a river with placid, cristal-clear waters.

Here is the strength of the cinema. It is an arm which educates, which
suggests and teaches, which kills evil, and gives health to spirits according as
to how it is used, according as to how its artist creators feel it and want to
express it.

The most prominent regisseurs of the world have been called to Venice
with their workj. Even cinema forms which are outside the ordinary domain
of the spectacle and touch the borders of exceptional art forms such as animated
drawings in which the fantasy of a Disney or a Fleischer are revealed, will find
their field of action here.

A certain critic has stated that a considerable proportion of the success of
any film is due to the publicity which accompanies it. He also observed that
the indication added to a film of « shown at Venice » will be like a patent of
nobility for a film in the not distant future, something li\e an pass for a film
on to the road of triumph.

Without doubt, owing to the the baptism of art which films receiving
their first showing in the city of the lagoons will have, they will be credited
with possessing a special right, the right of being recognized in all corners of
the world as the choice expression of the most luminous and fanciful mani-
festation of human thought and life.

L. d. F.

DIRIGENTI EUROPEI - EUROPEAN DIRECTORS
DIRIGENTS EUROPEENS
ROMA PARIS

Gr. Uff. Prof. GIO-
VANNI DETTORI,

President dell'As-
sociazione Nazio-
nale Fascists dello
Spetlacolo.

CHARLES DELAC,
President de la
Chambre Syndi-
cate de la Cinema-

tografleFrancaise.

LONDON

W. J. BROWN,
General Manager
of British Film In-
stitute.

Or.

SCHEUERMANN,
President der
Reichsfilmkammer.

BERLIN

ARNOLD RAETHER,
Oberregierungsrat
im Propaganda-Mi-
nisterium.

GERMANIA- GERMANY

ALLEMAGNE

DUE DIRETTORI DELLA PRODUZIONE DELL" UFA
TWO DIRECTORS OF THE UFA-PRODUCTION
DEUX DIRECTEURS DE LA PRODUCTION DE L'UFA

ALFRED ZEISLER

LUIS TRENKER •

R E G I S T I
DIRECTORS
REGISSEURS

REINHOLD SCHUNZEL
GERHARD LAMPRECHT

DUDAY

WILLY FRITSCH

KATHE V. NAGY

LIL OAGOVER

VIKTOR
DE KOWA

GIOVENTU TEDESCA
GERMAN YOUTH - JEUNESSE ALLEMANDE

BRIGITTE HELM

RENATE MULLER

JENNY JUGO

C AR ATTER ISTI
CHARACTER ACTORS

c

*

ERICH HAUSSMANN

PAUL HORBIGER

A

HERMANN THIMIG

ADELE SANDROCK

RUDOLF KLEIN-ROGGE

TRE BELLE VOCI
THREE BEAUTIFUL VOICES
TROIS BELLES VOIX

MARTA EGGERTH

JS
HERBERT ERNST GROH

REGISTI - DIRECTORS- R^GISSEURS

CANTANTI

ERS - CHANTEURS

KMiflfiWTiil
CARATTERISTI - CHARACTER PLAYERS - ROLES DE CARACTERE

PAUL MORGAN

ROSY BARSONY

ROSE STRADNER

r to**Um mm

OSKAR KARLWEIS ANTON EDTHOFER

HANS FARAY

HANS REHMANN

INGHIUERRA - ENGLAND - ANGLETERRE

ALEXANDER KORDA

SPAGNA
SPAIN
ESPAGNE

J^t

BENITO PEROJO - regista, director, regisseur

CATAUNA BARCENA

L'INDUSTRIA AMERICANA
THE AMERICAN INDUSTRY- L' INDUSTRIE AMERICAINE

L'INDUSTRIA AMERICANA
THE AMERICAN INDUSTRY- L' INDUSTRIE AMERICAINE

I CLASSICI -THE CLASSICS - LES CLASSIQUES

BUSTER KEATON

HAROLD LLOYD

I CLASSICI -THE CLASSICS- LES CLASSIQUES

GLORIA SWANSON

WALT DISNEY

CECIL B. DE MULE

JRVING CUMMINGS

REGISTI AMERICANI
AMERICAN DIRECTORS
REGISSEURS AMERICAINS

PAUL MARTIN

FRANK LLOYD

AL JOLSON

EDWARD
ROBINSON

RICHARD DIX

IOUISE

LATIMER

SAUY EILERS

MARGARET
SUUAVAN

TRE FAMOSE COPPIE - TROIS COUPLES FAMEUX
THREE FAMOUS COUPLES

JANET GAYNOR

MARION DAVIES

GIOVANI SPORTIVI AMERICANI

THE SPORTING YOUTH
OF AMERICA

LA JEUNESSE SPORTIVE
AMERICAINE

GARY COOPER 1

RUSS COLUMBO

JACKIE COOPER

Will ROGERS

VICTOR MC LAGLEN

FREDRIC MARCH

JUNCTTC MAC0OHAU>

KATHERINE HEPBURNE

IL VISO UMANO
THE HUMAN FACE
LA FACE HUMAINE

GRETA GARBO

PAUL MUNI

FRANCIA - FRANCE

DITA PARLO

PERVAL

MARIE BELL

FRANZ LEHAR

GERARD RUTTEN, regista del film "Acqua
morta"- GERARD RUTTEN director of Ihe film
"Dead water" - GERARD RUTTEN, regisseur
du film "Eau morte"

4 REGISTI INDIANI - 4 INDIAN DIRECTORS
4 REGISSEURS INDIENS

S. B. SHINDE

HIMANSU RAI

A. P. KAPUR

DIREZIONE COMMERCIALE

CAMERA DA PRESA

REGISTRAZIONE DEL SUONO

MUSICA

Commercial office

Camera

Sound recording

Music

Direction commerciale

Prise de vues

Registration sonore

Musique

B. G. PENDARKAR

L. P. WAIWALKAR

G. WALWALKAR

GHORY

II regista EZRA MIR dei "Sagar Movietone Studios", Bombay
The director EZRA MIR of the 'Sagar Movietone Studios', Bombay
le regisseur EZRA MIR dei 'Sagar Movietone Studios', Bombay

M. R. KALE

N E M A
LI ANO

3 R E G I S T I
3 DIRECTORS
3 REGISSEURS

AMLETO PALERMI

MARIA

DENIS

4 -foP

UMBERTO MELNATI

PINA RENZI

TATIANA PAVLOVA

MARCEUA ALBANI

UGO CESERI

HILDA SPRINGHER

SANDRA RAVEl

MARCELLO SPADA

ELIO STEINER

POLONIA- POLAND
POLOGNE

SOPHIE

OLAF ANDERSSON, Amministrafore delegate
della Svensk Industri

OLAF ANDERSSON, Administrator Delegate
of the Svensk Industry

OLAF ANDERSSON, Administrates delegue de
la Svensk Industri

II PRINCIPE GUGLIELMO come regista

PRINCE WILHELM as director

Le PRINCE GUILLAUME comme regisseur

GUSTAF MOLANDER

%4

CECOSLOVACCHIA

DUE REGISTI:-TWO DIRECTORS:-DEUX REGISSEURS:

GUSTAV MACHATY KAREL PUCKA

KAREL HAILN

561

J/^eJL, jMIA;jj)il J(Oi

4 - Ice ing.

562

THROUGHOUT ALL THE WORLD

THE MAGNIFICENT CULTURAL FILMS OF
XJ ^ A

ARE TO THE FRONT

They are issued in different versions for different languages, and can thus be shown in

any country.

FROM NOW ON WE PROPOSE TO PUBLISH IN THIS SPACE

THE TITLES OF OUR FILMS WHICH HAVE A SPECIAL INT-

EREST IN THE DIFFERENT DEPARTMENTS OF SCIENCE

CULTURAL FILMS PRODUCTION FOR 1934-1935

BIOLOGY
Monkey Business
Ibex and Alpine Goat filmed
In the Obedska Bara
What the submarine camera

shot in the Adriaiique
Vagrant plants.

SPORT
The rapids of Drina River

GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY
Kagami

Haruni

Buddhas in the Jungles
Sky - Scrapers in Southern-
Africa

Servians and Turcs in Sou-
thern Jugoslavia

Palace and cathedrals in
Middle Dalmatia

Bosnia, the land of veiled
women

TECHNIQUE
In the movies early days

WE BEG THE PUBLIC TO FOLLOW THE ADVER-
TISEMENTS WHICH WILL FOLLOW THIS ONE

Don't forget our rich catalogue of films containing more than

420 PICTURES
all cultural films dealing with every department of science. The
films are available both in normal and in reduced size (16mm).

UNIVERSUM-FILM AKTIENGESELLSCHAFT ~ BERLIN SW 19

KRAUSENSTRASSE 38 39.

563

The U.F. A./ the largest cinema producers in Ger-
many present to the Second International Film Con-
gress in Venice held in August 1934 the talking picture
which won the National German prize for this year.

FLOCHTLIN

(AT THE END OF THE WORLD)

Scenario: GERHARD MENZEL
Scenic Director: GUSTAV UCICKY
Producer: GUNTHER STAPENHORST

with
HANS ALBERS, KATE V. NAGY,
EUGEN KLOPFER, IDA WUST

The UFA has ready a large output of
documentary sound films issued both in
German and international versions which
are suitable for presentation in all coun-
tries of the world.

The International Review of Educational
Cinematography makes a regular feature
of news items and reports on these do-
cumentary films.

UNIVERSUM FILM AKTIENGESELLSCHAFT

BERLIN, SW 19, Krausenstrasse, 38/39

564

565

566

Produzione 1934-35 della

Warner Bros. First National Films 1 1 I.

ROMA (121) - Via Palestro, 68 - ROMA (121)

AGENZIE : TORINO - Via Pomba »6 - tel. 51318.
GENOVA - Via Granello 77 Rosso - tel. 33061.

MJLANO - Via S. Gregorio 44 - tel. 64236.

PADOVA - Via Trieste 23.

BOLOGNA - Via Galliera 6a - tel. 22476.
FIRENZE - Via dei Medici 6 - tel. 26746.
ROMA - Via Palestro 68 - tel. 485427.
NAPOLI - Calata S. Marco ai Ferrai - tel. 31863 .

Questa casa partecipera alia II8 MoSTRA INTERNAZIONALE ClNE-
MATOGRAFICA DI Venezia col capolavoro dei " classici dello
schermo

" Wonder Bap "

un film elegante ed avvincente tratto dalla famosa operetta di
Geza Herozeg, Karl Farkas e Robert Katscher ~
Diretto da Lloyd Bacon ~ Interpretato da Died grandi attori

come :

AL JOLSON ~ DOLORES DEL RIO -
RICCARDO CORTEZ ~ KAY FRANCIS
~ DICK POWELL - FIFY D'ORSAY ~
HAL LE ROY ~ RUTH DONNELLY
~ GUY KIBBEE ~ HUGH HERBERT

La piu brillante affermazione 1934-35

della

- WARNER BROS. FIRST NATIONAL —

567

Warner Bros. First National Films

PRESENTS

WONDER BAR

Directed by LLOYD BACON

to t6e 2nd Venice International ExBibition oj Cinematographic Art

Al Jolson - Dolores Del Rio - DicK Powell - Ruth

Donnell - Kay Francis - Ricardo Cortez -

Guy Kibbee - Fifi D'Orsay - Hal Le Roy

Hugh Herberth

10 STARS - A FAMOUS OPERETTA - 2QO GIRLS

A CLASSIC OF THE SCREEN 1934-35

,***»

568

• 1934-35 •

L'lMPERATRICE

CATERINA

CON

MARLENE DIETRICH

DIRETTA DA J. Von STERNBERG

CON

CLAUDETTE COLBERT

diretta da CECIL B. DE MILLE

La morte in vacanza

dalla omonima commedia italiana di ALBERTO CAStLLA
Regista MITCHEL LEISEN
che diresse "II canto della culla,,

FREDRIC MARCH

EVELYN VENABLE

GUY STANDING

KENT TAYLOR

569

o4*uia< Jigo*

in una phodutionz di

(&a£ homanto di ttniiUf Zola)

LIONEL ATWILL
RICHARD BENNETT
MAE CLARK
PHILLIPS HOLMES
MURIEL KIRKLAND

Regia: Doroty Arzner

Esclusivita: Artisti Assoc

er /IINITED\

RRTISTSX

570

NOVELLA-FILM

ha realizzato per lo schermo il romanzo di SALVATOR GOTTA

La Signora di tutti

E la turbinosa vita di una fascinatrice, che rimane ingenua e inno-
cente, triste e inquieta dietro i'apparenza felice della sua esistenza.
E poiche, malgrado iutto, non potra avere il vero e puro amore, la
sua vita rovina. II film prospetta, attraverso scene intensamente dram-
matiche, una verita altamente morale, e cioe che I'amore non deve
essere istinto e sensualita, ma sentimento e dovere nel matrimonio
coronato di figli - —

~ La vita della protagonista si svolge sullo schermo ~
come lei stessa la rivive sotto I'influsso della narcosi.

Regista
Interpreti principali

MAX OPHULS

ISA MIRANDA e MEMO BENASSI con
TATIANA PAVLOVA

Mltri interpreti : Nelly Corradi, Lamberto Picasso, Federico
Bcnfer, Franco Coop, Mario Ferrari, Luigi Bar-
bieri, Carlo Lombardi, Mattia Sassanelli, ecc.

Musiche del Maestro: Daniele Amfitheatroff

5cene dell' architetto : Giuseppe Capponi

Operatore Ubaldo Arata

NOVELLA FILM - Piazza Carlo Erba, 6 ■ MILANO

571

GAUMONT-FRANCO
FILM - AUBERT

La plus ancienne des grandes Marques Cinematographiques mondiales

u

I

A Paris, aux Buttes-Chaumont, 7 plateaux presentant une surface de plus de 200 m2.
A Nice, 4 grands plateaux et 70.000 m2 de terrain avec piscine pour les exterieurs.

SON CIRCUIT DE SALLES

Le Gaumont-Palace, le plus grand cinema-theatre d' Europe, Je Rex et I'Olympia, les deux

salles les plus luxueuses de Paris et°37 autres salles r^parties a Paris et en province mettant

a la disposition du public plus de 70.000 fauteuils.

SON SERVICE DISTRIBUTION

Le plus complet avec Agences a Paris, Bordeaux, Lille, Lyon, Marseille, Nancy, Strasbourg.

Alger, Tunis, Casablanca et Bruxelles.

SON SERVICE DE VENTES A L'ETRANGER

Avec Agences a Alexandrie et Beyrouth, ses relations dans le monde entier,
Pendant la saison 33-34, 173 films ont ete vendus dans 36 pays differents.

SA SELECTION 1934

ON A TROUVE UNE FEMME NUE, avec le celebre chanteur AQUIS-

TAPACE. - LE ROSAIRE, d'apres I'ceuvrede Florence BARCLAY, avec
Andre LUGUET. - TOBOGGAN, avec le grand champion Georges CAR-
PENTIER et Arlette MARCHAL. - BOUBOULE ler ROI NEGRE, avec
Georges MILTON. - CHOURINETTE, avec DUVALLES et la charmante
MIREILLE. - L'ATALANTE, avec Dita PARLO et Michel SIMON. -
LA ROBE ROUGE, d'apres I'oeuvre de BRIEUX de I'Academie Franpaise. -
BELLE DE NUIT, avec Vera KORENE de la Comedie Francaise. - L'AS-
SOMMOIR, d'apres le chef-d'oeuvre de ZOLA. - L'lLLUSTRE MAURIN,
avec AQUISTAPACE et BERVAL. - LES AILES BRISEES, avec FRAN-

CEN et Alice FIELD.

Documentaires: Alpinisme

Cathedrales de France
Polaire

Mission

35. Rue du Plateau

PARIS

572

e:

IVI

o
o

L
I

D

IN

R

I

C
O

V

I

I

LA
LONDON FILM PRODUCTION Ltd.

Direttore Generate

Alessandro KORDA
e rappresentata IN ITALIA dalla

S. A. "MANDERFILM"

48 - Via Firenze - ROMA

L QfN D O N

ha presentato quest' anno

due film di successo mondiale

promette per la ventura stagione

IL MARESCIALLO con MAURICE CHEVALIER

LA PRIMULA ROSSA con DOUGLAS FAIR

BANKS junior

■ CONGO RAID interamente rlpreso nell'Ugand.a

■ (Africa) ove per la prima volta
B sono stati portati gli apparecchi
B sonori

L.
A

G

R
A
IN
D

C
A
X

e:

R
I

IN
A

L Qffil D O . N

f I L M

un FILM con

CHARLES LAUGHTON

573

announce the
SPECIAL PRESENTATION OF

WITH

JANE BAXTER PAUL GRAETZ WILLY ESCHBERGER
Directed by PAUL L. STEIN

TO THE

X5X EXHIBITION OF FINE ARTS, VENICE, 1934

WORLD RIGHTS

B.i.P. FILMS, INCLUDING

»s

RED WAGON

" YOU MADE ME LOVE YOU "

ETC., ETC., ETC

CONTROLLED BY

B.I.P. (EXPORT) LTD.

FILM HOUSE, WARDOUR ST., LONDON. W.J.

CABLES: " NATPICTURE, LONDON." PHONE: GERRARD 4314-8

574

LES FILMS DE FRANCE

PRESENTANO :

LE GRAND JEU

(NOVE DI PICCHE E NOVE DI QUADRI)

DI

JACQUES FEYDER

GIUDICATO DALLA STAMPA INTER A:

" Un' opera magnifica

yy

di dettaglio e di veritd

Esclusivita per l' Italia di:

F. CURIONI <& G. OLIVA

Via Boncompagni, 15 - ROMA

575

CONSORZIO
FORZANO

FONO-ROMA

STAGIONE 1934-35

MAESTRO LANDI

UN FILM "FORZANO'

PROSSIM^AMENTE:

CAMPO DI MAGGIO

Produzione "CONSORZIO VIS"

Questo film sara girato nei nuovi grandiosi
Stabilimenti di TIRRENIA in piu edizioni.

576

JEUNESSE

Realiser un film artistique, c'est servir la cause du cinema.

Y Q U T H

Grouper des elements qui rendent un film commercial,
c'est I'adapter aux besoins de I'epoque.

J U G E N D

Faire confiance a des "jeunes", c'est un peu s'assurer

la reussite.

GIQVINEZZA

Recreer I'atmosphere pittoresque et humaine du vrai
Paris, c'est rendre un film international.

Voild pourquoi

LES FILMS EPOC

5 RUE LINCOLN, PARIS (8)

sont heureux de vous presenter

JEUNESSE

Un film de GEORGES LACOMBE

AVEC

LISETTE LANVIN- ROBERT ARNOUX - JEAN SERVAIS

et PAULETTE DUBOST

577

RSTE1N

EISA HERLIHI

RENATO CIALENTE * CORRADO RACCA
PSm.ABT: Roberto Land e Q.C.5imonelli

5 - Ice In.

578

Organo tecnico dei Minister'!, del Partito Nazionale Fascista e dipendenti Organizza-

zioni e di tutti gli Enti comunque posti sotto il controllo dello Stato per la docu-

mentazione a mezzo delta cinematografia e della fotografia.

Regio Decreto 24 Gennaio I929-VII, n. 122

PRES1DENZA
D1REZIONE GENERALE

ROMA - Via Santa Susanna, 17

TELEFONI: N.ri 484-202; 484-141; 484-201;

484-142; 484-143; 484-389;

TELEGRAMMT: Istituto LUCE - Roma

LABORATOR1 SCIENTIFIC!

E REPARTO SONORO

Roma - Via Cernaia, 1 - Tel. 41-805

AUTOPARCO
Roma - Via delle Terme, 6 - Tel. 45-143

ORGANIZZAZIONE PER IL NOLEGGIO

AGENZIE: BARI - Via dei Martiri Fascisti, 21 Telefono 13-738

BOLOGNA - Via Montebello, 7 » 29-235

FIRENZE - Via Por Santa Maria, 14 » 27-338

GENOVA - Via Domenico Fiasella, 12 » 51-154

MILANO - Via Padova, 6 - Piazzale Loreto » 286-349

NAPOL1 - Via De Pretis, 93 » 32-324

PALERMO - Via Nicolo Gallo, 1 » 11-398

ROMA - Via Santa Susanna, 15 » 480-640

TORINO - Via Giuseppe Pomba, 23 » 43-590

TRIESTE - Via D'Azeglio, 10 -91-43

VENEZI A - San Marco Calle Loredan, 4147 - 23-015

SUB-AGENZ1E:

FOGG!A, Via Arpi, 110 - TARANTO, Via Ciro Giovinazzi, 4 - LECCE, Via San Lazzaro -
FERRARA, Via Voltapaletto, 11 - PARMA, Via Bellarossa, 3 - REGGIO EMILIA, Via Maz-
zini, 8 - RAVENNA, Piazza Maisala, I -a - RIMINI, Casa O.N. B. - P1ACENZA, Corso Vit-
torio Emanuele, 49 - PISA, Via Vittorio Emanucle, 44 - LUCCA, Piazza Bernardini, 3 - CEC1NA,
Via Ricasoli, 7 - SPEZTA, Via Roma, 2 - SAVONA, Cinema Moderno - LOMELLO, Via
Roma, 13 - BRESCIA, Largo Zanardelli, 19 - CREMONA, Piazza IV Novembre, 5 - BERGAMO,
(come Brescia) - MANTOVA, Corso Vittorio Emanucle, 120 - CAMPOBASSO e BENE VENTO
(indirizzare a Foggia) - CATANZARO, Vico Vinci, 4 - REGGIO CALABRIA, Cinema
Moderno - COSENZA, Via Rivocati. 42 - CATANIA, Piazza Spirito Santo, 33 - ANCONA,
Corso Vittoiio Emanuele, 3 - CAGLIAR1, Via Roma, 20 - PESCARA, Via Posta Nuova -
TERNI, Ccrso Tacito, 23- VI TERBO, Via del Collegio, 3- ALESSANDRIA, Via Vochieri, 19

- VERCELLI, Via Mercurio da Gattinara, 6 - UDINE, Via dei Torriani, 1-c - BADIA
POLES1NE, Via Vittorio Emanuele, 9 - PADOVA, Via lconia - CEREA, Via Paride da Cerea

- VERONA, Via A. Cantorc, 6 - MESTRE, Via Piave, 33 - TRENTO, Corso Regina

Margheiita, 2 - VICENZA, Via Torretti, 6.

ORGANIZZAZIONE ALL'ESTERO

AGENZIE: BERLINO - Paulsbornerstrasse, 79 (Halensee).
PAR1GI - Rue Belle Chasse, 44
LONDRA - Piccadilly 173.

579

Sn A„E «SVENSK FILMINDUSTRI"

(Aktiebolaget Svensk Filmindustri).
Stockholm, Suede.

La plus grande maison de films de la Scandinavie.

Importation. - Exportation.

La Societe possede des studios pourvus de I'outillage le plus moderne
dans tous les domaines de la technique cinematographique et de vastes
ateliers. — Elle exerce une exp'oitation active et possede environ 110
salles de cinema, dont 12 a Stockholm, 6 a Gothembourg et 4 a Malmo. —
Elle fournit de 500 a 600 cinemas dans toutes les regions de la Suede.
— Elle possede en outre la plus grande collection d' Europe de films
documentaires et scolaires, comprenant environ 2.750 films.

Organisation et exploitation rationnelles et ultra-modernes.
Svensk Filmindustri (S. F.) constitue une marque de haute qualite

580

Zwei grosse Schweizer Film*Schopfungen

DIE WEISSE MAJESTAET

EIN HOCHGEBIRGSDRAMA AUS DER SCHWEIZER ALPENWELT

Buck und Regie

Produktionsleitung

Musik . . -. -.--■.

Personen:

Jakob Burkhardt, ein Bergfuhrer
Monika Amatter
Veit, ihr Bruder .
Stephan Thoni, Bergfuhrer
Bundesrichter Dr. Reymond
Der Bauingenieur
Theodor, Bergfuhrer .

Anton Kutter

August Kern

Peter Kreuder und Hilmar Oeoroi

Oustav Diessl
Hertha Thiele
Beni Fuhrer
Stephan Blotzer
Carl de Voqt
Werner Duby
David Zogg

u.a.m.

WILH ELM TELL

^^mmmmmai^mmi^mammB^^BmBmm&Mmammm\\\\\m\mM^Bmmmm
DAS FREIHEITSDRAMA DES SCHWEIZER VOLKES

Gesamtleitung

Spielleitung
Kamera .

Kulturhistorische Beirate:

Dr. L. BlRCHER, Schvvyz

Dr. R. DURRER, Staatsirchivar, Stans

Dr. E. A. Gessler, Landesmuseum.

Ziirich
Dr. P. Lano, Kilchbeig
Architekt PROBST, Zurich
A. BADER, Zurich, Kostii nentwiirfe

Ralph Scotoni, Zurich-Berlin
Heinz Paul, Berlin
Sepp Alloeier, Freiburg
Josef Dahinden, Zurich

In den Hauptrollen:

Wilhelm Tell . . Hans Marr

Gessler .... Conrad Veidt

Stauffacher . . . Theodor Loss

Hedwig, Tells Frau Emmy Sonnenmann

Alter Melchtal . . Euoen Klopfer

Junger Melchtal . Olaf Bach

u.a.m.

Inieressenten wollen sich wenden an:

INTERNA TONFILM VERTRIEBS A.G

Siauffacherstrasse, 41 - ZURICH

581

ee£g& mm\> 2.te*v J.n.te\ttatu>n.a£.eH, tf.i£tnkuH4ta.utite.(UUiH4- m V.encdUg,

Regie

GUSTAF GRLJINDGENS

fws

DIE MARKE

DES ERFOLGES

Hauptdarsteller:

s

Victor de Kowa Hilde Weissner

Paul Henckels Heinz Ruhmann

We/fverfrieb .

Cinema- Film- A. C?., Berlin W. 8.

582

Una nuova vela sulVoriz-

zonte cinematografico

salpa da Londra

per it Mondo

TOEPLITZ
PRODUCTIONS

LTD.

Amministratoir Delegato
Ludovico Toeplitz de Grand Ry

In lavorazione

il DITTATORE

II sogno d'amore e di potenza di STRUENSEE
e della bella CAROLINA MATILDE, principessa
d'Inghilterra e Regina di Danimarca - negli anni

1770-1773

CLIVE BROOK

Storia originale di Lustig e Logan - Sceneggiatura di Benn Levy

Direzione artistica

KURT BERNHARDT e BENN LEVY

583

NEDERLANDSCHE FILMGEMEENSCHAP

dutch associated film producers

THE HAGUE ^"HOLLAND

R

N T

r~ -.'?

DEAD
WATER

===== (ACQUA MORTA) ======

Directed by GERARD R U T T E m

584

IL CONSORZIO "I. C. A. R.„

Industria Cinematografica Artistica - Roma

presenta :

SECONDA B

(Anno Scolaslico 1911-12)

Rievocazione comico-sentimenfale
di un periodo antebellico

■T

INTERPRETI PRINCIPAL!: Sergio Tofano

Dina Perbellini
Maria Denis
Cesare Zopperli
Ugo Ceseri

Direttore Artistico : GOFFREDO ALESSANDRINI

Direttore della Produzione: ALDO VERGANO

Costumi di Gino Sensani - Scene di Gastone Medin
Fotografia di Carlo Montuorj

585

UN FILM EPICO

Alia Esposizione Vene-
ziana la FOX FILM

presentera
una Produzione
WINFIELDSHEEHAN

■
Un film che porta sullo
schermo il cammino
del mondo verso il pro-
gresso durante tutto un
secolo.

WINFIELD SHEEHAN

con

MADELEINE CARROLL
FRAN CHOT TON E
REGINALD DENNY
Raul Roulien <*- Louise
Dresser ~ Jose Mojica
Barry Norton

Regista :

JOHN FORD

PRODUZIONE

586

THE

BIGGEST STA1

AND THE

GREATEST STORIE

ARE IN

RADIO PICTURES

CURRENT .-

KATHARINE HEPBURN

-MORNING GLORY" "SPITFIRE"
"LITTLE WOMEN"

TO COME:

"The LAST DAYS OF POMPEII''

BY LORD LYTTON

"SHE"

BY RIDER HAGGARD
IN

THE NEW AND IMPROVED TECHNICOLOR

MERIAN C. COOPER PRODUCTIONS

I

587

fizffi) RKO RADIO PICTURES

PICTURE*

WW NEW YORK

▼ PRESENTA ALLA BIENNALE Dl VENEZIA

Little Women

dal romanzo di L. M. ALCOTT

con

KATHERINE HEPBURN

JOAN BENNETT - PAUL LUKAS - FRANCES DEE
JEAN PARKER - EDNA MAY OLIVER

Direzione: George Cukor

Produzione
1933-34

♦

52 G

ran

di Films

con i maggiori

interpret! dello

schermo :

f^ Ann Harding

Boris Karloff

C7 Colleen Moore

Clive Brook

Diana Wynyard

Douglas' Fairbanks Jr.

Dolores del Rio

Francis Lederer

Frances Dee

Qene Raymond

Ginger Rogers

Jimmy Durante

Helen Mack

John Barrymore

Irene Dun

Leslie Howard

Jean Parker

Lionel Barrymore

Karen Morley

Nils Asther

Katherine Hepburn

Richard Dlx

Lupe Velez

Victor Mc Laglen

Zazu Pitts

Walter Huston

Esclusivifa per /' Italie c Colonie

l/i)C - Compagnia I ta liana Cinematografi'ca

CORSO OPORTO N. 10 bis, Telefono 47-242

TORINO (113)

588

SOCIETA anonima

Stefano Pittaluga

CAPITALE: 25 MILIONI

DIREZIONE GENERALE: TORINO
VIA LUISA DEL CARRETTO. 187

Stabilimerjti di produzione : C I N E S
» » doppiaggio: PALATINO

» » stampa : POSITIVA

AGENZIE DI NOLEGGIO
IN TUTTA ITALIA

Alcuni dei principal! Cinema,

G H E R S I

0 L I M P I A
C O R 5 O
ROSSINI
NAZIONALE
M E D I C A
S A V O I A
5UPERCINEMA
AUGUSTEO
EXCELSIOR

TORINO
GENOVA
MILANO
VENEZIA
TRIESTE
BOLOGNA
FIRENZE
ROMA
NAPOLI
PALERMO

ndirizzo TelegraficO: ANONIMA PITTALUGA

"CITY HUNNIA"

PRESENTA

LA

MARCIA

Dl

RAKOCZI

REGISTA

ISTVAN SZEKELY

INTERPRET! :

MARGIT DAYKA
IDA T U R A Y
PAL Y A V O R

590

POSITIVE
FILM

Black & white

and on
tinted base

"PUP-FILM,,

for
making Duplicates

NEGATIVE
FILM

" PANKINE - TIPE G. „

" SPECIAL „

" EXTRA-RAPID „

" KINECHROM „

" AEROCHROM „

" TROPICAL „

" R-FILM „

Sound Recording Stock Tf. 3

for Variable-Density Process

Sound Recording Stock Tf. 4

for Variable Area Process

591

L'apparecchio LUX 9X5 e rac-
comandato da S. E. il Segretario
del Partita e dal Ministero delta
Educazione Nazionale

SOCIETA ITAUANA CINEMiTOGRAfia
EDUCADVA OIOATTICA

ROMAvia(&EK£nzio23

592

fceipettde Jug&td

Ein

CARL FROELICH

Film der Europa Filrnverleih A. G. mit

HEINRICH GEORGE
HERTHA THIELE
ALBERT LIEVEN
MAR I E LU ISE CLAUDIUS
PETER VOSS
CARSTA LOECK

Buch : R. A. Stemmle u. W. Supper nach Max

Dreyers Buhnenwerk " Reifeprufung ".
Musik: Harald Bohmelt.

In Deutschland mit dem hochsten staatlichen
Pradikat

kiinstlerisch und besonders

wertwoll

ausgezeichnet !

Seit " Madchen in Uniform" einer der starksten
internationalen kunstlerischen Erfolge
des deutschen Filmschaffens.

Produktion: Froeiich Film G. m. b. H.
Weltvertrieb : Hisa Film G. m. b. H.
Verleih:

AXHZn*

FILMVERLEIH RKTIENGE5EIL5CHRFT

593

VfjCA Lit

dU W.e&tr

EIN FILM VON DER GROSSEN
WELT RINGS UM UNS HERUM

EIN TONFILM VON DEN TAUSENDFALTIGEN
FORMEN DES LEBENS, DER VERGANGENHE1T
UNSERER ERDE UND DEN WUNDERN DES
WELTALLS, DER DIE RATSEL UM UNS AUF-
GREIFT UND IN WUNDhRVOLLEN AUF-
NAHMEN AUS DEM LEBEN VON MENSCH,
TIER UND PFLANZE DAS EWIGE PROBLEM
DES STIRB UND WERDE ERORTERT.

Musifc: FRITZ WENNEI5
SprecBer: EUGEN REX
Hersteffer: ATELIER SVEND NOLO AN, BERLIN W. 62

6 - Ice ing.

594

FONO-ROMA

SOCIETA ANONIMA ITALIANA PER L'INDUSTRIA fono elettrica e sue applicazioni

SONORIZZAZIONE E SINCRONIZZAZIONE
FILMS VERSIONE ITALIANA (Doublage)

REGISTRAZIONE SU COLONNA

SONORA CON APPARECCHI

ITALIANI

TRASPORTO DAL SISTEMA A

DISCHI AQUELLO SU COLONNA

SONORA

REGISTRAZIONI CON BREVETT

ITALIANI FONO-ROMA E BREVETTI

WESTERN -ELECTRIC

INCISIONE DISCHI F0N06RAFICI CON IMPIANTO
Dl GALVANQPLASTICA E PRESSE PI STAMPA

EDBTRICE ESCLUSIVA DELIA "DISCOTECA Dl STATO,,

LA PIU ACCREDITATA CASA ITALIANA
I PIU MODERNI E PERFEZIONATI APPARECCHI

SOC. AN. FONO-ROMA

DIREZIONE E AUDITORIO:

ROMA: VIA MARIA ADELAIDE, 7

TELEFONO NUM. 35-788

595

LA MONOGRAM
PICTURES CORP.

S. A. I.

PRESENTA

La Nave
del Mistero

(LE NAVIRE MYSTERIEUX)

Tratto dal Romanzo " Lo Spettro di John Holling " di Edgar Wallace
Adattamento di Wellyn Totman Produzione di A. Paul Malvern

Interpretano i personaggi del dramma gli Artisti :

Noah Beery (ii Capitano Holling) — Astrid Allyn (Lila) — Corne-
lius Keefe (Cliff) — Gustavo von Seyffertitz (Von Kessiing) —
Ralph Lewis (Crimson) — Booth Howard (Downey) — J. Maurice

Sullivan (Watson) Gorden de Maine (Bryson) ed altri di minore importanza.

Regista: WILLIAM NIGH

E un film ricavato dal Romanzo di Edgar Wallace. Ha avuto per regista un
gran nome: WILLIAM NIGH. Vi e dimostrata la piu moderna applicazione delle
onde Herziane. Una nave e guidata da terra a mezzo di un apparecchio inventato
dal Dott. Crimson (attore Ralph Lewis).

L'interesse e immenso per la Marina, e gli Armatori del la nave: " GUTHERIC"
tentano gli esperimenti che da prima riescono. Senonche agenti nemici che sono
anche sulla nave si adoperano per conoscere e distruggere I'efficacia dell'apparecchio.

Si assiste con ansia ad una serie di crimini, i cui autori restano ignoti; i so-
spetti cadono sui principali personaggi di bordo e finalmente, dopo un'attesa piena
d'interesse ed apprensione, lo spettatore viene nel modo piu inaspettato a cono-
scere il colpevole.

Fra questi orrori vi e un piccolo romanzo d'amore: la giovane e graziosa
infermiera di bordo contesa da due ufficiali.

596

10 Superiilm di grande classe - 10 film eccezionali,
Questo e il programma che il Consorzio E. L A.
presenta agli esercenti d' Italia per la stagione

1934-35

10 film di produzione " Columbia „ e 10 film di

produzione "UFA,, selezionati sul complesso di 56

film prodotti dalle due grandi editrici

Signora per ungiorno Donna di classe Fuggiaschi

D1R. FRANK CAPRA

May Robson • Warren William

XX S e c o 1 o

DIR. HOWARD HAWKS

Carole Lombard
John Barrymore

Accadde una notte

DIR. PRANK CAPR»

Clark Gable
Claudette Colbert

T r a m o n t o

DIR. DAVID BURTON

Elissa Landi
Frank Morgan

Vicino alle Stelle

DIR. FRANK BORZAOE

Spencer Tracy
Loretta Joung

I 1 V

o r t i c

e

D.R.

ROY W. NEiLL

Jack Holt

- Jean Arthur

A m i

a m o c

i

DIR. MARSHALL NEMAN

Colleen Moore
Alexander Kirhland

L'eta Pericolosa

DIR. WILLARD MACK

Jean Parker - Ben Alexander

N

b b i

DIR. ALBERT KOOELL

Mary Brian - Donald Cook

0 r o

DIR. CARL HARTL

DI*. DAVID BURTON

Edmund Lowe - Ann Sot/tern

Brigitte Helm - Hans Albers

La Principessa
d el la Czarda

DIR. QEOROE JACOBV

Martha Eggerth
Paul Horbiger

Vittorio e Vittoria

DIR. RE1NHOLD SCHUNZtL

Renate Muller
Hermann Thimig

DIR. GUSTAV UUCKY

Hans Albers - Kathe von Nagy

flodiamoci la Vita

DIR. HANS STE1NHOFI"

Dorit Kreisler
Wolfang Liebeneiner

Bambola di came

DIR. HANS SIEINHOFP

Rose Barsony
George Alexander

Guerra di Walzer

DIR. LUDWiO BFRQtR

Renate Muller
Willy Fritsch

Sogno

b i o n d o

DIR. fALL MARTIN

Lillian Harvey - Willy Fritsch

Addio giorni felici

DIR. JOHANNES MEYTR

Brigitte Helm
Wolfgang Liebeneiner

L'inierno dei Mari

DIR. OUSTAV UCiCKY

Rudolf Forster - Else Knott

597

S T M D J O

regia di

CARLO CAMPOGALLIANI

con GIORGIO FERRONI

soggetto di

ROMOLO MARCELLINI

e sceneggiatura di
GINO NERVI

Produzione "AUDITA" S/A

Roma, Via Nazionale, 54

e un film di F. CURIONI e G. RIGHELLI

e interpretato dagli atleti
fascisti universitari e da
sette nuovi attori :

ENRICO AMANTE

MARIA ARCIONE

GIHNFRANCO BOND1

GIORGIO CENSI

GIANCARLO

DEL VECCHIO

EMMA GUERRA

ENZO RAMPELLI

598

LE INDUSTRIE
CINEMATOGRAFICHE ITALIANE

PRESENTERANNO QUEST'ANNO IN ITALIA

LA MIGLIORE

PRODUZIONE UNIVERSAL 1934

" L'UOMO INVISIBILE "

Inter preti :

Claude Kains
William Hareigan
Gloria Stuart ,

Direitore :

James Whale

" IL GATTO NERO "

Interpreti :
, . Boris Karloff
Bela LugOsi
Jacqueline Wells

Direitore :

Edgar Ulmer

"E ADESSO, POVER'UOMO?"

(titolo provvisorio di : LITTLE MAN, WHAT NOW ?)

Interpreti :

Margaret Sulla van
Douglas Montgomery

Direttore :

Frank Borzage

L'AVVOCATO "

(titolo provvisorio di: COUNSELLOR AT LAW)

Interpreti :

John Barry more
Bebe Daniels
Doris Kenyon
Melwyn Douglas
Onslow Stevens

Direttore :

William Wyler

L'AMOR MIO SEI TU "

Interpreti :

Jean Murat
Edvige Feuillere

Direttore :

GrEZA DE BOLVARY

" A LUME DI CANDELA "

Interpreti :

Elissa Land i
Paul Lukas
Nils Asther

Direttore :

James Whale

SOLTANTO IERI"

(titolo provvisorio di: ONLY YESTERDAY )

Interpreti :

Margaret Sullavan
John Boles

Direttore :

John M. Stahl

' GITA IN CAMPAGNA "

(titolo provvisorio di : CROSS COUNTRY CRUISE)

Interpreti :

June Knight
Lew Ayres

Direttore :

Edward Buzzell

"BOMBAY MAIL"

Interpreti :

Edmund Lowe
Shirley Grey

Direttore :

Edwin L. Marin

UNA DONNA AL VOLANTE "

Interpreti :

Henry Garat
Lisette Lanvin

k

J

599

Ingg. BUINI & GRAND!

BOLOGNA

UFFICI

VIA CASTIGLIONE,
Telefoni 21806 - 24949

OFFICINA

VIA DE6LI ALBERI, 8-10
Telefono 24995

IMPIANTI ELETTRICI Dl QUALUNQUE TIPO E POTENZA

IMPIANTI ELETTRICI TEATRALI

IMPIANTI ELETTRICI PER SALE DI POSA CINEMATOGRAFICHE

ILLUMINAZIONI ARTISTICHE

■♦

!♦■

600

SETERIE
VELLUTI
LANERIE

LA PIC IMPORTANTE CASA D* ITALIA PER LA
VENDITA DEI MIGLIORI TESSUTI PER SIGNORA

N O V I T A
ASSORTIMENTI
CONVENIENZA

NEGOZIO Dl VENEZIA
MERCER1E S. G1ULIANO, 712-713

IN TUTTA ITALIA ESISTONO NEGOZI l.S.l.A.

601

veneziaN

/ / 1 \w

Fun every minute from the

morning swim to the evening

gala dance.

XIX International Exhibition of
Ant - International Festival of
Music and Dance - International
Cinema Festival - Theatrical per-
formances - Night Festival - In-
ternational Motorboat, Tennis
and Golf tournaments,

Hotels at the Lido:

Excelsior Palace
Grand Hotel des Bains

GRAND HOTEL LIDO
HOTEL VILLA RE6INA

Hotels in Venice:

Hotel Royal Danieli
Grand Hotel

HOTEL REGINA
HOTEL VITTORIA

For particulars and literature apply to any
Travel Agency or to the Compagnia Ita-
liana dei Grandi Alberghi - Venice

70% and 50% Railway Reductions
from May 1st to October 15th, 1934

602

SOCIETA AEREA MEDITERRANEA

ROMA - Via Regina Elena, 29 - ROMA

SERVIZI AEREI:

ROMA-CAGLIARI - giornaliera, ore 3 L. 240

ROMA-CAGLIARI-TUNISI - quadrisettimanale, ore 5. . » 440

PALERMO-TUNISI - trisettimanale, ore 2.30 » 200

ROMA-VENEZIA - giornaliera, ore 2.30 > 250

ROMA-VENEZIA~MONACO~BERLINO - giornaliera,

compresa la Domenica, ore 7 circa » 610

ROMA-VENEZIA-VIENNA - trisettimanale, ore 6 . . - » 500
VENEZIA-KLAGENFURT- VIENNA - trisettimanale,

ore 3 • » 325

VENEZIA-KLAGENFURT-BUDAPEST - trisettimanale,

ore 4.30 > 330

ROMA-BARI-BRINDISI-TIRANA-SALONICCO - tri-

settimanale, ore 6 » 750

TIRANA-CORITZA - trisettimanale, ore 1 Fr. oro 35

TIRANA-SCUTARI - trisettimanale, ore 1 » » 22

TIRANA-VALONA - trisettimanale, ore 1 » » 32

TIRANA-PESCOPEJA-KUKUS - bisettimanale, ore 1 >» » 50

Coincidenze assicurate: a BERLINO : per Amsterdam, Lon-
dra, Posen, Varsavia - a MONACO : per Roma e Parigi -
a VIENNA : per Budapest, Cracovia, Varsavia - a SALO-
NICCO: per Atene e per Sofia-Bucarest.

Per informazioni rivolgersi alle Agenzie C. I. T.
e a tutte le principali Agenzie di viaggi.

603

COMPAGNIA ADRIATICA DI NAVIGAZIONE

^— VENEZIA

Espresso VENEZIA - TRIESTE - DALMAZIA - Servizio bisettimanale di lusso con la celere
motonave " FRANCESCO MOROS1NI ".

Servizio celere quattordicinale VENEZIA - TRIESTE - BARI - BRINDISI - PIREO - RODI
- SMIRNE con le moderne motonavi " FILIPPO GRIM AN I" e " PIERO FOSCARI".

Servizio quattordicinale VENEZIA - TRIESTE - BARI - BRINDISI - PIREO - ISOLE
EGEO - RODI - ALESSANDRIA con le motonavi "CITTA DI BARI" e "RODI".

Servizio trisettimanale VENEZIA - BRIONI - POLA - ABBAZIA - FIUME con le celeri
motonavi " MARCELLO " e " MOCENIGO ".

Linee settimanali VENEZIA - DALMAZIA - ALBANIA - EPIRO.

Linee dirette giornaliere ANCONA - FIUME e ANCONA - ZARA.

Linea BARI - DURAZZO (sei volte alia settimana).

Servizi local! FIUME - ZARA - BARI - RODI EGEO.

"SKil****

.^^.^m^iim^\rs^^^'Wfm-'m!^^^m^^^^%^^:^rji

Motonave di lusso " Francesco Morosini " adibita alia Linea Espresso della Dalmazia.

I

FACILITAZIONI SPECIALI PER COMITIVE
VIAGGI CIRCOLARI IN ADRIATICO E NELL' EGEO

♦ ♦
INFORMAZIONI E BIGLIETTI PRESSO TUTTI I PRINCIPALI UFF1CI DI V1AGGI0

604

£ut JCa(noha-VLe,&&ifia£(l auf. Beit und M&isc&en;

.Q.e4tehfc unxL Heuie

Regie und Photographie: WILFRIED BASSE

Musik WOLFGANG ZELLER

Herstellerf irma :

BASSE FILM G. b. m. H. - Berlin-Dahlem, Breitenbachplatz 12

" Dieser Film ist Dokument und Denk-
mal, fur jeden geschaffen, denn jeder
findet sich hier wieder ".

(Volkischer Beobachter)

" Der tiefe Ernst und der echte Humor,

der aus seinen Bildern spricht, lasst

uns den Abend zum Erlebnis werden ".

(Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung)

" Mit seinem neuen Film ist ihm ein
Meisterwerk gelungen, das in seiner
Art beispiellos dasteht. Menschen wer-
den darin, ohne dass sie es wissen,
liebevoll beobachtet und momentan er-
fasst, Menschen aller Landschaften,
Berufsschichten und Alter".

(Der Angriff)

" Es entstehen Episoden, Querschnitte,

Scenen, Kurzgeschichten von uber-

raschendster Treffsicherheit, wie sie

der raffinierteste Regisseur nicht er-

klugeln kann ". rr«--_««i.i

a (uermania;

" Um die Fulle einer wirklich umfas-
senden Beschreibung zu erzielen, hat
Basse getan, was jeder wirkliche Dich-
ter tut: er hat seinen Stoff aufgegrif-
fen, wo er ihn fand und ihn dann in
elner genialen Montage zusammenge-
fasst. So lost sich alles bloss Tatsa-
chenmassige, jeder Rest von Reallsti-
schem in der relnen poetischen Form
einer wundervollen Reise auf ",

(lllustrazlone Italiana)

" Basse, der sein eigener Photograph
ist, hat hier bewiesen. wie sehr er
Meister uber seine Kamera ist ",

(Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant)

" Sehr bemerkenswert und ganz neu
ist, wie Basse das Vielfaltige und Zer-
streute am Klebetisch zu reinen Typen
ordnet und in stets lebendigem An-
steigen eine Einheit schafft von oft er-
schutternder Symbolkraft ".

(Neue Ziircher Zeitung)

605

M.F.I.

!

MAGYAR FILM
I ROD A R.T.

(Agenzia Ungherese del Film S. A.)

Finalita di lavoro dell'Agenzia Ungherese del Film, collegata con I'Agenzia
Telegrafica Ungherese sono: compiere un servizio d'informazioni nazio-
nali ed internazionali con fotografie e films; produrre pellicole peda-
gogiche, scientifiche, culturali, di propaganda e di reclame, provvedere alia
versione in ungherese dei testi stranieri ed alia postsincronizzazione.

Tra le edizioni della M. F. I. e il giornale cinesettimanale sonoro
« Magyar Vilaghirado » che comunica al pubblico i piu importanti avveni-
menti di attualita ungheresi ed internazionali.

Le negative dei cinegiornali ungheresi sono conservate nell'archivio
della M. F. I. cos! che e possibile avere un quadro preciso della vita unghe-
rese degli utimi dieci anni. Similare e, poi, il servizio fotografico d'infor-
mazioni sempre per gli avvenimenti nazionali ed internazionali.

Altra importante sfera d'attivita della M. F. I. consiste nella produ-
zione di films scientifici ed educativi. Sin dall'anteguerra I'Ungheria si
occupo di produzione del genere e da allora gli archivi della M. F. I. hanno
sempre aumentato i loro quantitativi. Questo materiale prodotto per i varii
gradi scolastici e divenuto oggi un complemento della vita didattica e il suo
valore e accresciuto da quando, attraverso I'opera dell* I. C. E., si e delineata
la possibility di uno scambio internazionale di pellicole del genere. Tecni-
camente si tratta di films che vengono elaborati dalla M. F. I. sotto la dire-
zione di una Commissione di esperti pedagoghi.

Tra i vari films che annualmente la M. F. I. produce e per i quali si
ha la massima cura del lato artistico vi sono riprese sulla vita del popolo
ungherese, sulle bellezze naturali e sulla vita culturale del paese.

Altro campo di lavoro e costituito dai films reclamistici, che tendono
alia propaganda delle merci e alia dimostrazione delle attivita dei singoli
Enti od Istituti nazionali, senza trascurare, attraverso i fini di propaganda,
il lato artistico e tecnico.

Notevole pure I'attivita della M. F. I. nel campo della postsincroniz-
zazione. Una invenzione tecnica, dovuta ad un ingegnere ungherese ed in-
stallata negli studii della Societal rende tale operazione redditizia al massimo
grado, con una sicurezza ed una facilita assoluta di lavorazione.

Infine gli studii modernamente attrezzati, le macchine di ripresa so-
nora e i laboratori annessi per pellicole del genere, rendono la M. F. I.
pronta a qualunque produzione di piccola ed anche di media importanza.

606

Bi

enna e

del Cinema

VENEZIA 1934-XII

CINEMECCANICA-MILANO

tneweccdn

Vizle \,<

atmii&nw

ia J 5

Fornitrice degli impianti cinematografici "VICTORIA,, per la

proiezione dei film presentati alia II Mostra internazionale

d' arte cinematografica

607

In January 1935 the Re-
view of the International
Institute of Educational

Cinematography

will appear in a new form which will mark a step
forward in its general appearance and subject matter.
The Review will be published in a larger format, and will
contain a number of typographical improvements. It will
also include a number of handsome illustrations.

The scope of the Review will, moreover, be widened,
and" questions of all-kinds, technical, economic, spiritual,
artistic, social, etc., brought to the front by the cinema and
having as their object "the raising of the moral and
intellectual level of the masses, the refinement of taste
and spiritual and material progress generally, will be
dealt with in its columns.

The 1935 volume of our Review has secured contrib-
utions from the best known figures in the international
cinema world. The formation of correspondence bureaux
in the chief centres of the world will enable the Re-
view to publish an extensive service of information that
will be both direct and strictly reliable.

The Review in 1935 will certainly please all
those who are interested in the cinema, from
an elevated, that is to say, educational
point of view.

Annual Subscription:

80 Italian lires, or the equivalent in foreign
money at the current rate of exchange on
the day of taking out the subscription.

DR. LUCIANO DE FEO
EDITOR AND RESPONSIBLE
MANAGER - OFFIC. GRAFICA
DELLA SOCIETA EDITRICE Dl
" NOVISSIMA „ - ROMA

H5!i:r>iiM:riiv]VJi&7««!

DUCATIONAL (IHEMATOdPAPH

■-■■ ,"■" m«

TIONS

■

AB

M

OME

SEPTEMBER
19 3 4

.■jt .. ._.

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

MONTHLY PUBLICATION
OF THE INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY (L. OF N.)

ROME - I-a, VIA LAZZARO SPALLANZANI - ROME

YEAR VI. - N. 9.

SEPTEMBER 1934.

CONTENTS

E. DUVILLARD .

Professor BRUCKER

G. VERGEZ-TRICOM
Dr. KARL HAREITER

Cinema and Teaching 611

Report on the Conditions prevailing in
German Film Production in regard
to Didactic and Educational Films . . 631

The use of the Cinema for teaching in

Secondary Schools 634

The Cine - Educational Activity of the

Svensh Film Industry 642

Cinematography and Secondary Teaching 644

Investigation on the Effects of Teaching

Films 657

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING BODY

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of State, Professor of Law at the Univer-
sity of Rome, President.

LUMI£RE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.

BROWN J. W., Director of the British Film Institute.

CARTON DE WIART Count Henry, Minister of State, Member of the Child Welfare
Committee of the League of Nations.

FOCILLON Henri, Professor at the University of Paris, Member of the Permanent
Committee of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.

GANGULEE Nagendra Nath, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor of Agriculture and Rural
Economy at the University of Calcutta.

KOZMA Nicolas de, Ministerial Councillor, President Director of the Hungarian Tel-
egraph Agency.

LLOPIS Rodolfo, Deputy in the Cortes, ex General Director of Primary Education at
Madrid.

MISTRAL Gabrielle, Authoress, Ex-Directress of the Lycee for young girls at Santiago.

OPRESCU Georges, Professor at the University of Bucharest, Member of the Perma-
nent Commitee of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.

ORDYNSKI Ryszard, President of the Polish Film Producers' Association.

REYNOLD Gonzago de, Professor at the University of Fribourg, Member of the
Commission for Intellectual Cooperation.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,

The President of the International Agricultural Institute,

The Director of the International Labour Bureau and

The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the I.C.I.C, Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW
Dr. Luciano de FEO, Editor.

P. Berne de Chavannes, Ernest Holtzer,

Giuseppe de Feo, Edward Storer,

Jose Maria Gimeno,

Maria Elena Apollonio, Secretary.

CINEMA AND TEACHING

BY

E. Duvillard

DIRECTOR OF SCHOOLS, ZURICH

Introduction. Lantern slides and motion
pictures have not yet had a
decisive influence on teaching, for the reason
that the didactic art evolves with extreme
slowness.

We learnt the concrete study of reality
from Bacon. Since then we have perfected
our systems of research; we have opened
our eyes to the infinite. We have registered
natural phenomena, and have been able to
reproduce them in their dynamic state. It
would certainly seem strange that all our
progress has not transformed the art of
teaching.

That it has not is due to the fact that
the mechanical apparatus capable of resus-
citating the past has not found, in the
domain of teaching, an artist capable of giv-
ing it a soul. It will only be when the cin-
ema can be used as a musician plays on
his instrument that we shall see how and
in what degree it will be possible to awaken
the pupils' intelligence and open up new
visions for teachers.

It would therefore be out of place to fore-
cast the function of the scholastic film,
fix the limits of its applications, and state
the laws which it will impose on pedagogy.
Our task today is solely to seek the best
means of utilizing it, without any pretence
of establishing a definite and final formula
in the matter.

If the influence of the scholastic cinema
has penetrated so slowly, it is because man
is not master of his own thoughts. He mod-
ifies their course and form very slowly and

such changes as occur are arrived at only
after a long and often painful process of
adaptation.

To create an approximate coincidence
between mental images and words which
translate them demands a painful effort,
since the correspondence between things and
words, though simple enough in appear-
ance, is not easily accessible to the human
intelligence.

Although man is continually seeking to
free himself from it, he tends, by his very
nature, to be a victim of verbalism. In order
to escape a slavery of this kind, he tries in
every way to fix his errant thoughts, and
among all the means so far suggested the
motion picture seems the one likeliest to
give him the independence he desires. It is
the likeliest and fittest means because it
permits of reality being submitted to the
will to be coordinated, disciplined, acceler-
ated, slowed down, visually evoked and all
without the necessity of words which are a
perpetual source of misunderstanding.

Forty Years' Experience. From the year 1895,
which was the date
of the first motion picture show, the import-
ance of the didactic cinema has been con-
stantly recognized. The works written about
it, which have been oftener dythyrambic
than critical, have generally made the doub-
le error of thinking it subject to the laws
which govern the theatrical cinema, and
think that its educational value depends on
the mobility of the images.

612

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

The scholastic cinema in general follows
two methods, the direct and the indirect
method.

(a) Direct Method - Let us consider a
number of pupils who possess more or less
similar characteristics of age, sex, intellectual
and scholastic development who are sub-
jected to teaching of the same subject with
the traditional method and with the cinema-
tographic method and let us compare the
results.

The most interesting studies of this kind
have been made in Norway, England and
the United States. In the last country, the
Eastman inquiry proved particularly not-
able for its extent and the number of pupils
who took part in it.

The conclusions favourable to the cinema
demonstrated that children remember things
shown on the screen better than facts pre-
sented to them with different systems, even
when accompanied with photographs, draw-
ings and mural designs and tables.

There would be no point in despising
these results, but we must be careful in
assigning them authentic scientific value.
We are dealing with a system of inquiry
which has not a proper guaranteed control,
and conclusions may often be based on mis-
understandings.

In the first place, there is the matter of
teaching. When writers speak of the results
of film teaching, they are referring to those
facts, cognition of which is acquired by
looking at the screen, and they propose to
reduce teaching to this simple vision of
images. Teaching, on the contrary, is some-
thing quite different. It consist of a combin-
ation of methods suitable for the acquisition
of notions, such methods being properly in-
ter-connected. It is only in this sense that
we may speak of teaching grammar, arith-
metic, history or natural science. The object
of teaching is not the acquisition of certain
notions, but the acquirement of an intel-
lectual technique, through which, when the
pupil is freed of the tutelage of school, he
will be able to reflect and study by himself.

Another source of misunderstanding is

the film. When reference is made to it, it
is generally allowed to be understood that
the film in question is quite a special pic-
ture made for a given purpose. This is gen-
erally untrue today, for up to the present
time the so-called teaching films are simple
documentary pictures or fragments of docu-
mentaries put together in a haphazard
fashion.

We need not be surprised then if they
arouse in childrens minds livelier impres-
sions than those evoked by coloured pic-
tures. The impression depends largely on
the novelty of the system, but it is by no
means established that such impressions are
lasting. It is, moreover, possible that films
of this kind, which are unsuited to strict
teaching, do not give the pupils that amount
of intellectual benefit which they might
obtain from a succession of lessons.

One thing, however, may be stated. The
immediate remembrance of facts or phenom-
ena given by the cinema method of teach-
ing seems livelier than the record of the
same obtained by the ordinary oral method.
It remains to be seen if the cinematographic
presentation of a totalitarian teaching meth-
od by film will give better results than
other systems. It is also a point if film
teaching can supply mentalities with the
necessary means for prosecuting, without
other aids, a study of a really personal char-
acter.

The conclusion of this rapid examina-
tion of the direct method is that we do not at
present really know the advantages that may
be derived from film teaching. At the most,
the memory of the images, especially the
moving images, may seem to be profounder
than any aural or visual memory of the same
obtained by means of books or oral teaching.

(b) The Indirect Method - This is prac-
tised in the form of inquiries and symposia
organized among educationists and stu-
dents. It does not set out to arrive at
mathematically correct results, but canvasses
opinions, leaves technical questions untouch-
ed which can only be setded by means of

CINEMA AND TEACHING

613

other more careful and exact methods. It
illustrates unsuspected angles of the position.

The latest of these symposia was that
carried out under the aegis of the Review
of Educational Cinematography among the
body of Italian teachers, and is the prelude
to a similar but vaster inquiry to be organ-
ized among the teachers of the entire
world. The inquiry among the Italian teach-
ing faculty was organized, examined and
reported on with every care. It will be worth
while therefore to examine its results.

The conclusions thereon made by Dr de
Feo of the I.I.E.C. of Rome are worthy of
the most careful consideration:

(i) In the present state of things and in
view of the curriculum of modern teaching
systems, it is not possible to conceive of a
pure and simple substitution of the present
system of teaching by a master with film
teaching.

The prudence of this conclusion is
worthy of comment. The progress made by
the teaching film has to a large extent been
rendered nugatory by the exaggerations of
certain over zealous enthusiasts, and also
by the obstinate opposition which such ill
judged optimism has aroused in others. To
substitute film teaching for ordinary oral
and written teaching given by a master or
mistress would mean substituting mechan-
ical teaching for live human instruction.
It is impossible to arrive at this point. The
teacher's influence is always necessary, and
pedagogy cannot be administered in tins.
At the same time there is every likelihood
that certain themes treated cinematographic-
ally will prove useful to both teacher and
pupil. In the case of the teacher, they will
relieve him of the necessity of presenting
the subject — often badly — owing to
lack of means. If the film is a well made
one, it will furnish the plan for the lesson,
giving the teacher the possibility of present-
ing given facts as definite and beyond dis-
cussion if the film has been made by an
expert on the subject. For the pupil, the
film will present in a vivid fashion things
which any verbal description would be in-

capable of supplying, teaching the student to
observe and classify his observations.

Cinematographic technique will renew
methodology since, by rendering its intellect-
ual data objective, it will make a regular
language of the visual image.

It will not be by any unique and special
virtue of the motion picture that this state
of things will be brought about, but it will
come through the new ideas which this tech-
nique will impress on our spirit. Obliged to
develop in a form intolerant of obscurities
and misunderstandings, teaching will have
to follow other methods, and didactics must
become precise.

(2) Cinematography is an auxiliary didact-
ic means of outstanding value for some
subjects, especially geography, science, history
and object lessons.

Why call a didactic method auxiliary when
it can be used for five subjects? One might
go so far as to say that auxiliary didactic
means do not exist. If there were any, the
cinema would not be able to be part of
such. With its purely scientific technique of
slow motion and accelerated running of pic-
tures, with the possibilities it derives from
cutting and mounting, with the infinite var-
iety of its rhythms, it cannot be regarded
solely as an auxiliary. Nothing that has been
done by the cinema in the domains of his-
tory or natural science gives us the right
to affirm the superiority of the motion pic-
ture in these subjects, though the time
would appear to be near when the film may
claim victories in these fields of knowledge.

The motion picture then will not be an
auxiliary didactic means, but it will furnish
a pretext for transforming teaching in its
curricola, methods and systems, in its ma-
terial and spiritual essence. Or will it fail
here? One has seen similar failures in other
fields.

(3) Film teaching, within the limits of an
auxiliary didactic means, must ta\e account
of the age and class of the student, and as
far as is possible of sex and of special pro-
grammes for determined branches of teach-
ing.

6J4

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

Here we are faced with the central prob-
lem of the cinema. Teaching films cannot
be made without taking due account of the
pupils for whom they are intended. How
is this to be done? We must consider the
vast number of films which such a system
would render necessary and their high cost,
though we have grounds for hoping that a
production adapted to the necessities of teach-
ing — in this case it would be necessary to
begin by fixing a formula for international-
scholastic film — will find a way which the
present scholastic picture as we know it
today has not yet succeeded in finding.

(4) The filmed lesson is more easily assim-
ilated by the students, and therefore its
repetition gives better results than oral les-
sons.

This is too hazardous a conclusion. Every-
thing leads us to believe that in reality a
good cinema lesson may be superior to a
good oral lesson but, since good cinema les-
sons do not yet exist, their superiority can-
not be postulated in any definite manner.

(5) Sub-titles or explanatory script should
be continued in teaching films provided they
are clear and sensible.

This is a rational solution of a technical
question. At the same time it will be as well
perhaps to examine the point a little more
thoroughly in order to determine the pro-
portion of sub-titles to film length, and to
fix the duration of the lesson so that the
sub-titles may be read easily and without
strain. This time varies with age. This is
a technical question that is easily solved, but
which has not been sufficiently examined
up to now.

(6) Brochures and leaflets of an explanatory
character could prove very useful not only
for the students and but also for education-
ists. They allow pupils to learn better the
things being illustrated on the screen.

(7) It is not possible under the present
condition of things to substitute scholastic
manuals with cine-scholastic text boo\s. If
we want to introduce the latter, they must
only be used as a form of auxiliary help for

the school text boo\s, something to com-
plete the ordinary routine of teaching.

These are conclusions which pose a fresh
question, that is, the matter of the cinemato-
graphic text-book or volume. A number of
preliminary points must be previously exam-
ined. We will re-examine the question later
when touching the fundamental principles
of cinegraphic teaching.

(8) The animated projection is much more
efficacious as a didactic means than the still
slide.

This too seems to us a daring conclu-
sion. There are so many elements to be
considered that we cannot accept it
without the necessary limitations. Some sub-
jects are more adapted to the motion picture
than others. Others give the best results
with lantern slides. We should also bear in
mind that the last word has not yet been
said in the production of lantern slides. Pro-
jectors have been gready improved, but too
litde pains has been taken with the slides
themselves, while methodology has not been
duly considered, nor has due importance
been attached to the reactions which the
images are capable of producing on the chil-
dren's minds. It will only be when the mo-
tion picture and the slide have attained a
greater degree of perfection than they enjoy
at present that we shall be in a position to
institute a proper comparison between them.

(9) The sound or talking film, but espe-
cially the sound film, possesses important ad-
vantages as compared with the silent film.

We cannot know the advantages of the
sound film before having a precise definition
of it and before having at our disposal gen-
uine teaching sound films. It may be that
some subjects are better treated in sound
than silent versions, but we must not make
a general statement to that effect.

(10) The foregoing is subordinated to the
condition that cinema material intended for
teaching has been produced by competent
organizations and in strict conformity with
scholastic curricula.

Here lies the necessity and justification
of this work.

CINEMA AND TEACHING

615

The critical study of the foregoing con-
clusions leads to the consideration of certain
questions which should be examined in
order to clear the ground of misunderstand-
ings and errors.

In the first place, if a real teaching cine-
ma does not exist, the best examples of
the same allow us to suppose that it will
be able to effect a revolution in didactics.
If this is not the case, it ought to disappear,
or be confined to constituting a cosdy auxil-
iary.

The central problem of the teaching film
consists in the way we are to adapt it to
the various classes of pupils and the differ-
ent curricula. Any comparison between the
motion picture and the slide is impos-
sible today because both of them are in the
embryonal stage, and they must arrive at
greater perfection before we can judge them.

Cinematographic teaching is stricdy con-
nected with the modality of the cinema ver-
sion.

Again, the scholastic film can only be
made by persons well acquainted with teach-
ing requirements and the exigencies of cur-
ricula.

Psychological Considerations. The slowness of

the progress of
the scholastic cinema is explained by the
fact that so far very little or no consider-
ation at all has been taken of the psycho-
logical conditions attached to this new form
of teaching.

Of all the mental functions, the attention
is the one it is most necessary to understand
in order to assure the motion picture a max-
imum of efficiency. Wherefore we may
lay down as a simple definition : « The
attention is that state of consciousness which
secures the best results for mental work ».

It is necessary to know the best conditions
of mental work, if we want to render them
easy, and the motion picture can help us
in obtaining these results.

From a study of the attention we can see
what can be useful to it. We shall consider
the essential characteristics without wasting

time in demonstrating the correctness of the
ideas we broach. For further explanations
we must refer the reader to works by spec-
ialists (G. Dumas, Treatise on Psychology,
Felix Alcan, Vol. i, p. 846).

(1) The mind's active capacity is limited
and cannot at one and the same time deal
with all the instances that are presented to
it.

This capacity varies with age. It is less
extensive in the case of children than with
adults as also with people of weak intelli-
gence as compared to intellectuals. We must
keep this fact in mind in using the scholastic
cinema, in producing films and considering
their length and system of projection.

Many films leave no impression because
they strike the mind from several angles
and therefore weary it. The first condition
for film teaching is simplicity, a rational
choice of subject.

It is really a mistake to think that the
mobility of the images illuminates the mind
in any special degree.

Filmed images are clearer and better ap-
preciated when isolated and thus stressed.
Cinema technique with its close-ups has al-
ways believed in this.

(2) Sentimental interest is one of the ba-
ses of attention.

We cannot lay enough stress on the im-
portance of interest in the field of education.
Matters which we connect with ourselves are
the really important things, for us. A sub-
ject treated by the film or any other auxil-
iary means must satisfy the requirements
of children which can be seen in the inter-
est they manifest for objects, facts or certain
ideas. These facts, objects or ideas become
interesting to the child when he recognizes
or thinks he recognizes in them elements
capable of accelerating the development of
his ego. « A film is not interesting in and
by itself; it is interesting in so far as it
answers the actual intellectual needs of the
spectators. Whence comes the necessity of
providing pictures which satisfy the specta-
tor's immediate and remote interests ».

(3) The communion of impressions re-

616

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

ceived in a given moment with impressions
already provoked is one of the bases of the
attention.

Some pictures arouse surprise, a shock
which impedes their being properly under-
stood and remembered. It is believed that
a film has an instrinsic attraction and that
the more unexpected it is, the better it is.
The brutal picture clashes with the very
possibilities of thought. The value of a teach-
ing film depends less on the excellence of
the photographs, the ingenious character of
the scenery or the operator's ability than on
the preparatory work of the lessons that
precede the film and on the choice of
the subject. The cinema lesson is like the
nucleus of a crystal, round which are gath-
ered the memories that go to the formation
of the whole mental picture. We do not
know a thing solely because we have seen
it represented on the screen. We possess a
consciousness of it when other images com-
plete and enrich what is seen on the screen.

Importance of the scheme. — The
image, in the psychological sense, is « the
prolongation or the reappearance of a
sensory phenomenon in the absence of
the impressions which occasioned it». In
order that they be recalled, recognized and
completed, it is necessary that the images
should be connected with the simplest, hum-
blest and most elementary forms, which al-
low easy indentification, deciphering and
classification.

« In order properly to understand a lec-
ture, it is necessary to know its scheme and
plan. To grasp a film we must seek the
scheme in an analysis of the programme. By
means of schemes, we learn a lesson or a
prayer. We play for position in a game of
chess, we understand a demonstration; the
scheme does not cease to be a perception ».

« It does not seem that there is ever vol-
untary attention without perception ». Berg-
son gives the following description of the
primary perception of the image :

« The primary perception of some parts
suggests a schematic representation of the

whole and of the relations between the var-
ious parts. Developing the scheme or con-
vention in images or memories, we seek to
make the recalled images coincide with the
perceived images. If we do not succeed in
this, we have recourse to another schematic
representation ».

In any case, the positive and useful part
of our work consists in passing from the
scheme to the image which has been per-
ceived. This being the case, the scholastic
film should only offer young spectators im-
ages to which they have a correspondance in
schematicized images. The wealth of the
schemes varies according to the age, intel-
ligence, culture and experience of the pupil.

Since the mind cannot identify beings or
objects without the interposition of a fami-
liar scheme or framework, the teaching cin-
ema should avoid all complicated material
and anything likely to cause confusion. It
should be simple and suitable for the most
intelligent pupils as well as for grown ups.
Do you remember having seen technical or
industrial films which you did not under-
stand? This happened because you did not
possess in your mind any images or conven-
tions in correspondence, because the compli-
cated images did not allow you to do any
stylization of your own, to draw from your
memory of images those supplementary
images which were necessary to make the
idea complete for understanding. The mot-
ion picture cannot therefore be considered
solely as an occasional means, but should
form part of teaching, or be included in it.
A film that is not carefully prepared is not
at all likely to prove useful. Pedagogues'
efforts ought to be in the direction of limit-
ing with exactness the cinema's field of
action and its occasions of use in certain
subjects, its possibilities and limits.

It is a mistake, as we have already said,
to suppose that the teaching film should be
subjected to the same rules as the document-
ary picture from which it differs both in
method and aims. Since the didactic cinema
tends to impress on the mind images that
are well connected one with another and

CINEMA AND TEACHING

617

to create coherent groups of images to con-
nect which judgment is required, careless
methods are not likely to be sufficient.

Even more than the book, the motion
picture must take account of the means
that are best adapted for rendering it under-
standable and subjecting it to judgment. It
cannot rely on vague words, but, on the con-
trary, must present its facts without altering
them when it does not make use of tricks
and illusions. It must coordinate them and
put them in relation and order, removing
all secondary facts which are likely to ob-
scure the central phenomenon.

Fantasy. — This is a word which cannot
belong to the psychological dictionary on
account of having infinite meanings.

We are not referring to fantasy or fancy
as the faculty of representing objects which
cannot ordinarily be seen, of feeling a new
presence in the spirit, a renewed perception
of an absent object.

Pupils of backward intelligence suffer
from atrophied imaginations. They do not
picture for themselves things that are immed-
iately before their eyes, or if they do so
they must make an effort of memory which
brings about a slowness in reflection and
the conception of ideas. According to the
theory of schematicism it may be stated that
they have a poverty of « schemes » or frames,
that is, they have a poverty of fundamental
images or they have images or groups of
images which are too complex. This old
statement has led teachers to show images
and to reproduce them in books, and in this
way to decrease the number of descriptions.
The object or its picture are necessary for
teaching purposes when it is desired that the
pupil shall translate the words which are
repeated to him. Out of fear of deforming
the sense of the words, images are shown
the pupil. Without these images, teaching
would only be a misunderstanding. They
are used to enrich the store of images and
« frames » but, with their assistance, inter-
pretations vary, memories disappear, physiog-

nomies are modified and characters trans-
formed. The instability of the spirit is such
that we must do all in our power to coun-
terbalance it.

To illustrate this, the following experi-
ment has been made. Various lessons on the
manufacture of pencils have been given,
each helped out with a new demonstration,
either documentary or in the form of an
object lesson. The first lesson consisted in
the verbal description of the manufacture,
the second of a similar description supple-
mented with samples and photographs of
factories. The third lesson consisted of a film
of the object under study and the fourth
used all the methods hitherto employed fol-
lowed by a visit to the factory. It might be
expected that the pupils from 14 to 15 years
of age would not have made any mistakes.
On the contrary, however, despite the care
of the method, in 30 per cent of the cases,
there were numerous errors and oversights
which proved the difficulty in absorbing the
images.

The motion picture cannot at the present
stage cure scholars affected with intellectual
laziness. Carefully employed it can only do
something to ameliorate their condition.

Images and words. - We think with
words, and it is in fact characteristic of man
that he has two « schemes » or frames as
his disposal; one a real one given by the
image, drawing or representation of the
object and an artificial or nominal frame in
the word. It is well known that often enough
one or the other escapes us and the word
cannot be given its image or we cannot find
the word for the mental picture.

We have spoken of two languages; the
language of images and the language of
words. The existence of the one depends on
the existence of the other. We cannot under-
stand the one without possessing the other.
Children do not understand the language of
images when their minds do not contain
frames or systems for translating them. It
is clear that images lead us to words and
from words to argument and reasoning.
Even the simplest kind of film is not

618

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

always well interpreted by children, because
the words which are necessary to express
their thoughts are not handy to their minds.
Not being able to refer to conventional
mental schemes or correspondences useful
for this form of intellectual translation,
children do not as a rule take in moving
pictures and are often tired by them. It is
this lack of verbal equivalents for the images
of films that causes children to lose interest
in them.

It has been supposed on this account that
the motion picture is not adapted for very
young children. This is a mistake. We must
not overdo its use for young children for
physiological reasons, but it can usefully be
employed in primary schools if it speaks an
infantile language and presents the simplest
and least complicated kind of pictures. The
life of animals known to young children
interests them, while stories of the life of
exotic animals with which they are not fam-
iliar — with a few exceptions like the lion,
elephant and dromedary ■ — do not interest
them. The tricks and jokes of Mickey Mouse
are at once appreciated by their mentalities
in all their vivacity of expression.

This depends on the fact that they have
the necessary words for translating for them-
selves these mental pictures that is the cor-
respondences for connecting these new im-
pressions with already existing ones. This
exercise of seeking for words for images be-
comes for them a kind of game.

Judgment - Reasoning. — All words
which define judgment and reasoning are
words which recall movement. Thus abstrac-
tion comes from abstrahere to separate by
force, paragon comes from comparare to
compare, demonstrate, construct.

If the motion picture had only to assist
in the perception of objects and could not be
used in more complex mental operations, it
would not be worth much as an art to be
be applied to teaching.

Is it possible to transpose to the screen
the phases of intellectual work? Can this
transposition be useful and desirable? If we

answer in the affirmative, we ought to find
in the activity of pedagogues and students
traces of these necessities and proofs of the
possibilities of reaching abstraction by means
of the sensory life. Henri Poincare, author
of Science et Methode, employed in his arith-
metic lessons a system of lines and tables
which moved about and were superimposed
one over another, that turned and twisted
about. He did this under the belief that
the teacher's first duty, after having enun-
ciated a definition, is to endeavour to demon-
strate it in a coherent fashion to justify it
and impose visually. This was all before we
had the typical application of the cinema
method.

It may well be that many children are slow
in grasping facts owing to an inexact intro-
duction to their study. The motion picture
has the advantage of showing the genesis
of images, since the lines are gradually
traced and the component parts are put in
position during the course of the demon-
stration. (Pierre Durosoy, How to Teach
Mathematics, in Etudes, No. 18, Paris).

The normal way of bringing mathematic-
al abstractions down to the level of the in-
telligence, the way which in its natural and
necessary movement follows the human
spirit starts from a sensory perception. For
a child, understanding means seeing.

There is no machine which teaches us to
see better than the cinematograph, on con-
dition that its pictures have been well cho-
sen and are projected in a clear and intelli-
gible vision. In this department, the motion
picture is the means which allows us to put
forward real facts in such a way that they
can readily be grasped, to present them with
great precision and with a rhythm that
harmonizes with the needs of the spirit.

THE CINEMA AND TEACHING.

For a Positive Pedagogy. « The spirit only
understands fully
when it is able to create ».

The master's lesson has more value on

CINEMA AND TEACHING

619

account of its method than its subject, that
is on account of the totality of means
capable of arriving at understanding and
presenting it with some coordinated facts so
that the intelligence may be able to schema-
ticize and to establish the relations which
unite them. What are the best means for
arriving at this state of things? Those which
connect new notions to « schemes » or men-
tal frames already existing in our spirit,
those which feel the necessity of these nexus
for illumining the path of our intelligence.

Success depends then on the value of the
means employed. The scholastic cinema, if
it is not to be a failure, requires order, a
hierarchy of facts, an analysis of mental
operations and it will be entitled to be con-
sidered a lawful adjunct of pedagogy if it
answers these demands.

The art of teaching must have its laws
like all the other arts. Individualist theories
have obscured this fact, but while some
persons disapprove this theory, children
are opposed to forms of teaching which
are blindly based on personal research or on
discoveries of science disconnected with any
work of the teacher. The child capable of
evolving his own system of cognitions, his
own science, is a mythical being. Some one
must help him. How is this to be done?
By allowing him the illusion of discovery,
while directing his spirit and preventing
him from losing his path. In spite of this,
perhaps even on account of it, there remains
a wide field for the spirit's activity on con-
dition that this activity is exercised within
limits and that its aims are clearly defined.

The harmony between order and liberty,
in the form if not in the substance, is pos-
sible and necessary. The student loves intel-
lectual discipline, feels the need of it and is
in no way oppressed by it. The pedagogic
method which takes it origin from the mo-
tion picture leads to an orderly form of
teaching, a need of liberty and a naturally
disciplined activity.

The cinema's didactics are direct in the
sense that they require order in the present-

ation of facts, an order which corresponds
to that followed by the mind.

It has been held that the teaching curri-
culum was independent of the didactic sys-
tem which put it into effect. This is clearly
an error. Order requires that the various
parts of the scholastic curriculum or pro-
gramme be presented according to different
plans and according to their importance, in
which way an equilibrium is established.
The curriculum contains the method since
it defines the importance of the subject in
relation to the whole, and indicates with
what care and special forms it must be de-
monstrated. To define the relative import-
ance of subjects for teaching might mean
a form of anticipation that would be neither
necessary nor useful. It behooves us then to
consider the means best adapted for under-
standing; while we must cast aside dog-
matic systems which creates monotony, at
the same time insisting on the necessity of
research in an art which is all the stronger,
the better it is ordered.

The preparation of scholastic curricula,
the importance of which is obvious, forms
the task of those who understand their
extent and variety, that is specialists. Scien-
tists recognize, — in whatever subject mat-
ter they may specialize — that the direct
path towards knowledge has its beginning
in the senses. They therefore admit the
value of facts and observation of facts and,
as a consequence, the uselessness of dog-
matism. Without doubt, any scholastic pro-
gramme outlined by them will show the
importance of the method of observation,
which is a prelude to the scientific method.

The faculty of observation varies in its
means. The teacher cannot be acquainted
with all the means. The curricula will sug-
gest some to him thus intimating the diver-
sity of the activities which lead to know-
ledge. It might be stated that in this way
the teacher will no longer enjoy any liberty.
Has the musician any greater liberty when
he follows a score or plays an opera of his
own choice?

620

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

Under the discipline imposed on him by
the composer, a discipline he willingly ac-
cepts, his soul is exalted and he becomes
capable of free expression. Without a dis-
cipline of this kind, the spirit is disordered
and incapable of emotion. The pedagogue
is like the musician. He tries out the mo-
tives composed by experts on the childish
intelligence, and tries them according to the
dictates of his temperament, without in the
least belitding his own personality. He does
not create, but he assimilates, and can there-
fore transmit. The pedagogue who is
master of his material and means for de-
veloping it only fulfils one part of his duty.
Each day he ought to « practise his scales »
In order to understand these exercises of
adaptation, and to execute them well, all
improvisation must be given up. It is always
an enemy of live pedagogy.

The humblest being is always worthy of
the most attentive care. Beings of this type
must be analysed and we must study how
to handle them intelligently. There is no
need to seek to make such intelligences shine.

This kind of study is difficult. If it in-
duces your mind to represent the effect of
vague and rudimentary statements, to guess
at reaction and to differentiate your intel-
ligence from that of your pupils who are
listening to you and observing you, it will
offer you so many new and various visions
that you will be led to abandon at once this
kind of inquiry, and in this case the effort
will not seem superior to your strength.

The analytic study of subjects of teaching
and their effect on children's minds leads
to the study of teaching systems and to a
comparison between them.

It has been stated that there are numer-
ous systems of teaching, but this does not
mean that they are all equally valuable.
We must vary our methods in order to
avoid monotony which is often caused by
an excessive use of the same means.

The motion picture cannot anyhow be
considered as a universal means of teaching.
We must use it with discretion like any-
thing else. Before tackling the question of

the scholastic cinema, let us consider three
essential points.

(i) Is there a contradiction between the
active method and the cinema?

(2) What are the categories of the schol-
astic film?

(3) What is the best form for the teach-
ing film?

Active Method and Cinema. The three guid-
ing principles of
modern pedagogy are to be found in the
the immediate surroundings, in the princi-
ple of concentration and the plan of work.

Immediate Surroundings. - Surroundings:
every day experience. Things and ideas from
the daily circumambient life, perpetual com-
ing and going of life, vegetable world, ani-
mal and human surroundings; scholastic
work which is connected with the foregoing.

Concentration. - Suppression of arbitrary
cuts which hamper the live trend of the
interest; maintenance of the relations be-
tween the various subjects taught; cohesion
between the student's actions.

Wor\. - The pupil acts, seeks and expres-
ses himself. The teacher advises, stimulates,
animates. Only personal activity counts. It is
necessary to assist children to make their way
along the path of independence and liberty
which requires a continuous and spontaneous
effort and also a submission to the rulings of
order.

Whether we want it or not, the school is
being transformed. It may be there is
a certain amount of Utopian idealism in these
principles, but they are necessary in order to
give the school its characteristic physiogno-
my. The school of tomorrow will not be the
same thing as the school of today. The re-
lations between master and pupil will un-
dergo modifications. The teacher will find
himself obliged to take account of new me-
thods and the work of inventors and critics
(R. P. Chaillot in La Nouvelle Revue des
]eunes, Paris, No 7, 1932).

Is there a contradiction between the active
method and the motion picture? We mean
the active method or active school, the chief

CINEMA AND TEACHING

621

characteristic of which we have already out-
lined.

If there were any contradiction, the cin-
ema would have no longer any raison
d'etre, because the active method satisfies
our requirements too well to allow of the
possibility of our turning back to outworn
and superseded methods out of touch with
modern ideas.

Up to now the cinema has deserved the
reproach that it encourages mental laziness
and serves up an intellectual meal for the
pupils, for which they ought to have prepar-
ed themselves to appreciate it properly. Can
the motion picture, apart from tricks and
artifice, excite the child's mental activity?
Can it make children participate directly in
the acquisition of knowledge, invite them
to gather it, catalogue it, observe their ma-
terial and draw the necessary observations
and conclusions?

The present rules governing the scho-
lastic cinema seem to be at the opposite
poles of those of the active teaching method.
Documentary pictures, difficult to grasp and
understand, and having little connection
with routine class work cannot furnish op-
portunities for interpretations or researches.

The active method has invented nothing
in teaching, it may be urged, but has limited
itself to allowing a knowledge of what it is
necessary to know to be gained with all
and every means. The Socratic system of
questioning is the one that ought to prevail.

The cinema seems, on the contrary, to be
essentially anti-Socratic, since the children
are expected to learn merely by looking.
This ingenuous conception of things, this
remaining in the master's shadow, this move-
ment towards a mechanical pedagogy have
gravely damaged the teaching film. They
have arrested its development and created
the opinion that it can only have a secondary
function in scholastic life.

The teaching film, in its elementary forms,
which are badly suited to the school can have
no future because it has no demonstratable
utility, or because the mediocre utility which
can be discerned in it does not justify its

exorbitant cost. At the same time for mak-
ing good scholastic pictures, it is patience
and intelligence rather than money which
are required. It ought not then to be diffi-
cult to create a new form of cinema which
would put in their proper places teacher and
student. The former, consulting motion pic-
ture programmes will find there subjects
suited to his screen. He will analyse them
in order to give the students a ready and
proper understanding of them. He will re-
create them as it were, giving them a new
life, and presenting them in such a way as
to be readily accessible to our mentality and
the mentality of children.

The cinema expert, in the limits pre-
scribed by pedagogy, will seek for the best
solutions of technical difficulties.

The teacher and the film expert ought to
collaborate in cutting and mounting, coop-
erating in the best and closest way possible.

The essential function of the motion pic-
ture does not only consist in the best present-
ation of subjects, but also in the direction
and policy which it can give to a still in-
complete pedagogy. Its efforts should be
directed towards the child who, in the opin-
ion of Rousseau, we do not know at all.
It (the motion picture) has forgotten the
study of methods and has not sought to
facilitate the teacher's labour which should
tend to bring within the reach of all his
scholars the things it is his duty to teach.

Neither scholastic manuals, nor oral les-
sons nor ordinary teaching material force us
to such a close and diligent effort of research
and study as does the film lesson. The analy-
sis of the subject and its complete under-
standing are necessary for the choice and
success of the lesson. A comparison of the
facts seen and the description which follows
oblige the student to a precise form of ex-
pression and a logical perception not found
in lessons that are prepared in substance,
but are often enough improvised in the form.
The film gives pupils a means of judging
the value of the teaching received. It obliges
the master to be exact in what he teaches,

622

EDUCA TIONAL CINEMA TOGRAPHY

both as regards methodology and the analysis
which his pupils will make.

Images and Cinema. In order clearly to
define the nature
and functions of the scholastic film, we
must not isolate it from all the other forms
of illustration in the didactic field such as
text-books, mural pictures, slides, etc.

The image, according to Comenius's Or-
bis Sensualium pictus, shows children the
things of which their teacher is speaking
when such things are not actually present.
In this way they learn their names bit by
bit.

This is also the essential function of the
illustrations in text-books. Pinloche states
that his Vocabulaire per Vimage de la lan-
gue franfaise is a dictionary in which « the
image or picture being prior to the word,
and the evoking sign for the idea common
to all peoples and understood by all has
really the function of a universal lang-
uage ».

The image must take the place of real,
first hand knowledge in a typical form of
language. It offers to methodical observa-
tion fields hitherto unknown. It creates re-
quirements that can be satisfied without
effort provided that the image or series of
images are in accord with the laws of psy-
chology.

There is no determined absolute tech-
nique in the matter of scholastic images or
pictures.

Even caricature can be used which hits
off a story without words in a few lines
with a natural liveliness of its own and
makes its point by accentuating an essential
so that the interest is directed by one sign
that has immediate reflections on the mind.
The caricaturist can be a pedagogue without
knowing it.

The scholastic text-book is getting less
and less adequate for modern requirements.
The wealth of subjects to be taught leads
us towards the creation of newer kinds
of text-books which should be more like
guides than summaries. The illustration in

the text-book is made to fit the text, while
it should really be the other way about.

The image is an object for observation
and implies the drawing of the attention
to it and a description of facts. Illustrations
are no use unless they give some substance
to the mind.

It is impossible to give too much
thought to scholastic pictures. We shall
have come within appreciable distance of
perfection when scholastic projections are
made with the same care that is taken in
the production and projection of an ordin-
ary film. There must be identity of me-
thod for the fixed projection and the
moving picture.

To take an example: the illustration of
arithmetic text-books is very poor because
insufficient attention is given to gradual
approach to the subject and to detail.
Everything is presented en masse without
the secret of the construction being shown.

Pupils who are weak in mathematics are
not less intelligent than their fellows. What
they lack is the sense of cutting. A little
light will often give them this faculty, and
reveal the mystery to their intelligences.

The scholastic cinematographist is a crea-
tor and imaginer of pictures. When he
shows a picture he superimposes images.
When he teaches, he uses the cinema meth-
od which is an analytic method, and can
therefore give life to an admirable form
of art.

The Scientific Film. It is useless to disting-
uish between the
scientific research film and the scientific de-
monstration film because they deal with two
subjects which merge into each other.

It would certainly not be desirable to class
the scientific film with a teaching film, be-
cause there is nothing in common between
a didactic film prepared for elementary or
secondary classes and that destined for use
at a University. There is a difference in the
spirit with which they are imbued. The
first is concerned principally with the didac-
tic problem which seeks to render com-

CINEMA AND TEACHING

623

prehensive to young pupils the subjects with
which it deals, while the scientific film con-
cerns itself only with its subject and causes
it to develop in accordance with logical
rules, without any regard to its pedagogic
use. A scientific film deals uncompromisingly
with its subject, whereas a teaching film
compromises in order to bring its subject to
the level of the understanding of the specta-
tors and will even betray science itself in
the good cause which it seeks to serve.

The scientific film may be defined thus.
A film that represents the life of nature,
produced by technical means, rendering vis-
ible to normal observation phenomena
which it would otherwise be impossible to
study.

The scientific value of this kind of film
does not necessarily exist in the interpreta-
tion, but depends, for its value, on the per-
sons who have studied the subject and of-
fered the representation of the phenomenon.

The teaching films are those whose object-
ive contents are clearly outlined and have a
definite instructive value. The subject of a
film has nothing in common with its in-
structive value since anything may be includ-
ed that is instructive. That which gives char-
acter and value to a didactic film is the
spirit in which it is conceived, the import-
ance given to the facts and the way in
which they are accentuated to allow of
their assimilation and retention by the mem-
ory. The method which inspires the plot,
the sole object of which is to achieve lucid-
ity, taking into account the psychological
element of the future spectators. The in-
structive value of the didactic film is a sub-
jective idea, and therefore is variable and
cannot be classified in a catalogue of films.
Thus the true character of the teaching film
is the method of the representation of the
facts, their balance, order and quantity,
which must not exceed the capacity of assim-
ilation of the future spectators, taking into
account their age and intelligence.

The exact definition of a teaching film,
in our opinion, is as follows: a film created
and realized in order that the facts or phen-

omena presented may be easy of assimila-
tion and retention by the memory.

The Documentary
Scholastic Film.

The documentary
scholastic film is in-
tended to illustrate teaching. To awaken
the mind to a procession of images which
would otherwise fade and pass from the
memory. Its more direct purpose, however,
is to create an atmosphere which would
lend reality to mental visions which would
not otherwise be impressed on the mind.

Documentary films destined for schools
have so far been very few in number, but
their trial some years ago, attained results
which showed how useful this form of film
could be and how desirable it is that its
production should not be left in commercial
hands. The development of the documentary
scholastic film has been endangered by the
advent of the sound film.

The sound apparatus is impossible for
schools on account of the high cost of the
projectors and the prohibitive price of their
hire. It has been sought to solve this diffi-
culty by the construction of sound projectors
for 16 mm. films. This solution has not
been found very satisfactory, since the cost
still remains high, and the productions are
not of the best quality. The actual conditions
under which the scholastic cinema is pro-
duced are very little understood and may
have to be entirely revised.

There is the necessity of convincing the
scholastic world of the great value of the
documentary motion pictures and the prob-
lem of the organization of the production,
and distribution of the material in such a
way that it may become a commercial pro-
position.

• In the following pages we will show the
resources of the cinema under this reorgan-
ization and its great teaching.

The Recreative There is always a place

Scholastic Film. jn schools for the recrea-
tional film, and we may predict that there
will always be recreational motion pictures
for schools.

624

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

In animated drawings there is an infinity
of delicious nonsense which may be con-
doned and which is capable of giving in-
tense pleasure to children. Adults also can
appreciate the jokes of Mickey Mouse and
Felix the Cat, nor are they repelled by
the necessary moral lesson of the drawings
which their artistic creators have introduced
into the cartoons.

These three categories of films are suffi-
cient for all pedagogic needs, and there is
no necessity to add to them. In any case
it would be a fundamental mistake to as-
sert that the scholastic film can always be,
at one and the same time, instructive and
recreational. The expression recreative is
not always clear; in fact it is not certain
that a film which amuses, will impress it-
self on the mind as well as one of a
more serious nature. In the recreative film
there may be a too great facility, and it
would be dangerous for the educational
cinema to fall into this error.

A lesson on the film is just an easier
lesson and, if well presented, will be more
profitable than other modes of learning;
(i) because a lesson given by means of the
film diminishes the possibility of misunder-
standing the subject and the details to
be studied; (2) because a film presented
with care, and the necessary lucidity and
simplicity, offers better material for reten-
tion by the memory and is more easily re-
collected.

Those who have the making of the
teaching film, should seek to attain light-
er and not heavier programmes. In the
words of Montaigne, they should render
mieux avant rather plus avant.

Scholastic Cinema- The greatest reproach
tographic Editions. ^ can be made

against the cinema is the difficulty of teach-
ing with it, and impressing the subject of
the film on the memory. In reality, no film
can, with only one projection and without
comment or repetition, impress itself on the
memory, and cause the incidents to stand
out in relief.

If this were not the case, it would be
necessary to admit the complete inadequacy
of ordinary didactic methods, if, in one
stroke, by means of a mechanical process,
the laws of teaching could be entirely al-
tered.

This is an unreasonable proposition, and
it would be still more unreasonable to seek
to justify it. We do not, however, on that
account intend to set ourselves against cine-
matographic teaching, but to give it its
proper place, without taking into considera-
tion the ultimate possibilities of its intelli-
gent use.

There is a resemblance between the les-
son given by a master and the film lesson.
Neither the one nor the other will firmly
imprint itself on the mind unless some other
means are used to attain this object. The
master's words can be re-read in the text
books, and the pupils can recollect the lesson
and their memories can be refreshed. This
exercise has no other object than insensibly
and by experience to imprint on the mind
the rules which have already been set forth
by the master.

There is no difference in the aim of this
process, whether illustrated by the text book,
still life, a drawing, a lantern slide or the
projection of a film. The recent evolution
of school books show that they have been
entirely transformed. They perhaps contain
less matter, but are illustrated and are much
easier of comprehension. The illustrations
help to eliminate any misunderstandings
that may arise from the use of language.
The more recent illustrations are inspired
by modern pedagogic ideas, and combine
with the text to make a clear representation
of the facts to be learned by the pupil. This
idea is not so entirely modern as it may
appear « In this year (1574) Millanges began
to print scholastic books for the College of
Guiana. The somewhat dark shop smelt of
thick ink and fresh paper. Four young men
were singing and working the printing press.

« Here is a guide book », said Millanges
to Montaigne, showing him the proofs of a
book, « and here is a Virgil », « They are

CINEMA AND TEACHING

625

printed in such a way, that the students can
easily make notes ». Montaigne turned over
the specimen offered to him. « Why » he
asked, do you leave these blank pages?

« So that the students may write the re-
marks and explanations of the teacher at
the side of the printed page ».

Montaigne was very struck with the ori-
ginality and wisdom of this idea and was
moved to felicitate Millanges upon it.
(Andre Lamande, « La vie de Montaigne »,
ed. Paul Plon, Paris).

The teaching film as we have defined it,
should be capable of being projected in a
single lesson. The meterage must be limited
and the projection must not last more than
10 minutes. The images presented should
not exceed twenty or twenty-five to the se-
cond, so that the length of the film may be
restricted to 200 metres. Since it is necessary
to be able to repeat the projection without
loss of time, the projector should be furn-
ished with a device for continuous reeling
and un-reeling which would allow of inter-
ruptions and repetitions of the film.

Even when thus regulated, the moving
picture cannot give the greatest, and most
to be desired benefit of all, namely the pos-
sibility of moments of repose, so that the
spectators may reconstruct the principal
points of the lesson in which they have ta-
ken part, with time to explain clearly
and precisely their own ideas on the subject.
The solution of this problem has been found
by the makers of films who extract from
the film the most attractive pictures. If the
essential pictures could be drawn from the
film, edited and reduced to a size suitable
for reproduction in a copybook, the recon-
structive material of the lesson would be at
hand, and its course with any comments
would be there for reference. Thus the in-
dividual work of the teacher, the only work
that counts, would be adapted to the lesson
of the film in a way that at first seemed
impossible. This method would be complete
in every branch, and, thus organized, would
permit of the assistance of the film in every
possible subject. It would not be out of

place to imagine a book resembling that
presented to Montaigne by Millanges, with
blank pages for drawings and photographs
and others for notes and individual work.

This lesson book might well be used in
the schools of many countries and would
be of the greatest service, giving an effi-
ciency to teaching that could not be achieved
with the ordinary printed text-book. In ad-
dition it would also contain a certain ele-
ment of the individuality of the pupil and
of his abilities and would besides bear wit-
ness to the pleasure given him by his stud-
ies. Objection might be made to the price
of such a book, but we believe that this
would not be an obstacle. The photographic
reproductions, with the new mechanical pro-
cess, would cost for an entire edition, plus
a special specimen edition, less than a farth-
ing per copy. A lesson could well be
summed up by six to ten photographs at
most. In the course of a year the films could
be limited to half a dozen subjects, as the
remainder could be drawn from those al-
ready existing.

If, however, it is thought necessary to
have a cinema for every school and an in-
dividual film for every subject, it must be
remembered that it is exactly this demand
that would cause a diminuition of prices.

The scholastic film is costly because it is
not produced in sufficient quantities. If
films were manufactured in the usual mode
adapted for other auxiliaries for teaching,
their production could be taken seriously
and a collection could be made which would
stand much more chance of being sold, and
of being a source of profit. This profit would
increase as the film became more and more
adapted to the purpose for which it was
intended.

The Length of the Film. - The teaching
and documentary scholastic films are simple
and must deal with one subject only, with
no unnecessary deviations.

The scenario must not be subjected to a
strain which would be legitimate in evol-
ving the phrases of the phenomena and the

2 - Ice Ingl.

626

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

marshalling of the facts but that would be
harmful to the perception.

In the scholastic film there is no place
for any superfluous matter, and if it should
seem rough and unfinished, it must be con-
sidered as a necessary evil, since the schol-
astic cinema has nothing in common with
the ordinary film, and must interest without
distracting the attention from the subject.

We have sought to establish the length of
the film, but it is a question of slight im-
portance and one that depends on the subject
and the quantity of matter which the pupils
are capable of assimilating.

The length of a film is therefore a prob-
lem of a technical description which will
be resolved after precise and methodical
examination. In addition, the teaching film
for many reasons which would come to light
on technical examination, must, by its na-
ture, be of short meterage.

Taking the film. - Teachers too often de-
clare that; « Yes it is good, but it goes too
fast ».

This complaint is justified. The taking of
the scholastic film cannot be at the rate of
16 photographs per second, and as regards
its normal velocity that would be decided
by technical necessities. Experimental me-
thods are necessary for the development of
the cinema, and without them nothing of
importance or exactitude can be achieved.
Certainly the pace of the scholastic film is
too rapid, and this rapidity causes a diffi-
culty in a proper understanding of the pic-
tures.

The work of reducing the velocity of the
film in cases where the movement of the
pictures is too fast for proper perception
has been considered, but for normal phen-
omena it would obviously be unnecessary.

Teaching films which seek to demonstrate
minute details must necessarily be slower
than those showing complete pictures. The
sixteen photographs per second can only be
animated by a uniform velocity; the rapidity
of the unreeling of the photos is relative,
and depends on the various phases of the
subject.

There is a rhythm for shooting the pic-
ture just as there is one deriving from the
nature of the images and the mounting. It
shows itself when the projected scenes pass
again in the memory.

Children are no more insensible to the
rhythm of the film than to that given to
the lesson by the master. The problem of
the number of images per second for the
reeling off of the film is essential, but can
only be solved by experiment.

Titles and Substitutes. - Certain peda-
gogues are for suppressing these as serving
no purpose, but it they are well chosen, and
the film is shown at a pace which allows
of their comprehension, they may be very
useful.

It is, however, necessary today to avoid
long titles which interrupt the development
of the pictures. Each part of the film, suit-
ably divided up, and headed by two or
three words, and no profuse explanations,
should be sufficient. A film that has lengthy
and complicated comments is generally a
bad film. Sub-titles are dangerous because
the attention is drawn away from the pic-
ture. They must therefore be limited, and
a rigorous analysis imposed and a careful
selection made of the essential pictures.

The titles and sub-titles of a well-made
film must read like well written headings,
without useless phrases.

It has been sought to substitute sub-titles
with numbers corresponding to headings in
the text books but this is a useless compli-
cation and an unintelligent solution. The
heading breaks the normal development or
rhythm of pictures. If the sub-title is unnec-
essary to the picture it can be suppressed.

Reduced Size Films. - All that we have
said of the elaboration and production of
the scholastic film demonstrates that the
problem of the reduced size film is closely
connected with the future of the scholastic
cinema, which must not be considered as
the poor relatives, but needs independent
treatment and a special technique of its
own.

There are three reduced sizes; 9.5 mm.,

CINEMA AND TEACHING

627

16 mm., and 17.5 mm. The reduced size,
for practical and economic reasons, is indis-
pensable for teaching. The scholastic film
must, in other words, be within the reach
of everyone's purse and, since it is necessarily
for use in schools, it should be easy to trans-
port and to manipulate and must be free
of danger.

The type of the machine and of the film
is the reduced size. The third International
Conference on the Scholastic film held at
Vienna in 1931, adopted certain resolutions
on the reduced form, but gave no indications
of a special preference for one or other of
the reduced size.

It seems, however, that the consensus
of the majority was for the 16 mm. For that
matter, in the present state of the technique
of the apparatus, it would be impossible to
hold any other opinion. Doubdess the
smallest of the reduced sizes would be the
most interesting, providing that its qualities
of cheapness, durability and strength of light
were equal to those of the standard size. The
uncertainty of all matters connected with
the scholastic cinema is the principal cause
of the slow progress of the reduced size. It
is not known which films would be useful
for schools, nor the rules to be observed in
their creation, nor what it is necessary to
know in order to make a practical system
of teaching with the cinema.

It is therefore not surprising that the
matter remains stationary, and that no per-
ceptible progress has been made.

The Congress at Vienna arrived at the
following conclusions: that every part of
the film must be divided and headed by
two or three words, at most, which must
suffice without additional explanations. As
we said before, a film that has too many
sub-tides cannot be a good film.

It would be a delusion to believe that the
sound film is destined to be in the future
an instrument for teaching. We do not
allow ourselves even to consider a form of
teaching which makes of the teacher a re-
cording disc, and a virgin disc of the pupil.

The pursuit of knowledge consists of an

exchange between the pupil and the teacher,
during which the teacher stimulates, directs
and controls the activities of the pupil. The
cinema cannot be a substitute for the teacher
even though it may have a special value of
its own in the moving pictures it presents.

Fixed Pictures and Moving Pictures. —
There is no substantial difference in these
two forms of projection. The same mobility
is the distinctive quality of both. If the val-
ue of a collection of pictures lies in the
choice and the order in which they are clas-
sified in sections, there would be almost as
much mobility in a group of fixed projec-
tions as in a film. Especially when it offers
food for thought and reflection.

The method of instruction is precisely the
same, whether for fixed or animated projec-
tion.

The Silent Film and the Sound Film. —
Does the coming of sound film alter the
conditions of the scholastic cinema?

Whatever the value of sound pictures may
be, it cannot be compared with that of vis-
ual pictures. This is pointed out by J. Bous-
sinesq in the following quotation : « Under
certain conditions, other portions of the
brain such as the auditive system can form
part of the visual system. The value of
teaching depends on the clearness of the
visual and the corresponding subsequent
mental images ».

The value of the teaching unites with
the clarity of the visual and mental pictures,
and is again renewed in the recollection of
the words of the master.

The addition of sound and of words ap-
parently does not increase, and may even
diminish, the intensity of the impression
left by the pictures.

Animated Drawings. These have from the
beginning, won the
approval of those judging them from the
recreational point of view, and even of those
who have analysed their real value. Animat-
ed drawings have given an especial art of
their own to the screen, apart from any ser-

628

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

ious purpose that the cinema may serve.
This has come about because, instinctively,
all means have been adopted that might
divert or instruct.

The animated drawing throws into relief
the principal idea, reducing the fatiguing
necessity of discrimination and creates fav-
orable conditions for the clear demonstra-
tion of the subject in an intelligent way.
Applied to the scholastic film, it gives a
precision of detail, and simplicity of repre-
sentation, which these films so often lack.
It provides the means for a theoretical dis-
position of facts and phenomena, which
when made plain and clear to all minds has
an attraction. This is especially apparent
when it is considered that the triumph of
the scholastic cinema does not consist in the
faithful reflection of the visible world, but
in the objective translation of thought.

An English author who writes of peda-
gogic matters with much spirit, is the author
of a short volume called « The Differential
or Integral Calculus within the Reach of
All ». Here are some truths it is pleasant to
recall in spite of their apparent impertin-
ence ».

« Seeing that a fool might do it, shows
that anyone might.

« We have noticed that many so called
professors of mathematics, who boast of being
masters of such an abstruse subject as the
differential or integral calculus, have no
reason to be so pretentious. To satisfy their
vanity, they desire the calculus to be consid-
ered a terribly hard thing, and it would
deeply pain them if this legend were de-
stroyed.

« The professional mathematician will per-
ceive that some of the methods that we
have simplified, and that we have had the
hardihood to apply to the solution of sever-
al problems, do not present the same dif-
ficulty in their solution, as with the ordinary
system.

(( Who in the world would deny a watch
to one who was not a watchmaker?

<( Who rebukes a violinist for his inabili-

ty to make the instrument on which he
plays, and who would seek to teach gram-
mar to a child who had not yet learned to
speak ?

« Mathematicians would declare that this
book is simple to excess because it elimin-
ates from calculations everything that is dif-
ficult. This is only too true, but is, at the
same time, the only reason we have written
this book. In it we address ourselves to the
infinite legion of unfortunates who fly from
the idea of studying the calculus because of
the absurd way in which such forms of
science are presented to then.

« Every subject even the simplest, can be
made repellant, if from its beginning it is
stuffed up with motiveless difficulties »..

(Silvanus P. Thomson. « The Differential
and Integral Calculus within the Reach of
All. ». Dunot and Pinat, Paris).

These irreverent sentiments will please
the numberless students who have suffered
from the so-called rational systems of teach-
ing. It is not only in medicine that there
are a priori conceptions, there are others and
perhaps more of them in teaching. It is there-
fore always a useful work to unmask them.

The scholastic film can, by means of ani-
mated drawings, deal with any theoretical
problem, free it from the verbosity, which
makes it so heavy, and translate into pic-
tures, mental visions, giving them life and
making them easy of comprehension.

In the scholastic world there are num-
berless problems which would be infinitely
simplified by being expressed clearly and in
a concise manner. It is only necessary to
mention geometry, arithmetic, algebra, phy-
sics, electricity, chemistry, zoology, botany,
geology, economic and political psyschology.

A multitude of problems exist in these
subjects which would gain enormously by
being treated in the above-mentioned man-
ner.

A simple conclusion is arrived at. In the
scholastic cinema there is a virgin soil, in
which to work, sow and prepare, for the
future instruction of young people, who up

CINEMA AND TEACHING

629

to now, have never been able to completely
understand that which it was desired to
teach them.

Les us suppose that the subjects are treated
in a competent and simple way, that the
scenario is revised by those having experience
and art in presenting and making them com-
prehensible. We would then have a method-
ology, which up till now has been sterile,
but which under these circumstances would
flourish and bear a rich harvest.

We should have a renewed interest in all
those branches of science which until today,
have been considered a heavy and useless
burden.

Certain subjects treated by persons of
imagination and illustrated by artists, could
not fail to have the desired effect, attracting
the teachers perhaps even more than the
pupils and making visual demonstration
more sought after than any description
however complete and correct, to be found
in books.

The Rationalization Rationalization is a
of Teaching Methods method of organiza-
tion which seeks to
obtain the maximum result with the mini-
mum of material and energy.

This definition would not seem to apply
to teaching. It is, however, certain, that in
speaking of the result of teaching, it is de-
sirable to define it and to calculate the ener-
gy necessary to attain it.

As to the material for teaching, it exists
alike both for pupil and teacher, and since
in teaching results are desired, and energy
is expended, it must be admitted that a ra-
tionalization of teaching methods is possible.

The best material and the utmost econ-
omy of energy are always desirable. For
our purposes rationalization may be de-
fined as the art of adapting scholastic mate-
rial to the mentality of the various categories
of pupils, an adaptation which must be
arrived at by research, and the preparation
of the simplest and most direct systems.

Of all the arts, teaching alone has no

raw material which may be studied, criti-
cized and taken as a model. Further, its
results cannot be tested, until the moment
when it is presented to the public, a public
which, by its nature, is unable to judge its
value.

The theoretical exposition of the method
is not a substitute for the master's lesson; the
verbal explanation, the demonstration and
means of demonstrating, the moral atmo-
sphere, are all necessary elements. It is pos-
sible that the sound film may supply all
these.

The principle of rationalization has al-
ways been followed with the best results.
The bases of national wealth are wise and
careful forms of rationalization, used by the
woman in the home, the farmer on his land,
the workman in his workshop. When the
housewife puts stockfish and peas in the
same dish so that the latter can absorb the
salt which the whiting must lose in order to
become edible, she is carrying out an exam-
ple of domestic rationalization. When the
dyer colours linen in the same vat in which
later he proposes to colour silk, he knows
that the linen will absorb the acidity that is
dangerous for silk, and he is performing an
act of industrial rationalization. When the
farmer plants fruit trees near his chicken
yard, he knows that the trees will derive
advantage from the animals' manure, and
the birds enjoy the shelter of the trees, and
he is performing an act of agricultural ra-
tionalization.

Why then should we not attempt ration-
alization in teaching methods since ration-
alization itself only means an application
of the intelligence to work?

The rationalization of methods of teach-
ing cannot only come from a comparison of
systems. The only way of arriving at ra-
tionalizing processes in this subject is to
attend lessons and criticize them, to repeat
and analyse them and the best means of
doing this is the motion picture.

The masters of pedagogy amuse them-
selves by saying that we do not know

630

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

how to teach. They could show us how to
teach with the use of the film, illustrating
our defects and showing us examples to be
studied and analysed in peace. In this way
pedagogy could become a real art.

If we think of the very small expense
which a cinema version of a lesson by a
great teacher would require, as compared
with the waste of money required for the
production of a film on some more or less
mediocre story or novel, we shall be sur-
prised in noting that the motion picture

which ought to be an instrument of pro-
gress and culture is largely limited to a re-
creational function.

The most capable teachers, the most il-
lustrious scientists hide from us examples
and cases which could prove most useful.
Owing to a lack of means, we are obliged to
limit ourselves as teachers to the resources
of our own minds, since no serious attempt
has yet been made to utilize the rapidest
and most organic means of communication
which man has yet invented.

REPORT ON THE CONDITIONS PREVAILING IN

GERMAN FILM PRODUCTION IN REGARD TO

DIDACTIC AND EDUCATIONAL FILMS

APRIL 1, 1933 - APRIL 1, 1934.

In new-born Germany there is but one,
uniform cultural tendency in the whole
of the film industry. The duty of cultural
cooperation in the field of popular education
is no longer incumbent upon one particular
branch of the film industry. A strong feel-
ing of responsibility, inevitably implied in
this high mission, has sprung up everywhere.
Now at last the indispensable interconnec-
tion between the strong cultural will of the
nation and the institutions of the film in-
dustry which have to serve this new spirit,
has become a real fact. It is a characteristic
proof of the inborn spontaneousness of this
movement that the reorganization of the al-
ready existing institutions of the film in-
dustry commencing in the spring of 1933,
became the prototype of the professional
constructive organization of the German
cultural community. When the fundamental
act establishing the Chamber of Culture
came into force on September 22nd, 1933,
a fully organized Preliminary Film Cham-
ber was already existing, and by the said act
could be made the first member of the Cul-
tural Chamber of the Reich which was
about to be formed.

The warm and active interest taken by
Dr. Goebbels, Propaganda Minister of the
Reich, in the German film industry was
thus for the first time crowned by a most
important success.

Moreover, he frequently advocated in
personal addresses and lectures the cultural
improvement of German films. All these

endeavours were finally crowned by the
new Film Act dated February 16th, 1934.

The most important measure directly af-
fecting didactic and educational film reels,
but also exerting a decisive influence on the
educational values of entertainment motion
pictures, is the alteration in film censorship
contained in the film act of February
16th, 1934, and in particular the introduc-
tion of the leadership principle when carry-
ing through the censoring of films, in order
to decide whether a film is to be licensed for
public performances, and in order to de-
cide whether an individual film is to be
given the mark of

« being of general educational value »,

« being of artistic value »,

« being of cultural value »,

<( being valuable under aspects of nation-
al policy »,
or « being of didactic value for education-
al purposes », and whether in addition
it can be awarded the distinction of
being « particularly valuable ».
Thereby the official Chairman of the Cen-
sorship Chamber has been newly entrusted
with the decision whether any such mark is
to be granted to an individual film and the
old institution of the original « Professor
Lampe Chambers » thus ceased to exist as
on February 28th, 1933.

The result of all efforts towards achiev-
ing a qualitative improvement when coor-
dinating the film industry with the national
community, is reflected by the marks which

632

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

were given to dramatic films within the till one o'clock. During the winter months,

period from April ist, 1933, till April 1st, in Berlin alone, up to 10 such performances

x934- take place in the most fashionable picture

Out of a total of about 140 German dra- shows on a single Sunday. Such matinees

matic films (« Spielfilme ») have been ap- are customary in most German cities,

proved of as The producers of such non-dramatic films

« being of general educational value » 7 _ i. e. Gf films having no continous dram-

« being of artistic value », 20 atic story — are organized as Association of

« being of cultural value » 1 Producers of German cultural, didactic and

« being valuable under aspects of na- propaganda films (« Lehrfilmbund ») having

tional policy» 3 a commerciai membership of about 150.

Moreover, a total of 4 films out of these The extensive tasks in the field of dififu-

140 films has been awarded the distinction sion o£ cuUurd films whkh £ormerly were

mark of being « particularly valuable ». mainly incumbent upon ±c (< Bildspiel-

From April ist, 1933 till April ist, 1934, bund )); haye nQW been transferred tQ ^

a total of 250 films have been licensed as provincial pkture Departments of me Na.

« cultural films » (didactic and educational • 1 c • ,. . ^ „r , , -

v tional Socialistic German Workers Party,

films) by awarding them one of the afore- ~, . . r . ,

. . . , lrie organizations of the party have taken

mentioned marks. As far as such films do , . . ...

up the systematic and constructive hand-
not exceed a length of about "500 to 600 me- ,. , , . , _,

..... . in . 1 lmg oi the non-commercial film matters

tres, their destination is, most probably with- . . . . , ,

inclusive or schools. All non-commercial par-
out exception, to be used as so-called in- . .

. r. T , . ties showing films are organized as the Reich

troductory hlms in cinemas. In case or such »'••/■

r. . . . . . Association of German film performers,

hlms being shown, the entertainment tax L • 1 f

, ... C1 , . 111 which was formed last Autumn. The mem-
to be paid by a him theatre is reduced by

bership of this associations totals about wo

a certain percentage. r ->J

— ,, . . . . 1 ,• 1 • members.
This entire educational and didactic mat-

. , . , , , ,,. 1 In this manner the movement in the field
enal is thus shown to the public at large.

T . r • j- :j 1 ■ ci_ *u °£ cultural and didactic films which hitherto
In the case or every individual him the

visitors can be estimated at about 5 millions. was based on a voluntary cooperation and

This shows the enormous importance of the which was organized in the form of clubs,

« introductory programme » (Beiprogramm) has been transformed into a rigid organiz-

in German film industry, and also justifies ation> as far as Ac diffusion of films is

the close attention given to this question in concerned. This system, when fully deve-

competent Governmental quarters. loPed> wil1 warrant that the entire did-

To a great percentage the influence of ac"c material of films is really and truly

the film theatre on popular education is shown to the youngsters and juveniles. In

exercised by way of the so-called morning this body all special fields are included.

performances (« Matinee ») which in no other This applies to the fields of hygienics and

country has come into fashion to such a medicine, to vocational advice, agricultural

degree as in Germany. A morning perfor- industry, the prevention of accidents, etc.

mance of this character is a performance in Also special tasks can be complied with

which a long educational film (« Super Cul- as for instance the film propaganda for the

tural Film ») is shown by a cinema on Sun- winter relief work for the distressed, the

day mornings, usually from half past eleven protection of handicrafts, the care for mother

PRODUCTION OF EDUCATIONAL FILMS IN GERMANY

633

and child, small gardeners, attention
to and care for animals etc., and also all
interests which are of importance from the
point of view of national policy.

The care for technical apparatus is close-
ly connected and goes hand in hand with
all this constructive work. The 16 mm. sub-
normal film has been a full success. As an
estimate about 16.000 sub-normal film appar-
atuses are being used already at present.
This cannot but have a reciprocal influence
on the purchase of apparatuses and the dem-
and for film material, and vice versa. It must
also be mentioned in this respect that the
sub-normal-sound-film apparatus also com-
mences to exercices a stimulating effect.

Competent official quarters are eagerly
at work to draw up schedules of require-

ments in this respect, in order to organize
a systematic scheme for the production
of short films exclusively meant for didactic
purposes. In this manner a sound basis
is being created which is a prerequisite for
instructional work on a large scale by means
of school films.

In view of all this, the tasks aimed at
and the duties to be fulfilled by the German
film industry, especially the producers of
cultural films and their customers, in the
course of the forthcoming year and the years
to come are such as can only be realized
by a close and conscientious cooperation of
men who are resolved to do their utmost in
serving the national community and in ac-
complishing cultural achievements of value
for the whole nation.

THE USE OF THE CINEMA FOR TEACHING
IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

BY

Professor Brucker

SUPERINTENDENT OF THE ROLLIN COLLEGE, PARIS.

For twenty-three years the Cinema has
had a place in teaching. During these
years the numbers of apparatus have multi-
plied rapidly, many attempts have been made
and Commissions have been united, but the
results still are not what they should be.

The first experiments in 191 1, were car-
ried out, as was inevitable, in agreement
between the creator and the teacher. The
results were not all successful. When, how-
ever, it was necessary to generalize, the pro-
ducer, wishing to direct the work himself,
often changed the basis of agreement. Whilst
the teachers intended to introduce the cine-
ma into the school, the producers sought to
teach with the cinema. It was from the
beginning certain that this misunderstand-
ing between profit-seekers and teachers would
sterilize all efforts.

The opposition of the two concepts lent
itself neither to a compromise, nor to any
third solution.

The problem of teaching by the cinema
presents itself to teachers in the following
manner: until today, it has been forgotten
that the cinema exists, and many excellent
teachers, dispensing with its aid, have ob-
tained magnificent results. There are those
who, on the contrary, are convinced of the
great possibilities of the screen, and believe
that the cinema is capable of becoming a
useful visual aid to other modes of teaching
and especially in fixed and microscopic
projections. Apart from the use of slow and
rapid motion projections, the film like all
other indirect systems is inferior to the
direct perception of the real object, which is
the base of teaching.

The solution of the problem consists in
a judicious use of the film according to the
nature of the objects to be shown and the
time at disposal. Thus the cinema has its
uses even if they are only humble ones.

The problem of cinematographic teaching
as seen by some producers, is a very dif-
ferent one.

According to some, it constitutes the es-
sential part of teaching, and the cinema
should cause a pedagogic revolution. They
consider that a film lesson should suffice in
itself; that the teacher should prepare the
projection and the titles, which together with
the pictures, would leave nothing to desire.
In the future, using the sound film this
would not offer any difficulty. Even in ad-
vanced stages teaching ends by being only
a series of official lessons. The same thing
obtains in public conferences.

In secondary teaching the lesson often
assumes this form especially in the higher
classes and in certain definite subjects. It is
credible that many teachers would be at-
tracted by this form of lesson because it is
easier to follow their own thoughts than
those of others.

An orator, imagining himself comprehen-
sible, ends by believing that he is under-
stood by his audience. This kind of lesson
furnishes in the same way as a romance
material for a scenario, and the film thus
obtained may be of value, because it pre-
sents, so to speak, a lecture without the
lecturer.

Moreover, the spectators, whatever their
object in going to the film, may during the

THE USE OF THE CINEMA FOR TEACHING IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 635

hour of two of its projection obtain both
amusement and instruction.

Teaching, however, is quite another mat-
ter. It is a case of dealing with the mentality
of children and with material not necessarily
recreational. Also the lessons must continue
for a certain number of hours in the day.
The aim of a lesson therefore, is not only
to resolve a problem, but to exercise the
functions and intuition of the brain.

All modern teaching follows this course
by which the master expounds the lesson and
the pupils- acquire knowledge in a passive
fashion.

The students, moreover, are infinitely dis-
similar: amongst them are those who have
keen sight while others have quick hearing.
Some again are myopic, or are weak and
tired. Others have no application and again
some do not understand the necessity for
study and work. In consequence, the master
must carefully watch the effects of his teach-
ing; he must question in order to know
if the lesson has been understood, and to
repeat it over again if necessary. His prin-
cipal concern is to adapt the lesson to the
understanding of his pupils, to watch their
reactions and thus to judge of the best means
with which to bring forward those who are
backward.

He must make use of his personal mag-
netism. It is not a machine that is needed
but an individual to direct and superintend.

Whenever a new mechanical means is
invented, foolish and incongruous statements
are always made. Not only the cinema but
the radio and gramophone also were sup-
posed to bring about a pedagogic revolu-
tion; the gramophone having an advantage
over the cinema in its power of repeating
the lessons as often as desired. In the didac-
tic world, however, there does not yet exist
a better means of teaching than the book
or better still, the book with illustrations.
The illustrated book has been used for all
subjects and has not so far been replaced by
a better system.

Methodology of Film It is necessary there-
Teaching. fore tQ put aside the

possibility of the cinema as the sole means
for teaching and only consider the use of
the film for didactic effects. Treated in this
way the solution of the problem should not
be difficult.

Where should the film-projecting appara-
tus be installed? A special place is needed
for all the material of the course to be stud-
ied and obviously the apparatus should be
installed there.

For projections a hall for the common
use of all could be used.

How and when should the projections be
made ?

As in all other systems of observation and
experiment, the explanation and the projec-
tion of the picture must go together. We
will not discuss here oral comments apart
from projections, as it is not opportune at
the moment to deal with mechanical exper-
iments. Any exception to the above rule
can only be justified by unusual circum-
stances and special needs.

Must the projection of the film be con-
tinuous or interrupted? Although interrup-
tions may be necessary for the lesson, it is
desirable that the oral lesson should coincide
with the pictures as far as possible so as to
avoid breaking the continuity of the film.
For example, in a film on zoology it would
be sufficient to depict the life and habits of
the animals to be dealt with, and the greater
part if not the whole film could be projected
without interruption.

It is obvious that the film, although it
cannot revolutionize or supersede teaching,
can be advantageously used in the pro-
gramme of the schools. Thus the master's
comments can be made either during or af-
ter the projection, as may seem most suitable.
The comment should be brief and synthetic,
so that the pupil would not have the double
fatigue of watching the screen and follow-
ing the teacher's words. In most cases, the
film should not need explanations. When it
is desirable to reproduce sounds, such as the
characteristic sounds of wind and waves, the

636

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

song of birds and the cries of animals, the
sound film is of great practical use. In all
other cases the sound film may be elimin-
ated since the master's lesson must always
be superior to that of the lecturer, however
excellent.

The Comparative Is the fixed projection

Value of Fixed rendered superfluous
and Animated r

Projections. by the moving picture ?

$ince the initial use
of the film in certain branches of teaching,
it has always been desired by teachers that
there should be some mechanical means of
stopping the film. This shows that although
the cinematograph has its advantages, the
fixed projection holds its own in teaching
by keeping the attention of the pupil fixed
on the particular subject to be studied and
rendering it easier to understand.

What then, is the cinema's strong point?
Without doubt it is the power of registering
and representing movement. From this point
of view, the cinema is indispensable and its
importance in supplementary work is such
that there should be no hesitation in using
it, in spite of the difficulty of regulating and
managing the apparatus or on account of the
expense. It is, however, useless to lose time
or money by using the moving picture when
it can be satisfactorily substituted by the fixed
projection. If it is not necessary to study
any particular movements or special details,
the moving picture only serves to distract the
student from the subject.

The rotation of a vase of flowers or min-
erals before the lens with the object of
changing the point of view, or the move-
ment of any species which is by nature a
fixed object and therefore more interesting
when seen as such, makes the use of the
moving picture apparatus an entirely super-
fluous complication. One photograph or if
desired several well chosen aspects of the
object are of as much value as any film.

It must therefore be left to the judg-
ment of the teacher as to whether fixed
or animated projections shall be used.

Effects of Use of The cinema must only

Cinema in Teach- i j j

. „ be considered as an

ing.

additional aid to the
master in teaching and shall therefore be
placed at his disposal and not vice versa.

Programmes, time-tables, school books and
mechanical means must all be used with a
view to the capacities of the children and
to didactic ends and not to display the
functions of a machine.

If, however, the cinema cannot rule ped-
agogy, pedagogy can control the cinema.
In fact, the preparations of a film on a given
subject oblige the master to establish the
order and characteristics of the various
scenes, and as a film cannot be created for
the use of one teacher only, it is necessary
that the educationists should be in perfect
agreement amongst themselves.

Doubtless all of them could make the
necessary corrections. The work would, how-
ever, be extremely difficult for those who
were not professionals, and could not be
expected in an ordinary rented film. For
example, in natural science the analytic meth-
od and anticipated study were not adapted
until 1923, after twenty years of discussion.
Up to that time many educationists still used
the synthetic method. In dealing with carni-
vora, only the general character of the teeth
and paws and habits of one special kind was
first given and was afterwards followed by
descriptions of other various forms of animal
life. Today we are faced with the question
of showing a type of a species, a cat for
instance. We have to demonstrate its system
of life, its constitution and special charac-
teristics and qualities, and then proceed in
a similar way with other species and finally
make comparisons and the necessary de-
ductions and comment. It is clear that
these two types of film answer different
methods which are quite distinct from each
other. The cinema requires the adoption of
a general uniform pedagogy. Since teachers,
especially teachers in secondary schools, are
not unreasonably jealous of the liberty which
they have always enjoyed, the cinema must
allow them to pool their efforts in order to

THE USE OF THE CINEMA FOR TEACHING IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 637

formulate a concrete plan of lessons while
permitting freedom of action in everything
else.

What Subjects Are The introduction of
Suitable for Film ^ motjon picture is
Teaching? , r .

still too recent tor us

to decide definitely what subjects lend
themselves to treatment by it. It is, how-
ever, possible to classify the subjects in a
decreasing scale of utility as far as cinema
treatment of them goes.

The cinema may be considered as an im-
provement of the lantern slide or still. The
ratter is only used with regularity today in
teaching natural science, geography and art.
It is in these subjects that the film is like-
liest to prove useful. Teaching of these sub-
jects generally goes with special projection
halls, and the staff who use the projectors
are more or less familiar with the handling
of optical and electrical instruments, while
as regards other subjects everything has still
to be essayed. We can therefore examine
the extent of the use of the film in the
three before mentioned subjects of educa-
tion.

iln natural science, the motion picture
may be considered so important as to be
practically essential. Since it is desirable to
teach these sciences analytically, care must
be taken that, to begin with, the concrete
facts are illustrated and the relations between
them established later. Direct perception of
the thing taught cannot be bettered and no-
thing can really take its place. It is educa-
tive, inasmuch as it excites the student's
activity and is at the same infinitely
fuller. It carries, moreover, a visual im-
pression of forms, colours and tactile sen-
sations which assist in the identifications
of the object, as do too the sensations of
smell, hearing and taste. For minerals, the
sample which one shows the pupils is as
often as not an indifferent one while, as a
matter of fact, colour and hardness are points
of considerable importance in assisting reali-
zation and indentification. The odour and
colour of plants and flowers, their feel,

whether it be soft or rough are all points
of prime importance.

As for sounds, the gramophone can be
used, but the sound film can reproduce
sounds equally well along with the pictures.

If it is a question of merely utilizing the
forms of things, photographs or stills are
as good as motion pictures. They concentrate
rather than disperse the attention of the
pupil.

Thus while a study of the morphology
of an animal should be made with examples
or stills; the animal's movements and habits
can only be properly shown to the student
through animated pictures.

Even in the case of a common animal,
sufficiendy small to be brought into the
class-room and large enough to be easily
seen, it is not likely to be very manageable,
and can really only be properly studied out-
side the class-room.

Since ethnology is a very important subject
in elementary teaching, there is a wide field
of action here for the motion picture. If we
also take into consideration certain plant
movements, the projection of movements that
are revealed in geographical studies, land-
slides, avalanches, waves, rapids, cascades,
lava flow and, when necessary, the life and
work of men in nature settings (climbing, ex-
ploring, working of quarries and mines)
it is easy to see how vast and various are
the services which the motion picture can
render us.

In any case, the cinema puts before us
photographic documents which it is the
teacher's task to analyse and use. This means
oral teaching, and in that case, anything
we ask of the cinema can only create useless
fantasies for the spectator. Often, as a con-
clusion of this analysis, the educationist is
constrained to prepare a scheme synthetiz-
ing the results. For instance, we have illus-
trations of the circulation of water in na-
ture, from the sea to the clouds, to the var-
ious continents and its return to the sea
through water-courses or the progressive lev-
eling of the mountains through the oper-
ation of atmospheric agents. In some cases

638

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

we can imagine an animated scheme cap-
able of visual and of facilitating at the same
time, for certain students, the mental repre-
sentation of the teacher's remarks. This on
condition, however, that the pupil takes into
account that the pictures are fictitious ones
and not of real objects.

Care should be taken to avoid an ani-
mated scheme which the child may consider
a documentary while he is merely seeing
fantasies, for this is the way to falsify his
ideas and conceptions instead of forming
and guiding them. We may reconstruct in
animated drawings the supposed movements
of a fossil animal, but reconstructions of this
kind are too often hypothetical and not with-
out danger for the pupil.

In fact, the one undisputed function of
the cinema, the reproduction of actual move-
ments is sufficiently wide in its scope to
induce us to direct our efforts towards the
creation of documentary films suitable for
teaching without concerning ourselves unduly
over other fields of development. The best
and simplest of schemes is that which the
teacher draws on the blackboard, following
the ideas set forth in his lesson.

Sometimes the film lends itself in an in-
superable fashion to the perception of con-
crete facts. Certain physiological experiments
require vivisection which is rendered permis-
sible by the requirements of research, but not
of teaching. Such actual experiments re-
quire in any case, a minute and delicate
work of preparation so that film experiments
become preferable.

To sum up, the cinema is indispensable
to the teaching of natural sciences in order
to reproduce before the pupil's eyes move-
ments of living beings or even inanimate
bodies which, for one reason or another, it
is impossible of difficult to observe directly
from nature.

In the teaching of geology, the cinema's
place is similar. Some geology films are use-
ful for the study of physical geography and
human geography is, in any case, the syste-
matic study of the way of acting of man,
who in the study of natural science, can be

considered as an accessory. The film can
therefore render useful though brief service
owing to the limited time which can be
given it in the programme of study.

Since history is generally taught by the
same masters who teach geography, it would
be possible to use the motion picture here
if the teachers themselves were in a position
to derive any advantage from it. Historical
facts, are, however, as a rule, far off events,
too far off for their photographic represent-
ation to be anything but an undesirable
anachronism. The errors that creep into hy-
pothetical recontructions of a fact that is
a scientific truth, when motion picture work
is used, are of a nature to delude the stud-
ents with tricks and fakes, falsifying their
judgment. There is certainly no law for-
bidding anyone to find distraction in fantas-
ies woven around historical facts or around
invented facts such as novels, romances,
plays, pictures and pieces of sculpture, the
literary and artistic value of which we can
always appreciate. The teacher, in alluding
to films, novels, stories, etc. of this kind,
should take care to point out to the pupils
the points in which they stray from histor-
ical truth.

The teaching of the history of art is often
also entrusted to the masters who teach
history, but any reproduction of monuments,
statues or paintings should be left to still
projections.

The subjects best treated by the motion
picture are those which have to deal with
actual facts which can be observed directly.
The function of the motion picture in
these cases is to offer the students the facts
or movements connected with persons or
things which are worth studying and observ-
ing. This seems, but is far from being a
limited function.

The teaching of specifically experimental
sciences, that is physics and chemistry, ought
to introduce the pupils to the experimental
method. The essential facts become experi-
ments that have been performed by the
teacher or the pupil. The projection of these
experiments or facts is not, of course, the

THE USE OF THE CINEMA FOR TEACHING IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 639

same thing as seeing the actual experiment
itself, but there are cases in which the ac-
tual repetition of the experiment becomes a
physical impossibility owing to circumstan-
ces. The projections can allow us to show
industrial applications of facts studied by us.
These projections, however, in purely cultur-
al teaching can only be founded on simple
scientific phenomena and can only be de-
veloped by means of systematic teaching of
the applied sciences. It follows that in the
projection what can form an object of re-
presentation is the experimental fact pure
and simple, with particulars, which goes to
show that the cinema cannot in reality pro-
perly illustrate and give a complete under-
standing of phenomena.

In the case of mathematics, we can use
luminous projections for showing the stud-
ents exact figures, changes and results of
operations. Projections on a flat screen can
only give an idea of flat figures. On the other
hand, the mathematician takes little care of
the exactness and the results that can be
drawn from figures. His aim is not to draw
conclusions, but to demonstrate or prove,
not to teach how to observe but to reason
exactly, even if the pictures projected are
false. For the mathematician, every figure is
false for the simple reason that it presents
a certain thickness and reality. He would
like to work with ideal figures, the concrete
representation of which is merely a means
for assisting the senses to understand them
better.

In secondary teaching, geometrical figures
remain continually simple, and elementary
geometry only deals with the study of chan-
ges of position. If the student wanted to
have a complete pluri-dimensional composi-
tion, nothing would be easier for him than
to make his drawing on a sheet of paper,
fold it, cut out the necessary figures, and
put the pieces together. For spatial geome-
try, similar systems can render services
which are incomparably superior to those
given by the cinema.

It may also be considered advisable for
teachers of literature to make their lessons

more lively and efficient with suitable illus-
trations, while teachers of languages can
in the same way utilize projections for
pointing out the objects of the lesson and
for teaching the pupils something about the
country whose language they are studying.
This question has been dealt with so far
with but small success in books and scholas-
tic manuals. The motion picture has not
been used with much success here. This is
because, for the explanation of literary texts
and for learning language and letters, neith-
er lantern slides nor films have shown them-
selves equal to the occasion, or the demands
put on them by the teacher. Anything in
the nature of abuse or exaggeration here
would be a source of danger. The illustration
of printed texts and manuals should be
kept within proper limits and avoid distract-
ing the pupils from the essential thing,
which is, after all, the study of the text.
With regard to imparting a knowledge of
foreign countries, the teacher of living lang-
uages may very well have recourse to the
teachers of geography.

Special Qualities Re- In all the halls in
quired of Appar- whkh projections are
atus for Teach- f f

ing. Rules for made, it is necessary
Projection Halls. that arrangements be
undertaken to obtain the greatest darkness
for the screen and a subdued light for the
part of the room where the pupils are as-
sembled. Supervision must always be main-
tained, even if the teacher's presence renders
it unnecessary. This is in order to avoid ac-
cidents that are not always easy to forsee.

The means for the obtaining the forego-
ing conditions are:

i) A relatively small screen, and there-
fore a relatively small projected image, which
will gain in luminosity what it loses in size.
It is will also gain in intensity. The differ-
ence in strength between the light falling
on the screen from the illumination of the
hall and the light of the projector thrown
on the screen should be as great as possible
so that the interference is negligible.

640

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

2) Various methods are known for
preventing the diffused light in the hall from
falling on the screen, such as blinds at the
windows, shades over ■ the electric lamps,
black cloths around the frame of the screen.
These measures can vary according to the
size of the hall.

The distance between the machine and
the screen should be reduced as much as
possible so that apparatus and screen are as
near as possible to the teacher. This, in
order that the teacher may indicate on the
screen the most interesting points while the
machine is some distance away from the
students. The projection ought to be thrown
on an opaque or transparent screen, accord-
ing to the arrangement and size of the hall.
Class projections are somewhat different
from those made in public cinemas. It is
well to stress this, so as to avoid the pupils
making any mental comparisons which
might be all to the disadvantage of the
teaching film and the lessons.

The motion picture ought always to be
ready for use at any time the teacher wants
to use it. It should be kept beside the lan-
tern for the stills and the microscopic projec-
tion apparatus, so that quick change-overs
can be made. The same screen should be
used for all the different types of projection.
This avoids overcrowding the hall and re-
duces the expense.

There is no need to add any special gad-
gets to adapt the ordinary projector for school
use. It is best that the projector be exacdy
like ordinary projectors sold in commerce.
This makes it easy to get spare parts quickly,
and avoids experiments with new models
being made at the expense of the teaching
and educational film. The arc light which
is always difficult to regulate should be sub-
stituted by an incandescent lamp. All safety
regulations should be scrupulously observed.

Mechanism for stopping the running of
the reel need not be considered as indispen-
sable if the school has also a lantern slide or
still projector, while distance control is use-
less if the machine is to be within easy

reach of the teacher. These, in any case, are
secondary details which must be considered
case by case.

Much more important are the conditions
to be observed in the matter of the film
which are different from ordinary pedagogic
conditions. Non-inflammable films stock
must be used to avoid the risk of explosions
or fire. The apparatus will be placed and
the films kept on the desk or table for exper-
iments where there will probably be one
or two Bunsen burners or gas jets for expe-
riments: all of which are dangerous in pro-
ximity to the film.

The length of the films ought to be on
the average about 100 metres and the dura-
tion of an animated projection in the course
of a lesson lasting usually one hour — which
means actually about half an hour of effect-
ive teaching — should not exceed some
minutes. This, it can be seen, is the right
length of time when we consider that the
film's task is to supplement the teacher's
work, and not to substitute him. I have
found this length of time suitable since my
first attempts on these lines in 1911, and it
has generally been followed, as far as I
know, by other teachers of natural science
who are anxious to arrange a series of films
to be projected on these lines.

As a result, we shall find that in teaching
zoology we shall only want about 30 films
of 100 metres each, while botany and geo-
graphy can be taught with 20 films each.
This makes a total lengthe of about 5,000 me-
tres of film with an approximate cost of
not more than 18,000 francs — by no means
an excessive overhead expense for an ordin-
ary lycee.

The films can be obtained from the pro-
ducers and the cinema experts.

This system, however, would not give sat-
isfactory results, as with a minimum num-
ber available of a given film, the teachers
would be obliged to project the same picture
at more or less the same time, nor would it
be practical to have many film libraries for
just as in a library it would be necessary

THE USE OF THE CINEMA FOR TEACHING IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 641

to have many copies of the same books,
so a large number of duplicate films are
needed for a film library.

Thus it is better to decentralize the or-
ganization, and place the copies of the same
films in the various places in which they
are to be used.

A big college in which each film is pro-
jected seven or eight times a year, can
without difficulty obtain a complete collect-
ion. The less important schools would have
smaller collections and between them and the
secondary schools a scheme of exchange
might be arranged according to the necessi-
ties of their programmes and, in this way,
everyone would have the advantage of seeing
the moving pictures.

Efficacy of the Cin- Cinematography i s
ema in Teach- one Qf fa most use.

ful means by which
to gain knowledge, to develop the power
of observation, and to exercise the other
faculties of the mind. It is difficult, how-
ever, to define its exact part in this work.
Its outstanding characteristic is its power
of reproducing fleeting pictures which must
be taken in at a glance. If the pupil is too
slow, there is danger of the image shown
passing before he has begun to observe it
properly. This has the advantage of teach-
ing him to be quick in observing and also
to discover the inconvenience of not paying
attention or of being absent-minded.

It is necessary however, not to overdo
the use of the cinema, but to find other
means of teaching observation that will
give the pupil the habit of patience, a most
valuable quality in the acquisition of
knowledge.

On the other hand, the short film can-
not cause either visual or mental fatigue
which would be inevitable in a too extensive
use of the cinema.

Teachers and Teach- To teachers of natur-

ing. Collaboration d sdence accustomed

in the Didactic .

Film. to every kind of

practical work and
important and delicate operations, the teach-
ing film is merely a toy, but to teachers of
history and geography which are for the
most part literary subjects, it is quite other-
wise. In any case, a practical knowledge of the
management of the cinema and its project-
ing apparatus should form part of the mas-
ter's technique. The Higher Normal School
of Natural Science has for some fifteen years
maintained this system. It has already been
shown that in the use of the cinema com-
plete agreement on pedagogic principles
amongst teachers is important.

When a definite understanding is reached
on these principles, the masters can collabor-
ate with the manufacturers and producers
and explain their desires.

Apart from this, they can also extract
from films made for the ordinary public
those elements that may be useful in a teach-
ing film, omitting all that is superflous, and
tabulating the results in exact didactic order.
There is sure to be much that is unnec-
essary in these films, and the only diffi-
culty will be to choose the suitable mater-
ial. When this work is done, the produ-
cers can proceed to edit, give tides and sub-
tides, and with the usual technique of
mounting, will be able to make presentable
films. The scholastic cinema cannot be consid-
ered a very profitable branch of the indus-
try, but it will contribute largely to the
education of the public.

It is necessary, however, in the use of the
cinema or any other auxiliaries of teaching,
to maintain a just balance and keep things
within their right limits, always having in
view the wisdom of the Romans, which is
embodied in the saying est modus in rebus,
the truth of which has always been under-
stood by teachers.

3 - Ice Ingl.

THE CINE-EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY OF THE SYENSK

FILM INDUSTRY

In the autumn of 1921, after preliminary
preparations, the Svens\ Filmindustri added
another branch to its activity, namely the
educational film.

This branch began with a stock of 500
films, chosen with special care, and the col-
lection was added to until its number reach-
ed nearly 2750 films. The last general cat-
alogue with its two supplements gives a
description of the archive. A new general
catalogue is in preparation.

The films are all chosen from the peda-
gogic point of view and with special atten-
tion to the plan of study adopted by the
Swedish schools — and especially to that of
the elementary public schools.

The material used for the Swedish edu-
cational films has been drawn from the edu-
cational production of all the European
countries and to a certain extent from that
of America. In the first place, however, the
Filmindustri Society contributed more than
one thousand films that have toured in Swe-
den, in addition to those which the Society
itself has sent out to other European coun-
tries and in fact to countries all over the
world. This educational branch of the So-
ciety of the Filmindustri has reached a con-
siderable development.

In the first year it was calculated that
about 500,000 « pupils » had attended the
film lessons. In a few years these figures
were multiplied by ten.

The economic crisis somewhat arrested
this development and even in certain parts
caused a decrease in the number of the
spectators of the films. It seems probable

now, however, that this tendency has ceased,
and that the numbers may be expected to
take an upward curve. It is calculated that
in the coming season the number of « pup-
ils » may amount to four millions.

The greater part of the spectators are
doubdess drawn from the state schools;
but various types of elementary schools,
technical schools, social and ecclesiastic so-
cieties, hospitals and similar associations also
make use of the educational films. They are
also used at lectures and for propaganda
purposes among various associations. The
circulation of the films comprise about 1500
centres, scattered in the various provinces of
Sweden.

Normal size silent films only are used for
the educational films. Except in exceptional
cases the educational institutes do not in
general make use of the reduced film as
that size does not adapt itself well to
teaching.

On the other hand, some educational inst-
itutes have been able to furnish themselves
with a sound apparatus, thus adding sound
films to their programmes.

Regular class teaching has been arrived
at only in few cases, and this when the
conditions were especially favourable. In the
larger cities, as in the big provincial centres,
it has been possible to subdivide the pupils
in classes for film teaching, putting together
the students of the same grade in special
class-rooms in their own schools, while in
other instances a local cinema hall has been
hired for the purpose.

In the country districts too, it has been

THE CINE-EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY OF THE SVENSK FILM INDUSTRY 643

possible to make provisions for film teach-
ing up to a certain point. The problem
has been solved in certain provinces by the
use of travelling cinemas, with programmes
chosen by a special committee of teachers.
These travelling cinemas cover more than
one hundred schools.

The communes generally pay a certain
sum as a part or supplementary contribution
towards the expenses of the projections,
while in other schools it is the scholars them-
selves who pay a small sum. Sometimes the
projection of educational films is financed
by making public projections in the open
before a paying public.

To begin with, the Svens\ Filmindustri
did not ask any subsidy of the Swedish gov-
ernment for film projections having an
educational aim, but urged the duty on the
various educational institutions of the coun-
try to support educational films by placing
the supply and production of such pictures
on a proper and regular basis.

The superior pedagogic authorities have
shown themselves to be of the same opinion,

and have presented requests to the govern-
ment for school subsidies for each district
in proportion to their expenses for the use
of films of this nature. In view of the fi-
nancial conditions of the Swedish state dur-
ing the last few years, the proposal has
not yet been laid before Parliament and there-
fore no subsidies of any importance have
yet been paid by the Swedish government
for the projection of educational films. Neith-
er are such films exempt from customs
duties, though they are censored without any
expense to their renters or exhibitors.

The director-in-chief of the Svens\ Film-
industri is Mr Olaf Andersen. The educa-
tional film department from its beginning
to today has been managed by the ex-chief
state censor Mr. Gustav Berg, who is also
the editor of a review for the educational
and instructional film which is issued every
three months, (formerly it was a month-
ly). Each number of the review contains
a summary published alternatively in Eng-
lish, French and German.

CINEMATOGRAPHY AND SECONDARY TEACHING

BY

G. Vergez-Tricom

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY AT THE TOURCOING LYCEE.

Method to be Em- At the present time
ployed in Film second teaching us-
Teaching. / °

es teachers and books.

The one would be useless without the
others. The text-books vary according to
the pupils' age. Different teachers obtain
indentical results with opposed methods.
The same professor will obtain results which
will be proportionately better as he makes
better use of his method, adapting it to
the age, character and capacity of the pupils
which vary considerably from year to year.
In film teaching, since the objects are the
same, there is no reason to follow different
principles.

We should not then reject, a priori, any
form of projection: silent or sound film,
after or even before the lesson. Without
going so far as as to say that all these forms
and methods are admirable provided their
results are good, we can at least admit that
many of them deserve serious considera-
tion, and that the results would be more
satisfactory if one could continue to use
them alternatively. Experimental film work
is still in an early stage. We have still to
register with exactitude the reactions of our
young public, accumulate the observations
made, and vary our methods with due pru-
dence. The laws on film teaching will be
laid down later on. Anything sectarian or
too dogmatic in this connection would, at
the present moment, be harmful and unjus-
tified.

From experiments which I have witness-
ed and from those made personally, I am
able to draw the following conclusions.

Teaching with the film alone is a thing

not to be entertained, and we must remem-
ber that there are several methods of film
teaching rather than one method. The pro-
cesses must vary according to the age of
the pupils, the object of the teacher, and
according as he considers the motion pic-
ture an aid or a momentary substitute.

We must divide the pupils into categories
for the very young (sixth and fifth grades),
medium age (fourth and third grades) and
advanced students (first and second grades)
mathematics and philosophy. The grades or
distinctions are based on a recognition of
the knowledge and physical and mental cap-
acities of the pupils which differ consider-
ably from one age to another. In very young
children, the attention is less continuous,
fatigue comes on more easily, while the spirit
of observation though developed, is chaotic.
The reasoning faculties are embryonic. It
may be admitted at once that there is
less difference between the medium and the
advanced pupils than between them and
the youngest pupils.

The projections which give the best results
in the sixth and fifth grades in those clas-
ses, that is, where the teaching consists of
a process of acquisition or observation are
brief ones (ten minutes at the most) or frag-
mentary projections.

d) Fragmentary projections reveal to the
spectator on one occasion a small number
of facts in a complete and clear way. For
pupils of this class films on geography and
natural science are very suitable. A picture
on volcanoes, for instance, in three parts is
useful.

i) The first part shows types of volca-

CINEMATOGRAPHY AND SECONDARY TEACHING

645

noes, cone-shaped ones like Vesuvius, and
volcanoes without exterior craters like those
in the Malesian archipelago.

2) A complete series of the phases of an
erupting volcano: smoke, explosions, throw-
ing up of rocks, stones, lava, pumice, dust.
Lava flows of various kinds, acid, slow, ba-
sic or rapid.

3) The effects of an eruption : burnt veg-
etation, collapse of buildings, burial of
houses under lava, rock, etc.

If the picture is projected right through
without interval, the children's intelligence
is chiefly held by the final scenes or by
some detail which has struck them espec-
ially. We must therefore split the projection
up, as we have indicated, into three parts.

Part One. Volcano Craters. The teacher
or the sub-titles of the film will begin with
a brief explanation of this part in order
to give the spectators an idea of the subject.
Thus the teacher can say, for example : « The
volcano is a conical mountain, the summit
of which is like a large funnel and is called
a crater ». The study of the volcano should
be a complete one, and should show the
subject of the lesson in long shots, medium
shots and close-ups. The size and shape of
it should be shown by marking shots all
round it slowly, so that its form remains
well impressed on the memory. The climb
up the volcano should be shown up to
the crater and illustrated so that the
pupils get a good idea of its height and
inclination. The volcano ought then to be
shown from above with a tour of the crater,
pointing out the depth of same and notic-
ing ash, lava and other deposits on the
sides, as well as smoke-holes and any lake
at the bottom of the crater if such exists.

The teacher need not be afraid of going
slowly, or of using the slow motion projec-
tor, though the latter should not be abused.
Anything superfluous that distracts the
attention should be avoided. A film conceiv-
ed in this way ought to show the pupils
everything they require to know about vol-
canoes, and the great majority of the child-

ren will have taken the lesson to heart in
its essential details.

b) The projection should be brief, with
pauses and should be followed by an in-
terval. - We can examine a film at leisure
and at our pleasure by making use of the
slow motion projector and stopping the run-
ning-off at any point. This permits a shol-
ar who has not taken in the film at the first
vision to grasp it and understand its details
and rhythm.

The projection should not last more than
ten or at the most fifteen minutes.

The teacher must have full control over
his class. Darkness leads to disattention on
the part of the lazy pupils, and gives the
bad boys a chance to play tricks. It is, more-
over, a mistake to suppose that projections
amuse all children. There are some who
on account of the droning of the reel, the
darkness, the confusion of endless images
on the screen, or on account of the heavy
atmosphere of the cinema hall or class-room
end by falling asleep. Breaking up the pro-
jections with intervals puts an end to this.

Absolute silence must be enjoined on the
youthful spectators in order to hold their at-
tention and to avoid endless absurd questions
of all kinds which would only cause a loss
of time and confusion if the teacher attemp-
ted to answer them during the projection.
On the other hand, if the master is tired
of the content of the film, not so the schol-
ars, for whom it is something quite new.

They are also never passive, and the pro-
jection of so many marvels arouses in them
a certain amount of eye strain and fat-
igue of the imagination, judgment and sense
of comparison. These various forms of fat-
igue must be reduced to a minimum, giving
the brain a chance to rest while tongues
can be set free to ask questions of the
teacher.

The projection certainly requires some
explanatory comment. What has been seen
must be described by the pupils in order
that the teacher may be sure it has been
fully understood and seen. He should de-
mand a summary of the lesson, and insist

646

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

on the pupils making a drawing of the
crater for him. The second part of the pic-
ture should be explained in the same way
as the first, and this completes the demon-
stration.

The foregoing takes it for granted that,
at least for the very young children, the
projection forms a supplementary part of
the lesson and in consequence takes place
in class at the same time as the lesson itself.
I have always obtained, both with slides and
motion pictures, far better results with this
system than by illustrating with a film a
lesson given some time before.

Silent, sound or talking film? We must
be careful to distinguish the talking from
the sound film. The sound film reproduces
sounds and noises; the talking film when
we are using a simple « documentary » made
for teaching, completes the picture with
a lecture or explanatory comment. When we
are dealing with a commercial picture used
partly or altogether in the class-room as a
documentary, the talk fills out the film with
dialogue or comments, the best that can be
said about which is that they are generally
puerile or stupid.

I do not think it is advisable to use talk-
ing films. The dialogue distracts the small
spectators: the lecture or comment (and es-
pecially long and pompous words used there-
in) may easily not be understood or create
a wrong impression.

The silent film allows us to adapt our
comment at pleasure according to our au-
dience and circumstances generally. I am in
favour of the sound film provided the
sounds or noises are neither superfluous nor
so strong as to absorb all the pupils' atten-
tion. With regard to the film on volcanic
phenomena, the picture showing the volcano
itself should be a silent one, but the part
that deals with eruptions may well be a
sound picture since it is useful for the chil-
dren to learn the sounds that accompany
eruptions. If it is useless to reproduce the
howling of the tempest when a picture is
shown, on the « Aspect of a Mountain » ; on
the other hand, it is useful to reproduce the

roar of machinery in a picture on a factory,
the noise of the sea in a film on « Seas and
Coasts » or the trumpeting of an elephant
in an elephant film.

For middle schoolchildren and advanced
students, the case takes on a somewhat dif-
ferent aspect. Theoretically at least, they
have more experience, and some aptitude in
observing, reasoning and comparing. What
the film contains for them is not entirely
new, and in their cases fits into a series of
already formed cognitions. Thus they are
less easily tired, and projections can be long-
er for them.

At the same time, in my opinion, it is
harmful if not dangerous for them to last
over 20 or 25 minutes.

First, because the questions of discipline
and fatigue already mentioned, if less urgent
for them, are still important.

Then for the reasons just stated, be-
cause pupils of the middle year classes have
a tendency to remain passive before the film
as with almost any kind of teaching. This
tendency is accentuated in the advanced
students to the point that some teachers are
of the opinion that students become more
obtuse they older the get. It is at any rate
a certainty that the goad of novelty wears
off with age, the power of observation dim-
inishes, or else — which comes to the
same thing in the apparent results — the
pupils keep their reflections to themselves
and remain silent. Lengthy projections fav-
our intellectual laziness and day-dreaming.

In order to excite the pupils' intellect,
shake their apathy and oblige them to frame
questions and observations, we must show
short films on given subjects.

The intervals should be used to ask ques-
tions, and, if necessary, to give explana-
tions. The projection can be suspended, and
the interval used in the foregoing fashion.

For pupils of the superior schools, other
systems and questions come into play, such
as what are the ends for which the teacher
hopes to use the film.

For the teacher, the film may be em-
ployed as:

CINEMATOGRAPHY AND SECONDARY TEACHING

647

i) A supplementary source of informa-
tion calculated to enrich the documentation
arrived at in the course of the lesson. In
this case, there is nothing against having
the projection at the end of the lesson and
in a different place from the class-room. In
this case, however, the comment should be
reduced to a minimum, unless we want to
have a mere repetition of the lesson itself.
It should only deal with an explanation of
facts not touched upon, or insufficiently
touched upon, in the course of the lesson.
In the case of facts confirming those already
illustrated in class, it is up to the students
to comment them.

The following are typical of projections
of this kind:

Rice-growing;

Manufacture of steel in heavy industry;

The life of Bees.
Let us not forget, however, that the task
of secondary teaching is not only that of
allowing the pupil to acquire cognitions but
especially of developing his reasoning pow-
er, his spirit of observation and his critical
faculty. Thus the motion picture can be
considered :

2) As the subject of a regular exercise.
This applies to numerous films which deal
with physical geography (volcanoes, erup-
tion, glaciers, valley and rock formations,
uneven ground, etc.) and human geography
(configuration of villages connected or scat-
tered, centres of humanity, types of dwel-
lings). They help out the study of maps, and
can sometimes take the place of geographical
excursions, grouping before the pupils' eyes
facts which they are not able to observe be-
cause they are too far off, or take place too
rapidly or too slowly. Some professors be-
lieve that that the fixed projection or the
study of drawings or illustrated post-cards
are to be preferred to the cinema projection,
but I cannot agree with them.

To sum up my remarks on fixed and
moving projections, I should like to say that
it is only the latter which can give a proper
idea of movement and dimensions without
which factors it is often impossible to re-

present a geographical phenomenon. (We
cannot see the operation of water with a
fixed projection, for instance). It is only in
this way that the projections completely re-
present a fact seen in the whole and in its
details. (Cf. the description of volcanic ap-
paratus). The stopping of the picture allows
us to get over the disadvantages of the too
rapid running off of the motion picture.

Admitting all this, I have obtained and
I have seen others obtain, in the case which
interests us, good results by proceeding in
the following fashion in three stages:

1) Showing of the film with brief indic-
ation of the points to which the pupils'
attention should be drawn. Stopping of the
picture now and again at the important
points.

2) Lesson by the teacher with referen-
ces, explanations and comments to the
examples shown in the film.

3) A second projection of the film
with comment by the teacher or the pupils
may supply this comment themselves. Fre-
quent pauses and intervals for study and
questions.

The projection can be given in a room
apart from the ordinary class-room. At the
same time, it is always better that the pro-
jection take place in the class-room if pos-
sible in order to avoid loss of time and the
disorder inevitable on moving students from
one place to another. Film can be silent or
sound, but should not be a talking picture.
At the most, brief explanatory sentences can
explain the plot or idea and guide the pu-
pils.

3) Finally, in certain determined cases,
the film can momentarily ta\e the teacher's
place. Let us say at once that films of this
kind are rare, and many of our colleagues
are in violent opposition to them. There is
therefore nothing to be ashamed of in saying
that some lessons are almost impossible to
give with the insufficient means available
to a teacher in an ordinary class. This is
the case because such lessons require deli-
cate experimental work, and a talent for
drawing on the blackboard which is gen-

648

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

erally far beyond the capacity of the ordinary
master. The result, whether we care to
admit it or not, is that such lessons are a
failure. Nothing remains in the students'
minds except perhaps false ideas, which is
worse still.

I am thinking for example of a chemistry
lesson on the manufacture of steel. No de-
scription, or example can ever approach the
reality or give an adequate idea of it. Only
the motion picture can do this. In geogra-
phy, let us take the case of lessons on earth-
quakes and how to explain them on paper
and with the blackboard — a most trying
thing for teachers.

Good films or animated drawings would
teach a thing like this much better than all
our oral lessons in the course of which we
torture our brains to find new ways of dem-
onstrating that will be clear and adequate.

Since in instances like these we are deal-
ing with a regular scientific demonstration,
I think such films should be talking films,
that is, the explanation should come off the
sound track, this being the only way to
obtain a perfect synchronization between
comment and image. All verbal explana-
tions are generally either too long or too
short and can cause great confusion.

This does not mean that all teaching
films should be talking films, but in a case
like that to which we have just referred we
must not, out of false vanity, hesitate to
give way to a lesson better handled than
our own lesson.

In the case in point, the projection might
be given in a special location, but it is al-
ways advantageous to give it in the class-
room where there is a blackboard on which
the pupils can write. Again, if the film in
question can be projected a second time, it
will be advisable to run off some of the
parts which have been less well understood
either because they were projected too rap-
idly or because the explanation which ac-
companied them was of too abstract a char-
acter. In this there will be the advantage
of being able to interrupt the projection
after each demonstration or explanation. The

teacher can then take on the full responsi-
bility of his tasks and adapt the demonstra-
tion and comment to his audience.

All the foregoing presupposes, naturally
enough, that the master has a thorough
knowledge of his picture before screening
it. The film must not be, as sometimes
happens, a sort of recreation and period of
repose for the master. This only tends and
very considerably tends to discredit the
teaching film.

To conclude, I should give it as my opin-
ion that the various methods and innu-
merable combinations suggested demonstrate
with a sufficient degree of certainty that the
film cannot assure the whole burden of teach-
ing but can only form a useful and advanta-
geous part thereof. Handiness is the essen-
tial condition of successful film teaching. If
the method is allowed to be come clumsy
and over-elaborate, the system is condemned
to failure to still birth, if we may say so.

This presupposes that the motion picture,
forming part of the pedagogic equipment
must, like the book, be adapted to the needs
of the each class of scholars.

I will come back to this subject later on.

Fixed and Moving This subject is a mat-
Projections and of ardent contro_
how to Use
Them. versy and polemic. It

is my firm belief this

comes from the question having been badly

posed. There is no reason why fixed and

moving projections should mutually exclude

one another. They are as a matter of fact

complementary to one another.

What are advantages and faults of either?

Cinema projections pass too rapidly across
the screen. We must recognize that this is
a defect of the motion picture that has grave
consequences, but at the same time we must
look for a remedy rather than cast the pro-
cess overboard. People did not give up the
steam locomotive because, in die early days
the chimneys or smoke-stacks were too high
and unsighdy.

Fixed projections render the same service
as illustrations in books, drawings, photo-

CINEMATOGRAPHY AND SECONDARY TEACHING

649

graphs, but they possess pedagogic advan-
tages of their own. They are larger in size
are more easily seen, and offer a better op-
portunity for the study of detail.

They cause less distraction because they
are shown alone and not as part of a whole
like a book which can be glanced through
secretly. They thus give the child an oppor-
tunity of examining the details of the pic-
ture and the master a change of proffering an
adequate explanation.

As we have seen, in moving pictures the
slow motion projector or the arresting of the
running-off of the film permits us to examine
details by degrees. There are machines in
existence today which, without wearing out
the film, allow us to stop the picture or slow
it down according to our pleasure.

The choice of fixed projections is neces-
sarily somewhat limited.

Arresting the run of the film and holding
the image, as well as the slow motion projec-
tion give the teacher a wide field for his
choice of the particular image he wants.

The fixed image has no value when it
comes to representing a fact in which move-
ment is the prime factor, such as the crash
of a wave on a rock, the variety of the cur-
rent between a torrent and a calm river, the
jumps of a kangaroo, the movements of an
elephant, or the trotting of a horse. We can
pass as many still images of movement on
the screen as we like, but we shall never ar-
rive at giving the pupil an idea of a com-
plete motion in this way.

It is only the motion picture which can
reproduce movement in totality and in its
various details.

It is my belief that the fixed projection
does not give as complete and exact an idea
of dimensions as the cinema. Out of cur-
iosity, I have sought to make children estim-
ate the width of a glacier, a river, or the,
height of a volcano or the area of a garden
by showing them fixed and moving projec-
tions. The replies, it must be admitted, were
often incorrect with both systems. In the
case of the replies based on a vision of slides,

they were absurd (a glacier two yards
wide, a mountain 20 yards high). The same
could not be said of the film results; the
errors being due to a simple miscalulation
of altitude and other dimensions. The estim-
ates came within the bounds of probabil-
ity: 100 yards or 260 for the first and 500
yards for the second: while the actual fig-
ures were 600 metres for the glacier and 750
for the mountain.

Does the film then possess special means
for expressing dimensions? It does, and the
means is to be found in movement. Follow-
ing the lens, we follow the avenue which
leads to the bottom of the garden. With
the film we actually make on foot or in auto-
mobile or on a ropeway the ascension of
the mountain, or we cross the glacier. It is
according to the time, be this short or long
in the judgment of the child that the projec-
tion of these climbs and marches takes that
he estimates the distance in width, height
or depth. This period of time he translates
on a system of his own in figures that cor-
respond.

We may add that it is only the motion
picture which is equipped with movement
that permits us to see things in all their
true aspects. It is only the motion picture
through a multiplication of photos of the
same object which corrects the errors of
perspective existing in a photograph taken
from one point which is not well always
chosen. Only the sound film can express the
sounds and noises which, as we have seen
earlier, alone render a complete picture and
reproduction of a fact event or phenome-
non, such as an eruption, the course of a
torrent, a factory at work, galloping horses.
It is only the film which can give the sense
of relief and distance.

The connection of these two processes is
on the other hand often desirable. In the
history of art, for example, the reproduction
of an ancient statue can be given with a
lantern slide, but the excavations where it was
found should be shown with moving pictu-
res. In a lesson on palaeontology the fossil
can be illustrated with a slide, but, in zoo-

650

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

logy, the cinema should show all the living
animals of the various species.

The motion picture thus seems to us to
possess such admirable advantages that its
defects — and we admit there are defects
some of which can be corrected — will not
persuade us to renounce this form of projec-
tion which in our opinion, represents life in
its totality and fullness.

Repercussions from The cinema has not

Se*-Use D-VhC yet become of sum-
Morion Picture '

in Teaching. ciendy common use

in teaching for us to
state with precision its effects and still less
with any certainty the results of its pro-
grammes time-tables, etc. One cannot do
more here than guess and estimate. These
results must vary greatly in different subject
matters.

It is, however, now possible to draw con-
clusion similar to those at which many who
make regular use of the motion picture in
teaching have already arrived, conclusions
which would seem likely to become trans-
formed into laws.

Children acquire cognitions more rapid-
ly with the cinema than with oral or text-
book teaching. They understand much bet-
ter what they see when it is screened be-
fore their eyes and they remember it with
less effort. This doubdess depends on the
fact that sight is the most highly developed
of the senses with the majority of children.
Must we then — since we possess a rapid
and sure system — reduce the school hours
and modify the curricula?

Not at all. The time gained in acquiring
cognitions is lost in other ways. If cinema
teaching is to exist, it must not be superficial.
It must look after details, show facts phen-
omena and events completely, leaving noth-
ing to be guessed at or supplied by the child.

The seeing of a film illustrating volca-
noes will certainly require more time
than a corresponding oral description, which
will inevitably be incomplete and lacking in
colour and vividness. A visit or an experi-
ment will also be a lengthy operation. The

use of the motion picture will certainly im-
prove scholastic results. The pupils will be
more thoroughly and better taught, their in-
struction will be be more intelligent and
profounder, but time will not be saved. It
will have to be allotted in a different fashion.

If the time-tables have to be changed —
we must make no mistake about it — they
will be lengthened. The time that may be
gained — and we propose to discuss this
shordy — will be on the home work given
to the pupils and in study.

It is unnecessary to add that curricula
cannot be made any heavier than they are
at present without running the risk of en-
couraging superficiality, a defect which al-
ready exists in our present system. It would
indeed be a good thing if the curricula
were shortened somewhat, and study made
more thorough and profound over a limited
number of subjects.

As to text-books, their fate will depend
on the special subject they cover. I think
they will tend to dwindle in size, and their
tasks will be modified. Descriptions and
accounts will disappear, and will assume
almost the form of indices with brief sum-
maries of facts. Concatenations of events
will be registered, and the books will be
enriched with numerous pictures and photo-
graphs, and will contain exercises on films
projected to the pupils.

I can clearly forsee the day when the
history book will be reduced to a precise
summary, with dates and names, brief ex-
planations of important events, their causes,
and, for the advanced scholars, texts and
exercises in comparison and the formation
of opinions. The geography text-book will
be furnished with maps, diagrams, practical
exercises, type excursions, observations, stu-
dies and numerous photographs. This does
not mean that all the films will be made at
the same time as the text-books, but the
films will form a bibliography, like the
books of today, which the authors of text-
book will be able to consult for the prepar-
ation of their exercises.

Will the resulting text-book be a very

CINEMATOGRAPHY AND SECONDARY TEACHING

651

poor and miserable affair? Shall we go
back to the time when text-books were not
much more than lifeless enumerations? I
do not think so because the text-book will
not primarily be a book to be read and
learnt by heart like the text-book of today. It
will be something like a support, a help, a
sort of guide. If it becomes skeletonized, this
will not be any disadvantage, for the var-
iety of its contents will suffice to keep the
mind interested. Its comprehension will no
longer be based on colourless words, but
on pictures actually seen and created by
the words themselves.

A system like this will greatly facilitate
the pupil's home-work and class studies, for
it will prove desirable that many of the
exercises be done in class. I am pretty well
certain that in the case of geography and
natural science, the work will be gready
reduced. It may be argued that teaching
will be dangerously levelled down owing
to the fact that the films will be the same
for all countries and certainly the same for
all ages. This is only superficially true. The
same motion picture can be adapted to dif-
ferent ages in the same way that a text-
book for the first grade can be altered and
modified for the sixth grade, though the
process is not a desirable one to follow. It
will always be better to make special films
for each class or grade. If the film is to be
the same for the whole of France, is this
not already the case with the text-book ?

Teachers and scholars are always chang-
ing, and their reactions and comments will
provide infinite variety, where at first glance
it might appear there was a risk of mon-
otony.

In a word, it is teachers and children
who will work, and not only the teacher as
often happens today.

Useful Subject-mat- First of all, we have
ters for Filming. namraj gdencc and

geography, subjects which deal with mater-
ial aspects of life in their forms, dimen-
sions, movements, sounds and transforma-
tions, which require the best expression that

can be given them, and this is undoubtedly
the motion picture, whether silent, talking
or sound. What we have already said suf-
ficiently illustrates this point of view, and it
does not seem to me necessary to insist
thereon further.

The cinema can accomplish its instruction-
al task especially well in the case of the
two before mentioned subjects.

There are, however, other subject-matters
which could be used for film treatment with
advantage.

i) Physics and Applied Chemistry. - These
can usefully be illustrated with projections
of factories, laboratories, mines, experiments
that are too difficult for personal repetition
in the school laboratory, the use of complic-
ated and non-dismountable apparatus with
explanations of the single parts after the
working has been explained with animated
drawings.

2) History has less need than geography
of the motion picture. Great care must be
used in teaching history with the cinema if
one wants to avoid a sense of partisanship
creeping into the picture, even involuntarily.
This applies especially to great historic
events, the lives of famous politicians and
partial or total subjective historical recons-
tructions. The atmosphere of an epoch can
be recalled with evident benefit and scenes
screened which help to understand the past.
Certain scenes in Ben Hur, for instance —
the naval battle, the chariot race and the
miracle of the wolves prove that this kind
of atmospheric reconstruction can be satisfac-
torily used in proper circumstances.

3) Gymnastics and Drawing can be
taught with the motion picture which can
show up wrong athletic movements, analyse
movements, and demonstrate effects of per-
spective, showing the effects obtained by
draftsmen and even painters.

4) The History of Art does not lend itself
particularly well to teaching by the film. The
reproduction of pictures, sculpture, furniture,
costumes, and various still objects are more
usefully illustrated by the fixed projection.
Certainly it would be interesting to see

652

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

characters in costume acting in a scenario
of the time of Louis XV. But we enter here
into the department of historical reconstruc-
tion, and are not dealing with the history
of art. The sight of excavations, the tech-
nique of artists and architecture could all take
advantage of the cinema, for we are dealing
in these cases with expressions of movement,
dimensions, life. The monument does not
stand all by itself, but depends to a degree
on the site where it stands. The feudal casde,
the Gothic cathedral can only be properly
understood by seeing the places where they
rise. It is only the modon picture which can
assemble all these thing's for us.

5) The Film's Tas\ in Literature seems to
be limited to reconstructing the lives of lit-
erary men in such a way as as to help us
to understand outstanding points in their
works. It is useful also for the reconstruction
of theatrical shows in all epochs. So too the
motion picture may be usefully employed
for the reproduction of contemporary dram-
atic works or rather certain scenes in par-
ticular. The changes of scene, the facial
expressions, the actors gestures will all help
to an understanding of the text.

In these last cases the talking film should
be used naturally. It will engage two of the
senses, sight and hearing, and prove vasdy
superior to mere photography which some
people think is quite sufficient.

6) Finally, the study of dead and still
more living languages will find a useful ally
in the motion picture.

Talking films employed with frequent
use of the slow motion projector and anim-
ated drawings show with precision and
plenty of details the position of the lips and
tongue as well as the movements of the
pharynx in pronouncing sounds. Films re-
producing costumes, landscapes, etc. could
render certain aspects and the type of the
population familiar to students of the lan-
guage of the people projected on the screen
bringing them in a way nearer to the stu-
dents and making them more actual and
alive. Such added knowledge might result in
greater application to the study of the lan-

guage. Such language pictures should show
genuine Germans or Frenchmen or English
on the screen, all of whom would talk na-
turally as they do in real life, though of
course, not too rapidly. Pupils will accustom
themselves to the sound of the foreign ton-
gue, and will understand it more rapidly,
catching the shades of meaning and inflec-
tion, as well as even dialectical differences.

The Cinema as an I cannot deal here

tSSSS IV- «** • *-*» "«*
search. goes considerably

beyond my province.

At the same time, I will add something

from my own personal experience.

I had to prepare a thesis for a degree on
a scientific subject, and I had carried out a
certain number of researches of a scientific
nature in physical and human geography.
These researches concerned mountainous
regions in Eastern Rumania near the Dan-
ube and the Carpathians, in the district
called the Benat. The distance and cost of a
trip to the district meant considerable delay
and expense, and it was out of the question
for me to make a prolonged journey of this
kind. These facts made the use of the motion
picture seem eminendy desirable.

Morphological researches are based on a
study of maps and the territory under exam-
ination, and special visits on foot or pref-
erably on horseback is the best way to ac-
complish one's purpose. One gathers a doc-
umentary record of notes drawing and
photographs. The notes are not always clear,
and are often incomplete; the drawings are
interpretations of a more or less faithful
kind of reality; even the largest collection
of photographs is not enough to give an
exact idea of the territory under view. It is
difficult to take account of errors of perspec-
tive which depend on a badly chosen pos-
ition for taking the photographs. When one
returns from the trip, one has to work with
incomplete, sketchy material, and the mem-
ory has to be relied on too often to fill in
details. Sometimes imagination takes its
place. The result is that the work has either

CINEMATOGRAPHY AND SECONDARY TEACHING

653

to be done again on the spot, or inaccurate
results are arrived at.

The employment of the motion picture
here would allow us to reduce the possibility
of error to a minimum, even if we cannot
eliminate it. There is no need to say that
the shots ought absolutely to be made with
the same detailed care that goes to the com-
piling of notes on such an occasion or the
making of drawings or photographs. Doubt-
less, the transport of the camera will turn
the trip into something like a small expedi-
tion, but it will only be necessary to visit
the places twice, once for a study of the
ground and to fix the points of reference and
a second time to make the pictures. Nor can
we be sure that the reels of film will actually
prove much more troublesome to carry than
a bundle of note-books, drawings, photo-
graps, etc. Films constitute documents which
are much livelier, more copious, fuller and
more homogeneous than a documentation
made along the lines we previously men-
tioned.

Not all sections of geographical research
lend themselves to film treatment. I am of
the opinion that the following subjects can
be advantageously taught with the motion
picture.

Physical Geography : geology, strata,
rocks, etc.

Morphology : general aspect of earth.
Effects of glacial and fluvial erosion, study
of table-lands, plains, terraces, heights and
distances.

Human Geography : ethnography, cos-
tumes, dances, markets, transports, folklore.
Agriculture and industry, works, customs,
costumes, universal features and all forms
of activity which have their origin in mo-
vement.

Quality of Appara- As I am not an expert
t us. Plant for in the construction o£
Schools.

film apparatus, I will

limit my remarks to indicating the various
objects and parts which I, as a teacher should
expect to find in

i) a cinema apparatus;

2) in a class-room.

1) The Apparatus. - The projector should
be able to show standard films be light and
portable, easily handled, silent, with good
illumination, and should give steady pictures
without flicker. This, of course, for the
purpose of reducing to a minimum the pos-
sibility of fatigue for the master and eye
strain for the pupils. The apparatus ought
to be able to be attached to any voltage in or-
dinary commercial use, so as to avoid com-
plicated transformers, etc. The machine
should be able to be stopped instantly on
any photograph, and for as long as is de-
sired without the film running any risk of
deterioration or catching fire. The film ought
to be reversible so that a portion already
seen can be projected over again if desired.

The apparatus should be enclosed in a
metal case that should be completely closed
so as to avoid the building of an expensive
projection cabin, which is unsatisfactory from
the pedagogic point of view since it separates
the teacher from the pupils.

The apparatus ought to have provision
made to include sound and talk. The loud
speaker should have a clear tone.

2) The class-room. - The room should be
large :

1) in order to offer every facility for
clearing the hall when necessary.

2) so that it does not become over-
heated after a certain time.

Air conditioning or cooling systems can
be installed with advantage.

The hall should have two ample exits,
preferably situated at the opposite ends of the
room. The doors should be fitted with means
for easy opening and shutting, and be cov-
ered with curtains or sun-blinds. The hall
should be led up to by stairs like a regular
academic hall and should contain a black-
board.

a) For the Teacher: it should contain
a chair, a table and a reading lamp that
throws all the light on to the table. There
should be an electric bell permitting the
teacher to call his assistant or operator — if
he possesses one — to stop or restart the
apparatus.

654

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

b) For the students: the hall should
contain benches and desks with only two
seats (to allow greater facility for clearing
the hall). The desks will allow the pupils
to make drawings and take notes during
the projections. The best possible arrange-
ment would be for each desk to be illum-
inated by a desk lamp like the teacher's.

The room need not be kept completely
dark even during the projection. This is
advisable in order to assist the maintenance
of discipline and to make exit easy for the
scholars in case of emergency.

If the desks have no illumination of their
own, some form of indirect lighting should
be arranged, which does not interfere with
the projections. It is a good thing to place
safety lamps (blue or red) over the exits.

It is always advisable to arrange that the
current for the illumination of the hall and
for the working of the projector come from
different sources, so that there may always
be light in the event of a temporary or par-
tial cessation of power.

The operator ought to have a fire extin-
guisher at hand, and the teacher should be
able to control two switches for the light,
one at his desk and the other close to the
projector.

A hall equipped in this fashion will allow
the professor to handle the aparatus either
alone or with an assistant, and it seems to
me that two halls ought to be sufficient
for a lycee of about 300 pupils.

Results from the It is still difficult to
Teaching Cinema. know with certainty

what results may be looked for from the
use of the motion picture in secondary
teaching. Experiments are too recent, too
haphazard and devoid of proper method.

It must be admitted first of all that the
use of the cinema in classes does not assist
discipline; on the contrary, it is harmful to
it. A teacher must have his class really in
hand to be able to give projections in the
dark, or even in semi-obscurity, for the latter
encourages the scholars to play all kinds of
tricks and jokes.

Projections tire physically and intellectual-
ly, and on this point there can be no doubt,
as we have seen in the beginning of our
remarks. We have analysed the reason of
this, and suggested certain possible remedies,
and there is no need to go over the ground
again. If, in spite of these remedies and pal-
liatives, the pupils show signs of excessive
fatigue, it is not the fault of the projection
nor the intellectual effort required, but de-
pends on some weakness in the child.

I should now like to mention a point
which does not seem to me to have been
touched on or only rarely. If we admit that
the use of the motion picture in teaching
becomes general, the lessons which will be
given to a large extent in the dark produce
what are a priori abnormal illumination
conditions for the pupils. Is this likely to
prove a serious disadvantage? If the disad-
vantages are real ones, there is every reason
that only short pieces should be screened and
not entire films. Care must be taken that
intervals be provided between two film les-
sons for recreation in the open air. Sunlight
will be admitted into the class-room when
it possible, and care should be taken to
avoid running two cinema lessons too close-
ly together.

With these precautions, there is no doubt
that knowledge can be more quickly acquired
with the use of the motion picture, and
better impressed upon the memory. The
child also derives greater pleasure from the
lesson which is a pedagogic factor of some
importance. For my pupils, I use projections
on a decreasing scale according to the follow-
ing subjects:

History of Art: taught without text-books,
almost entirely with blackboard drawings
with brief explanations and projections.

Geography History : Very few projections
owing to lack of films. Ordinary lessons,
books essays and reports by pupils, reading.

There is no. doubt that the scholars pre-
fer the history of art and decorate their
exercise books with drawings and figures.
They exhibt prodigious observation, and
they bring me views of monuments known

CINEMATOGRAPHY AND SECONDARY TEACHING

655

to them so that I may help them in establish-
ing the date, period, style, etc. The history
of art does not require questions, notes or
compositions, and their work is therefore
purely disinterested because they enjoy it.

After the history of art what interests
them chiefly is geography. History comes
last in their affections.

Their sense of observation is certainly
stimulated, disciplined and even excited by
film teaching. That is, subject to follow-
ing conditions: that we do not project for
children pictures which are overlaid with
facts, for the enthusiasm and excitement soon
give place to a sense of discouragement at
the impossibility of understanding, retain-
ing and even seeing so many things at once.
The children give the whole thing up and
pay no detailed attention to anything.

It is useless to add that is absurd and
criminal, intellectually speaking, to see, as
I saw some weeks ago at Tourcoing, a so-
ciety issue special invitations to children of
the schools and lycees to witness the projec-
tion of eight <( official » documentary films
on Roumania, Czechoslovakia, Denmark,
Switzerland, Norway, Sweden and Poland!

This was described as « being interesting
for children of from six up » and was of-
fered as a daily spectacle to be rounded out
with two comic films! The result could only
be disastrous.

In the children's minds, the League of
Nations was assembled. All these countries
were shown in a harmful kind of promis-
cuity. I am not even certain that the char-
acters in the comic films did not belong to
the category of the documentary.

Teachers and the I think it is clear from
C,ncma• the foregoing that the

use of films or parts of commercial films of
the type of travelogues or news-reels such
as Trader Horn, Symphony of the Virgin
Forest, Africa Talks, Rango, etc.) and even
some ordinary pictures is as bad as can be.
We are obliged to have recourse to material
of this kind because at the moment we have
little else. They are all subjects which can

entertain the public, but are useless and even
worse in teaching because they hold the at-
tention at the expense of the pictures them-
selves.

They are talking pictures, and the dia-
logue is generally tiresome. If there is any
comment, nine times out of ten it is badly
done. Any value the comment may have is
often destroyed by a musical accompani-
ment. In fact, they are almost always cons-
tructed without logic, without purpose or
method. They are full of long drawn out
scenes or else the scenes are too short and
incomplete. They are made under the pres-
sure of artistic and profit-making ideas with
more than a touch of exhibitionism in them;
moreover, they contain harmful tricks and
fakes. All this tends to render them useless
for teaching, unless very special precautions
are taken.

At the same time they need not necessa-
rily be useless. They have a documentary
basis of enormous richness which it would
be a pity to lose. Why should these films,
after having gone their commercial round
remain in their producers' hands for cap-
ricious destruction? In the past, great doc-
umentary wealth has been lost in this way,
regular film fortunes from the instructional
point of view. Are we as rich as all that?
Why are not film manufacturers under the
legal obligation imposed on newsapers and
publishers to deposit a copy of their works?
Such legal deposit of a silent copy of the
film at the ministry of National Education
ought to be insisted on by the law. There
should further be a permanent commission
established at the ministry composed of
professors attached to the various education-
al grades and for the various subjects taught
in the schools. The commission would exam-
ine the films deposited and decide which
parts of them should be chosen for use in
teaching, at the same time taking care of
the re-mounting, and adding fresh sub-titles
or, when necessary, providing a new sound
track.

In this way, in two years, with little
expense — in view of the enormous num-

656

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

ber of commercial documentary films being
produced — we should provide the teaching
cinema with a splendid film repository and
stock of pictures of first class quality. Such
films are often made in places, and under
conditions beyond the reach of the teaching
film. Such films would naturally be used to
supplement courses of studies and for illus-
trating the same. Films in question would
be most useful both for primary and sec-
ondary education.

It might be arranged that when a
producer is making a big film in some far
off region, an ethnographist, a naturalist a
geographer or a specialist in art questions
(I do not mean an artist) who were also at
the same time teachers should form part of
the expedition with a special assignment
from the ministry of education. They would
naturally have nothing to do with the mak-
ing of the picture but would follow the
troupe as observers with the right to request
that a scene should be shot for them or that
some supplementary rushes be made accord-
ing to their suggestions and indications.

They ought to be professors of pedagogy
and not scientists, journalists or artists, even
if famous ones, because it is only professors
of didactics who know the points likely to
prove useful to teaching in a film or por-
tions of a film. A few more metres of film
shot in the course of a long picture would
not mean much to the producers. And the
result might prove excellent. Last year, in
fact, the Fox Movie-tone did something of
this kind, without exactly intending to do
so. It would be a good idea if this firm
found imitators in France.

It will be necessary to have at one's dis-
posal different pictures for each lesson, films
for all ages, subjects and grades or classes.
We cannot look for one type of picture that
will answer all requirements.

Close collaboration between film produ-
cers will always be necessary. The producer
will look after the financial technical and
artistic parts.

He will be the faithful executor with a
very important task to carry out. Artistic
films can also be teaching films. In this case,
the producer must act as a guide to the
teacher in helping him to choose points and
angles for making the pictures, pointing out
the advantages and disadvantages from cer-
tain conditions of light and various technical
processes and possibilities that can be exploit-
ed in making good films.

The teacher or professor should prepare
the scenario, since he alone knows the end
it is desired to attain and the best methods
for achieving it. He will draft the first plan
of the scenario, note what pictures are to be
made, and look after the mounting, that is,
indicate the sequences and their duration
and write the comment for sub-titles or the
sound track.

The essential characteristics of the teach-
ing film are:

i) It should be simple and as brief as
possible, without any exaggeration in brev-
ity, however, that might damage the clarity
of the film.

We must not forget that our public of
little people is an ignorant public, but very
keen on learning and being taught. The
film should be based on one or two essen-
tial ideas or primary observations.

2) It should develop logically according
to a simple and methodical plan.

3) It should avoid any kind of tendency
(no deformation or twisting of facts out of a
sense of parti pris) as also any tricks or
fakes that are not absolutely necessary. It
should be, as far as possible, an expression
of reality without comment, or any kind of
political, religious, or moral bias.

4) The sub-titles or sound track com-
ment should be brief precise, clear and with
no long, pompous words that may be misun-
derstood or not understood at all. Technical
terms should be written in capitals and pro-
nounced slowly and explained...

INVESTIGATION ON THE EFFECTS OF TEACHING FILMS

BY

Dr. Karl Hareiter

VIENNA.

The opinion of the film formed by teach-
ers in Austria had already been
made known at the time the Third Inter-
national Conference of the didacdc film was
held at Vienna, from May 26 to 31, 1931.
Among the reports presented on that occa-
sion, there were some which spoke of the
effects of the teaching film on the psychol-
ogy of children, but these opinions were
based on investigations made in 1928. Since
that period, similar studies have been made
by Dr. Ludwig Langweiser, Councillor of
State and Inspector of Schools of the town
of Vienna, Professor Ludwig Siegl of the
Technical School of Bruck a. d. Mur, and
Dr. Karl Hereiter, teacher in the Pedago-
gical Institute of Vienna.

These studies were made in regard to
films which had been adapted for teaching
requirements from industrial films and
films taken from nature; and others such
as the experiment made by Professor Siegl,
which was personally produced by the lat-
ter for scholastic purposes. The result of
these studies was to confirm the opinion
already made known at the time of the
Third International Conference.

a) Langweiser Studies. - In the volume
published by the Works Committee on the
occasion of the Third International Confer-
ence, to which we refer above, Dr. Lang-
weiser presented an important report on
his investigation, a brief summary of
which will be of interest. The fundamental
bases of this investigation were two films
which had been altered for didactic purpo-
ses by the Austrian Association of the schol-
astic cinema, namely, « The Treatment of

Timber », which was shown to 331 boys
and 353 girls of from nine to ten years of
age; and the cultural film « Simba », which
was shown to 154 boys and 191 girls of
from eleven to twelve years of age, all be-
longing to middle schools. The following
questions were put, after the projection:

1) what did you like best in the film?

2) what did you like least?

3) what would you have liked to see
in the film?

Langweiser obtained the following results.
Many of the answers clearly showed that
the projection of the films had made a
great impression on the children, but this
impression frequendy proved that their senses
and fancy had been excessively stirred, a
circumstance that might have dangerous
results.

The number and variety of the answers
showed that these two films are well suited
for illustrating both the treatment and util-
ization of timber and the life of animals
in Africa; and that, considering that move-
ment is one of the most striking factors
of these films, the projection served excel-
lently to reach the ends aimed at, without
the need of other didactic aids. The weak
points and imperfections of the films were
pointed out by the young spectators in the
clearest way. What was particularly noted
in the second part of the first film was that
the cutting of the timber was not clearly
shown, while the transport systems were
very incomplete.

The pupils were satisfied to ask for explan-
ations of some of the least easy passages,
but some of them were so absorbed in the

k - Ice Jngl.

658

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

vision before them that they refused to listen
to explanations, while others were disturbed
by the reading aloud of titles. It is necessary,
nevertheless, to give suitable explanations,
especially in the case of exceptional projec-
tions like those under consideration.

Many of the pupils continually evinced a
desire to see the film over again or to have
parts of it repeated. To a certain extent, that
showed that the projection was far from
tiring them, but it may also mean that they
felt a need of seeing the pictures again in
order to understand them better.

The most important result to be gained
by inquiries of this kind is the discovery
of the didactic and educational possibilities
of these projections for the minds and
spirits of children. An examination of the
answers showed, in fact, that the influence
of the instruction and education which the
little spectators had previously received from
master and parent was much more noticeable
after the projection, especially as regards
their understanding of the film as a whole
and in its various scenes. All this opens a
wide field of psychological study in regard
to the parallels to be drawn between the
impressions received from the projection and
the typical individuality of different pupils.

b) Siegl's Studies. - Professor Ludwig
Siegl has contributed an article on this
subject to The Austrian High School, which
is published as a supplement to the review
The High School Teacher, of January, 1933,
showing how he had been able to explain
the mechanism of understanding to his pupils
by means of a film he had prepared for that
purpose.

He writes : « I showed this film to two
seventh classes of a technical school, after
I had been explaining the mechanism of
understanding in my lessons for three
months. Before projecting the film, I asked
my pupils to write a short composition
explaining what they understood by the
mechanism of understanding, allowing them
to make use of their notes and of the text
books. I allowed them ten minutes for this
task. Afterwards, I showed them the film

for the first time, accompanying it with
a brief comment; and then a second time,
without comment. Then I told them to
write another composition on the same
theme, allowing them ten minutes for the
task this time also. It must be noted that
this was the first instructive film of any
kind that my pupils had seen, so that it
constituted a completely new method of
teaching for them.

« I obtained the following results with
my 35 pupils:

« for 3 pupils (or 9°/0) there was consid-
erable improvement;

« for 6 pupils (or 17 %) there was a
noticeable improvement;

<( for 5 pupils (or 14 %) there was a
slight improvement;

« for 20 pupils (or 57%) there was no
apparent improvement of any kind, partly
because some of them had not a clear idea
of what was wanted from the beginning.
In any case, however, there was the indispu-
table fact that 40 % of the pupils gained
a more or less considerable benefit from
the projection, which is the more worthy of
note when it is considered that the film
had been produced with very rudimentary
means.

« I profited by the occasion to interrogate
the pupils with the object of discovering
their opinion of the film and of its didactic
utility. To this end I asked the following
questions :

« 1) describe as faithfully as possible
what you have seen;

« 2) has your idea of the mechanism of
understanding become clearer or less clear?

« 3) what seemed good to you in the
film, and what bad?

«4) what difference did you find be-
tween the film and your own experience?

(( 5) did the film interest or tire you ?

« 6) what experiments in physics, that
you know, would you like to see in a film?

« 7) would you like to see a film of
this kind frequendy?

« 8) for what other subjects could the
film in general be used with advantage? ».

INVESTIGATION ON THE EFFECTS OF TEACHING FILMS

659

We do not propose to give the answers
to these questions, but the above explanation
of the way the inquiry was conducted is
sufficient indication of its value, and the
inquiry is the more worthy of note, since
Professor Siegl was the first to try it in the
higher classes of secondary schools.

c) Hareiter's Studies. - Dr. Hareiter car-
ried out an investigation, in agreement with
the Austrian Association of the scholastic
cinema, with the object of studying the
effect of didactic films on children of dif-
ferent ages. To get at the results desired,
it was found necessary to put the following
questions :

What do pupils think of the films that
are shown to them? Is it not the fact that
this particular film is too long, and tires their
minds? Can this film be considered as suited
to the class to which it has been shown,
and is it too full of matter or lacking in
it? What difference is there between the
lantern slide and the film, a moving picture
which passes continually across the screen
and gives rise to a continuous succession of
impressions? What constitutes perception
and the lack of perception? How can the
mental processes started in the child by the
film be distinguished from those aroused
by lantern slides?

Other questions were added, such as, for
instance : what special phenomena increase
the attention? How does the attention in-
crease, how does it reach the highest point,
when does it begin to diminish, how long
can it last? What are the relations between
memory and the projection of a film? Is
the film capable of making a special im-
pression on the memory, and what is the
reason of this? Is it advisable that teachers
should use the new teaching means for aid-
ing the memory? Is it true that the film
has a depressing effect on the will? Are
those right who assert that the pupil may
become distracted in consequence of the
impossibility of looking continuously at
moving pictures for the whole of the time
necessary? Is it likely that the film may
produce a certain impression of superficiality

on children? Is this especially the case if
they see films too frequently? Is the moving
picture useful only for the visual faculties,
while the auditory faculties are not stirred?
Is it a fact that, in consequence of the con-
tinual movement of the film, the pupil
becomes accustomed to look upon lantern
slides with a certain contempt, which leads
him to look only for the value of movement
in the film and to neglect the rest? Are
our didactic films likely to develop ethical
and social sentiments? What is the corre-
lation between the problems: films and
ethics? What (difference is there in the
effect of the film on the best and worst
pupils? Can the film stimulate a feeble in-
telligence?

To these psychological problems we must
add those of "a physiological order. What is
the effect of a film, while it is passing
across the screen, on the visual apparatus
of the child? To what degree must the
filmed image be luminous if it is to respond
to the requirements of health? At what
moment during the projection of a film can
the beginning of fatigue be noted in child-
ren? At what moment may this phenomenon
of tiredness be said to have affected half the
spectators?

The inquiry had to be divided into se-
veral parts :

i) observations made by the pupils
during the performance, the object being to
verify the degree of attention, tension, inte-
rest, tranquillity, agitation, fatigue, pleasure
shown; a verification, in substance, of the
feelings displayed;

2) questions put after the projection.
Each master takes a pupil apart, puts the
questions to him and notes his answers;

3) at the same time, the children are
asked by a group of students to give their
account of what they have been seeing, and
their impressions are taken down in short-
hand;

4) the following day the pupils write
compositions on what they have seen on
the film, without help or suggestion from
the master;

660

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

5) the written compositions must be
repeated after two or three weeks' time, to
see to what extent the impression has lasted.

This inquiry, which is remarkable for the
great variety of the questions proposed, has
so far been made in 130 classes in Viennese
schools, yielding a total of more than 4000
pupils. It is still proceeding.

The first trial was made with the film
already adopted by Langweiser, on the
treatment and utilization of timber.

A second experiment was made with the
film « Madame Holle », which was projected
before children of from six to eight years
of age, in the different schools of Vienna.
This helped the investigators to appreciate
the value for children of this age of films
based on pure fantasy.

The following results were obtained:
75 % of the children of 8 years were
able to follow the story, which was a very
attractive one. It was projected at the usual
speed of 16 photograms, for 44 minutes;
and no signs of tiredness were observed
among the children. For the first time it
was also possible to judge, en bloc, of the
comprehension possibilities of a whole class;
and it was observed that the best pupils

understood much more readily than the
others.

The film « Foundry », which shows the
treatment and utilization of iron, led us
to try another experiment on the effects of
the view of a strictly technological film. The
results of the experiment were, on the whole,
excellent.

Another experiment was tried with the
film ((Attention, Australia, Attention, Asiah,
which, although it is apparently of consider-
able cultural value, did not seem to make
any deep or lasting impression on the chil-
dren. In the first place, the film is too long;
it last for an hour and a half, and the chil-
dren got tired, and after a while were un-
able to follow the scene any longer, although
they were all about thirteen years of age.
Secondly, the explanations accompanying
the film were looked upon as an extra and
useless fatigue. The children were all ob-
viously very tired when they left the hall.

The inquiries undertaken by the teaching
body of Vienna have thus far given some
remarkable results for pedagogical research
and the production of teaching films; and
the Austrian Association for the scholastic
cinema has therefore decided to continue
this system of scientific inquiry.

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Edi'or and Responsible Manager

Societa Editrice di « Novissima » - Roma - Via Romanello da Forli, 9

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DUCATIOMAL (IMEMATOdPAPHY

EAGUE

IATIONS

vh

"V*.

OCTOBER
19 3 4

-•-' *

^^^VVV^^^H

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF THE INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY (L. OF N.)

ROME - I-a, VIA LAZZARO SPALLANZANI - ROME

YEAR VI. - N. 10. OCTOBER 1934.

CONTENTS

I. COMANDON ..... Utilization of the Cinema in higher

education (Natural Science) . . . 667

R. LEROUX Cinematographic Teaching of Medi-
cine and Surgery 673

H. FOCILLON The Cinema and Teaching of the Arts 681

The Cinema at the service of Museums

and Art monuments 684

M. MENEGHINI The Film for Teaching Art .... 686

The Cinema and Studies in archaeo-
logy and the History ef Art . . . 693

G. THEVENOT The Cinema and the Teaching of Li-
terature 699

A. FERRIERE Normal School Training for Teachers

by means of Psychology and scien-
tific Pedagogy 704

M. CANTAGREL The utilisation of the Cinematography

in Technical Teaching 708

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING BODY

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of State, Professor of Law at the Univer-
sity of Rome, President.

LUMI£RE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.

BROWN J. W., Director of the British Film Institute.

CARTON DE WIART Count Henry, Minister of State, Member of the Child Welfare
Committee of the League of Nations.

FOCILLON Henri, Professor at the University of Paris, Member of the Permanent
Committee of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.

GANGULEE Nagendra Nath, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor of Agriculture and Rural
Economy at the University of Calcutta.

KOZMA Nicolas de, Ministerial Councillor, President Director of the Hungarian Tel-
egraph Agency.

LLOPIS Rodolfo, Deputy in the Cortes, ex General Director of Primary Education at
Madrid.

MISTRAL Gabrielle, Authoress, Ex-Directress of the Lycee for young girls at Santiago.

OPRESCU Georges, Professor at the University of Bucharest, Member of the Perma-
nent Commitee of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.

ORDYNSKI Ryszard, President of the Polish Film Producers' Association.

REYNOLD Gonzago de, Professor at the University of Fribourg, Member of the
Commission for Intellectual Cooperation.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,

The President of the International Agricultural Institute,

The Director of the International Labour Bureau and

The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the I.C.I.C., Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW
Dr. Luciano de FEO, Editor.

P. Berne de Chavannes, Ernest Holtzer,

Giuseppe de Feo, Edward Storer.

Jose Maria Gimeno,

Maria Elena Apollonio, Secretary.

UTILIZATION OF THE CINEMA IN HIGHER EDUCATION

(NATURAL SCIENCE)

BY

Dr. J. Comandon

Premise. We have already had

the honour of present-
ing two reports on subjects similar to that
which we have been requested to deal with
for the Rome Congress.

The first was in 1927, on the occasion of
the European Conference of the Scholastic
Film; the second occasion was in 1931 at
the national Congress of the Educational
Cinema held in Paris. Our ideas have not
been at all modified by the progress in
technique and our own later experience. We
have had the satisfaction of noting that our
ideas are in perfect accord with those of
pedagogues who have made the widest use
of the motion picture in their teaching, ideas
which have been set forth in reports con-
tained in this and other numbers of the
Review.

We shall make no apology for borrowing
from our own previous efforts in this field.

The Cinema and The natural sciences,

Natural Science. , ,

are those among the

sciences of observation, which are best taught

with the use of the motion picture. There

seems to us no need to justify this assertion,

which is nowadays generally accepted by

everyone. We will therefore take this kind

of teaching as a type, and set forth the

methods which we think best for illustrating

with the aid of the motion picture, at the

same time replying to the queries laid before

us by the organizers of the Congress.

Methodology of Film
Teaching.

Teaching in important
schools is carried out
by means of courses and lectures which are
generally given in large halls or theatres

capable of holding several hundreds of
students. In addition, visits to museums and
experiments in laboratories are made. Lu-
minous projections have been is use for a
long time in courses of lessons and lectures.
The theatres and lecture halls are suited to
the purpose. The screen is placed behind
the teacher. There are convenient electric
connections to furnish the light supply for
the projector. The room can easily and
quickly be darkened during the day by the
use of blinds or shutters, and the illumination
of the hall is under the professor's immediate
control.

The projections will thus be given in the
ordinary halls used for lectures and other
purposes.

As to fixed projections, the lantern is
generally placed in the middle of the hall
or room at some little distance from the
screen. This is not the policy to follow with
the motion picture. The image of the film,
having a superficies much smaller than that
of a lantern slide (8,5 x 10 cm) will undergo
a very considerable enlargement if it has
to cover the screen used for slides. A much
shorter focal length lens will be required
to project the film at the same distance, and
it is a well known fact that lenses of this
type are liable to distortion.

Moreover, the film operator requires a
certain amount of space to handle his mach-
ine, wind on and off his reels, etc. Besides,
his movements would create a distraction
for the spectators, and would annoy the
teacher and the pupils if he were in the
midst of them.

For these reasons and others, it is always

668

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

advisable to install the operator at the back
of the theatre or lecture hall, and when it
is possible in an isolated cabin to himself.
The cabin should be well-aired, roomy as
far is possible, well lighted, and fitted with
cupboards and shelves for accessories and
odds and ends. There should also be extin-
guishers in case of fire. The cabin should
be connected with the hall, or should open
on to it by means of a rectangular slit made
in the wall of the cabin sufficiendy large to
allow the rays of light to pass, and to afford
the operator an opportunity of observing
the screen and the auditorium. (New am-
phitheatre of the Conservatory of Arts and
Crafts). If the theatre has any considerable
slope, the projection thrown by a machine
placed in the higher part of the floor will
give a distorted picture, owing to the oblique
fall of the luminous rays. In this case, it is
better to place the cabin below the floor,
or pardy below the floor, so that the opening
for the light rays comes between two steps
of the central staircase. (This is the case at
the Paris Oceanographic Institute).

In order to allow the teacher or professor
to communicate with the operator, a tele-
phone or system of bell signalling must be
installed. Coloured lights will answer the
purpose just as well. Is it advisable to install
the projection lantern for slides in the motion
picture cabin? This is not always possible,
especially when it is desired to project pic-
tures on opaque bodies (epidiascopy). In this
case, a wide lens is necessary, which would
be very cosdy if it had also to be of the
extreme focal length required to project pic-
tures from the back of a theatre or hall.

For epidiascopic pictures, the lantern
should be placed at a distance of a few
metres from screen, and two operators will
be required, or else arrangements must be
made so that one operator can handle two
machines at the same time. This is quite
easy when worked out along the lines we
are accustomed to follow.

Fixed projections should be used, as is
customary, in the course of the lessons and
the moving pictures should only be shown
when the lesson is over.

Utilization of Fixed The method to be foll-
and Animated j • i r t

Projections. owed in showing fixed

projections cannot be
used for films. Fixed pictures can remain
on the screen as long as the teacher wishes.
They represent motionless objects. The lec-
turer has not only all the necessary time to
indicate their morphological characteristics,
but can also connect his remarks with the
ideas forming the theme of the lesson.

On the other hand, phenomena reproduc-
ed by means of the cinema, varying con-
tinually as they do in time and space, do
not permit much digression or comment on
the part of the teacher. He must be satisfied
with following and drawing attention to
what is proceeding on the screen, directing
the pupils' attention to those points in the
picture which he considers essential or char-
acteristic. The eye only sees well the very
limited superficies which it regards, and the
teacher should seek to prevent the eyes of
the students from wandering at will over
the screen. For this reason, a film of an
educational type should never show two
important phenomena at the same time.

The attention should not have to oscillate
between discordant visual and acoustic im-
pressions of life, but should be concentrated
on the aspect of the essentials of the film
through the appeal of the images and the
words. A pupil should never to be told to
take notes during a projection, nor is it
advisable continually to arrest the run of the
reel for explanations, for this leads to a
deformation of the movements illustrated in
the picture.

It is preferable for the teacher to give
brief theoretical explanations of the phen-
omena represented in the film before the

UTILIZATION OF THE CINEMA IN HIGHER EDUCATION

669

picture is actually thrown on the screen.
Some details can be shown with enlargement,
slow or accelerated motion, etc. After the
projection of the film, the supplementary
indications can be given connecting the facts
observed with other considerations arising
in the course of the lesson. At this point the
pupils may, if they like, take notes, which
should be made on the margins of illustrative
hints distributed before the lesson begins,
if this is possible.

In order that the teacher can form a
programme of lessons that shall conform to
his general curriculum and time-table, each
film should only deal with a single limited
subject, and films should not exceed 300 me-
tres at the most, while they may well be as
short as 100 metres. Short projections are the
most efficacious, and should not last more
than an hour in all, after which time the
danger of fatigue and strain increases greatly.

Requisites of Films. The requisites which
films must have have
often enough been pointed out, but we
shall perhaps do no harm in repeating them
here once again.

Suppports should be non-inflammable and
in a good state of preservation. The quality
of the photographs should be such that all
details are clearly shown. There is no need
to strive after unnecessary elegance, and all
tendency to lengthiness should be avoided.
Enlargements should allow the essentials en-
larged to be seen without any effort.

Slow and accelerated motion should be
used in the projection when the ordinary
rhythm does not permit of a careful analysis.
The projected picture will show the degree
of enlargement used, and a chronometer will
make it possible to evaluate the modifications
which cinematography imposes on speed.

The sub-titles, if any, should be few in
number and brief. They must be prepared
with great care. They are really signs which

remind the lecturer what the pictures to
follow are about to show.

Animated drawings are very convenient
for explaining complex movements or for
filling in gaps in the films in the repre-
sentation of phenomena. At the same time,
the teacher should be careful not to over-
do them, for they do not possess anything
like the educational value of actual repro-
ductions of natural phenomena.

Explanations. Explanatory notes are

useful. They can give
elucidation as to how the picture was made,
and can contain bibliographical indications
regarding the works to which the producers
of the film have had recourse; also references
to the scientific publications which the film
may possibly have inspired. The explanatory
notes intended for the students can be advan-
tageously compiled with enlargements of
pictures taken from the film, accompanied
with some letterpress. They should contain
space for notes to be added by the student
himself after having seen the projection.

These notes, however, must not allow the
teacher to forego seeing the film himself
beforehand and being in a position to un-
derstand it. This is a very important point,
and the didactic value of film teaching must
to a large extent depend on this pre-view
and grasp of the film by the teacher.

Sound and Talking There are, of course,
• two methods of using

the sound and talking film for teaching
natural science. One way is for the picture
to reproduce the sounds of nature, cries of
animals, etc. which gives us a precious sup-
plement to our documentary silent film. To
make the addition of the sound track really
worth while, there should be no deforma-
tion and the greatest possible purity in re-
production. Our experience has shown us
that this is a state of things which does
not often exist.

670

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

The oral comment when properly register-
ed is, on the other hand, generally extremely
pure. In this way, sub-tides and running
comment can be substituted by oral comment
on the sound track which renders the pro-
jection more attractive to the pupils. The
oral comment, however, does not offer any
advantage for the teacher who is disturbed
by it. He is impeded in making his own
personal reflections, which are much more
valuable than any comment on the sound
track, since they fall into line with the gen-
eral character of the whole lesson.

The talking film used educationally has
its advantages, however, if it is shown dur-
ing a projection for popularizing science or
for propaganda purposes by a non-specialist,
who need add no further comment to that
made by the loud-speaker.

It may be presumed that in the near future
complete lessons by a well known competent
teacher or professor will be able to be regis-
tered graphically and orally. This kind of
teaching then could be multiplied and dis-
tributed (better than by means of a distrib-
ution of books) in distant universities and
in backward countries not having the
teachers or laboratories existing in great
intellectual centres. At the same time, it is
to be feared that the high cost of films of
this type and the limited market available
for them will for some time to come prevent
their being much in use in the educational
world.

The Film as a Means As an instrument of

of Scientific Re- i j_ ri

. research, the film con-

search.

tinues to demonstrate
its worth and importance, especially for bio-
logical studies. When we are dealing with
laboratory work or research carried out in
the open air in natural surroundings, the
film registration is admirable to supplement
other observations. The analysis of the im-
ages often reveals documents that are more

faithful and exact for registering and inter-
preting movement than those obtainable by
any other means. By using the slow motion
and accelerated film the cinema can dom-
inate the element time and render perceptible
in a direct fashion the changes and modifi-
cations taking place at velocities beyond the
range of our visual sense but capable of
being reproduced optically, bringing to our
vision the infinitely small and the infinitely
distant.

These two forms of investigation help to
complete the human vision to which natural
limits would seem to have been placed since
our visual senses are only adapted to the
reception and cognition of objects on a cer-
tain scale.

The motion picture, better than photo-
graphy, can show us the invisible, using
emulsions the sensitiveness of which is out-
side the range of the coloured spectrum:
red-ray, ultra-violet ray and X-ray cinema-
tography.

During the past century natural science
was engaged in studies on morphology, anat-
omy and the classification of beings. Scien-
tists here have succeeded in introducing a
certain amount of order into these depart-
ments of science. The latest trend is now
towards psychology, towards a study of the
living thing observed in its natural surround-
ings, or in some natural surroundings, or
in surroundings internationally modified.

In microbology a similar tendency is to
be observed. The improvement in optical
instruments and the advancements in new
forms of technique, such as cell and tissue
cultures in vitro, micro-manipulation, etc.
allow us to experiment on living cells, while
some years ago it was only possible to study
microbes and cells after they had been
killed, fixed and artificially coloured.

The motion picture shows itself more and
more indispensable every day for all research
work on life in movement, but, unfortuna-
tely, the high cost of installations and film

UTILIZATION OF THE CINEMA IN HIGHER EDUCATION

671

stock have delayed its wider use. All the
same, it is, in our opinion, among films
produced for such forms of research that the
most interesting documents for higher edu-
cation are to be found, as well as also for
other grades of education and for scientific
propaganda. Consequently, one of the best
means for overcoming the penury of films
of real educational value — a penury ad-
mitted on all sides — would be to obtain
subsidies for cinema research work. It would
also be the safest means for obtaining the
effective collaboration of the university world
on which the future of cinema teaching
largely depends.

Format. We believe that for

teaching films in gen-
eral it is best to make negatives of 35
mm size. The expense incurred in purchas-
ing raw film is only a small part of the
total cost of the finished negative, and it is
generally admitted that the normal 35 mm
size negative gives a better picture than sub-
standard film. The subsequent printing can
be made in different formats.

Projection. The large theatres and

lecture halls ought to
possess apparatus more or less of the same
size as ordinary public cinema halls. The
installation should be permanent, fixed in a
proper cabin, and show 35 mm pictures.

Lecture halls with fewer than 100 seats
can use portable machines of sub-standard
size (17,5 or 16 mm). A notable economy
in the price of the film and the installation
costs will be effected in this way. We should
like to remark once again on the desirability
of standardizing one of these reduced size
formats for teaching purposes, as has been
done with the normal 35 mm film. The pop-
ularization of the educational film in France
is seriously hindered by the competition bet-
ween the various formats.

Projectors. Unfortunately, projec-

tors used in teaching
are only too often of imperfect make. Some
are just like toys. They wear out rapidly,
and their running soon becomes difficult
and reveals defects, so much so that some-
times teachers prefer not to use them. Bad
motion picture projectors have been the cause
of the discredit into which the admirable
method of film teaching has fallen in the
opinion of numerous pedagogues. The best
pictures will please neither pupils nor pro-
fessors if projected with poor projectors.
They will only run up the expenses. Any
economy in the price of a projector meant
to be used in teaching is illogical, for it will
only be at the expense of the quality of
the apparatus. Projectors ought to have long
lives, and require as little repair as possible.
They require very careful looking after.

In the case of sound and talking films,
we must have perfect reproduction of speech,
or it is better to not attempt it at all. Sound
films which are run off at a speed of 24
photos a second as compared with 16 photos
a second for silent films give a more exact
representation of movement, which is of im-
portance in natural science, when it comes
to studying, for instance, the motions and
steps of man and the animals. This rate
will certainly one day be made universal in
order to simplify the technique of « sono-
rizing » films of a silent origin, and despite
the extra expense due to the greater length
of film, we think that this will be a valuable
improvement.

The inhabitants of large cities who fre-
quent cinema halls have acquired, without
knowing it, an experience of the eye and
mind which helps them to understand mo-
dern cinematography. The film producers are
not ignorant of this fact, and they produce
successful pictures which the non-initiated in
film technique cannot easily appreciate.

The student will have to be trained to

672

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

read didactic projections, and be taught
how to interpret them. The slow motion
and accelerated projections baffle common
sense at first, but after the student becomes
accustomed to these forms of technique, he
grows interested in them, and derives great
profit from studying them. The teacher too
must make himself film-conscious and gain
a knowledge of film technique from the
time he enters a normal school.

Nothing prepares him better along these
lines than some actual experience in film-
making himself. He gets to know his instru-
ment and its possibilities in this way.

By practice and use, he will become
acquainted with the way to present a film
which is quite different from the way one
should show a fixed projection. He will find
easily enough the comments suited for his
teaching through the animated image, and
he will be able later on to perceive through
examinations and questions the progress his
pupils have made.

In conclusion we would place the follow-
ing hopes of ours on record:

a) that films suitable for the curricula
of higher educational establishments teaching
natural sciences be produced in large num-
bers;

b) that each film treat of a single well-
defined subject in a short picture;

c) that efficacious aid be given to bio-
logical research through a use of the motion
picture, so that we may get films with a real
scientific interest;

d) that teachers of biological sciences be
provided with motion picture apparatus in
their theatres and lecture halls, and that
such apparatus be of the best quality;

e) that educationists make themselves
well acquainted with the technique of using
the film for didactic ends. They should be
brought into contact with producers of films,
and kept up to date regarding pictures deal-
ing with their different branches of teaching.

CINEMATOGRAPHIC TEACHING OF MEDICINE

AND SURGERY

BY

Prof. Roger Leroux

SECRETARY GENERAL OF THE FRENCH COMMITTEE OF STUDIES

71 complete report on the teaching of
■**• medicine and surgery by the use of
the cinema such as we have been charged
with preparing means a long and patient
work which must be based on a synthesis
of specialized reports. We shall have there-
fore to make our apologies in advance for
any faults or oversights.

We have thought it well to limit ourselves
to the definite questions which were dealt
with in lecture rooms likely to end by being
used in the agenda of the Congress, but de-
spite this self-imposed limitation, we have
felt constrained to examine the various prob-
lems from a general point of view, putting
on record as a conclusion our hope that
all the efforts made will be coordinated and
not remain ineffective through lack of pro-
per cooperation.

i

Methods. The cinematographic material
existing in medical faculties and
clinics has little importance from the point
of view of quantity. It consists chiefly of
isolated apparatus and accessories installed in
lecture rooms likely to end by being used
for all kinds of purposes. There is only a
very small number of halls properly fitted
out for motion picture projections on med-
ical lines. Such installations are more often
than not only for use with silent films, and
their regular use is rather the exception
than the rule.

The way of using films intended for
completing medico-surgical instruction is
extremely varied according to the particular

subjects which it is desired to teach. For
example, the projection of a picture of the
type of « The technique of an operation for
Appendicitis » must be given in successive
visions, while the presentation of physiolo-
gical experiments can only be done in a
fragmentary manner in connection with the
programme laid down for the students.

Is it necessary to utilize the cinemato-
graphic projection during the lesson, or is it
better to use it as a sort of repetition and
summing up of facts after a lecture? This
again is a question which has to be setded
according to individual and particular cir-
cumstances, but, on general lines, the system
of using the projection inserted in the teach-
er's oral explanations is the best. The con-
sequent alternation of visual images and
words allows us also to arrest the projection
at any desired point, thus reducing any loss
of time to a minimum.

The quite special character of the various
subject-matters which can be taught in
schools of medicine means that some sub-
jects and themes will have everything to
gain from visual illustration, while others
will derive little or no advantage. The mo-
tion picture then should be used so that it
does not interfere unnecessarily with other
means of demonstration and explanation,
and should not be used in any arbitrary
manner.

The silent film requires sub-tides and
running comment, which must be fairly
well developed. Some subjects can very well

674

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

prove quite useless in film treatment if
they are not properly illustrated with run-
ning comment. This is an observation that
is even truer of micro-cinematographic sub-
jects than of merely microscopic material.
The production of animated pictures carried
out with cultures in vitro shows quite clear-
ly, that, without the addition of suitable
sub-tides, it is impossible for the most intel-
ligent spectator to form an exact concepdon
of what he sees on the screen. Only the
doctor who took part in the preparation of
the picture would perhaps be in a position
to identify the various phases of the film,
which only proves still more evidently the ne-
cessity for clear and definite sub-tides or
explanatory comment in pictures of this
kind.

The question of running comment or
sub-titles forming part of the picture is quite
independent of the explanatory notes which
are essential for completing a proper under-
standing of the film. These explanatory notes
for use by those handling films of this type
should follow the ordinary lines of teaching
programmes. They should be able to be
used to illustrate a lecture on the subject of
the picture, and even for an exhaustive and
detailed kind of lecture, touching sections of
the filmed subject. They should also be suit-
able for oral exposition of the projection.

The sound film offers us, in this field, all
the advantages of the silent film. The tides
and explanations will be given in the sound
track, and closely synchronized with the vis-
ual images. Whether we are using silent or
sound film, in view of the complicated char-
acter of medical and surgical films, it is
always advisable during the projection to
lay stress on the parts of the picture which
are of especial importance.

In a surgical picture, for instance, if the
demonstrator points out with his finger or
some surgical instrument the essential anat-
omical area or difficulty of the operation,

he will render comprehension of the entire
picture much easier and more profitable. In-
dications of this kind are absolutely necessary
in films of a scientific nature, especially in
micro-cinematographic projections. Filmed
cells, for instance, look so much alike that
a simple verbal explanation is not sufficient
to differentiate and illustrate them to the
spectator.

In any event, it may be regarded as certain
that however careful and detailed the pre-
cision obtained in a silent or sound scientific
film is, the projection of it alone will never
suffice for teaching purposes. Since it is quite
impossible to substitute the teacher with a
machine, even if such machine reproduces
the gestures and words of other teachers,
any film of whatsoever kind will only be
properly efficacious if it is commented on by
the local teacher whose psychical influence
must prepare the minds of the spectators and
listeners, since it is the teacher who knows
his students' reactions and the way to show
and illustrate pictures for them to the best
advantage. This proves the uselessness of
distributing among the spectators explanatory
notes or pamphlets, as is done in some teach-
ing establishments and public cinema halls.
The lesson which uses the motion picture as
an aid and supplement of the oral lesson
must not be confused with the projection of
any ordinary cinema drama or romance.

There is a paradoxical point of view which
is inclined to state that the voice worries
the public in talking films, and that silent
pictures are preferable. The answer to this
is that the kind of distraction arising from
the withdrawal of the spectator's attention
from the visual aspect of the film to the
talk exists also in the case of a lecture. One
does not, on this account, expect a lecturer
to repeat half a dozen times what he said in
order to compensate for possible distractions
and moments of disattention on the part of
his audience. Some parts of a lecture or de-

IN TEACHING OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY

675

monstration may very well be repeated, but
it is just during the making of a picture
that the intelligent producer can contrive to
avoid the drawback referred to which is gen-
erally quite independent of the greater or
less possibilities and advantages of the silent
or talking film.

Fixed and Animated The utilization of these
two different kinds of
projection does not
mean any harmful opposition or compet-
ition between them.

The advantages of the still or lantern slide
as used up to now are well known (slides in
black and white, or in colours or epidiasco
pic slides for demonstration purposes). There
is no reason to want to substitute them en-
tirely with moving pictures. Each of these
means has its special qualities and technical
advantages. Both are useful for helping the
lecturer or the teacher in their tasks, and
there is no question of having to make a
definite choice between them. We must rec-
ognize, however, that there is a distinct
leaning of opinion towards the still or slide
in view of the lack of uniformity of cinema
registration in the various institutes and
university clinics.

There are certain sections of medical
teaching, including especially instruction in
radiography, which do not lend themselves
very well to cinematographic illustration. On
the other hand, stereoscopic projections can
usefully be of the moving variety.

Apart from questions of scientific and
technical superiority or suitability as between
fixed and animated projections, the financial
side of the question undoubtedly weighs all
in favour of the still picture.

The substitution of the motion picture
for the slide would, on the other hand, be
very useful in those cases and experiments
which have to be frequently repeated with
lantern slides in order to be properly under-

stood. There are, for instance, it is well
known, certain experiments the cost of which
is very elevated, or for which, as in the case
of vivisection experiments, the film could
for both humanitarian and economic reasons
take the place of slides or actual first hand
experiments in laboratories.

Films and slides ought therefore to fit
into one another and be mutually comple-
mentary. When a subject can equally well
be illustrated and demonstrated by either
slides or films, the former should generally
be preferred owing to the possibility which
they allow of defining the subject through
methodical analysis, progressively illustrated,
leaving to the motion picture the making of
a synthetic summary only to be used when
the lecturer has the impression that he has
not made his ideas sufficiently clear. Fixed
projections form the linear limits of the
road it is necessary to traverse.

The film represents the road that runs be-
tween given limits of borders.

Some pedagogues support a theory which
is totally opposed to the one we have just in-
dicated. They think the whole of the subject
should be shown with the assistance of the
film, while the details ought to be studied
later in a pre-established order from begin-
ning to end, with the help of fixed pro-
jections; special time and attention being
given to those points which require it.
Our own experience with students, has how-
ever, led us to opposite conclusions, and
we are inclined to favour the theory we
outlined in the first place.

Can we use the film as a substitute for
the fixed projection with the help of a sys-
tem which allows to arrest the running of
the reel, and to fix any single photograph
for a space that may be as long or short
as we wish? Theoretically, we can of course,
but the practical difficulties are considerable,
in fact, multitudinous, since to project a single
photogram in a film we must run off all

676

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

the pictures preceding it. The images of a
film are arranged in a sequence that cannot
be changed once the picture is mounted,
and can therefore only be used in that spec-
ial order. This obligation imposed on the
teacher interferes with his liberty of action
which is very necessary and precious in
teaching. With the slide, on the other hand,
the teacher can alter the succession of his
pictures at will according to the necessities
that may arise in the course of a lesson or
lessons. Morover, if special care is not taken
of any single photogram at the moment of
registration, it is likely to come out in a
vague thin form, when it is only one of
a rapid succession of .numerous images.

All this would seem to show that the
film cannot substitute the lantern slide or
still picture. All methods and means ought
to have a life and liberty of their own
without super-imposition which only lead to
one result: an imperfect use of either or
both.

Effects of Cinema The question of utiliz-
*" ing or not the cinema

in teaching medicine and surgery can
have no influence on the development of the
official teaching programmes in use in the
various schools. These programmes are
always, or any rate usually, composed with
a criterion of a certain elasticity, and var-
iations are admissible in practice according
to the teacher's tendencies, the number of
the students, and the apparatus at the dis-
posal of the school.

In any event, the teaching material should
be brought up to full requirements or reg-
ularly installed, both as regards projection
rooms, projectors and necessary outfit.

Projection Rooms. — These must ob-
viously fulfil all police requirements and reg-
ulations. As a matter of fact, practically none
of the universities used for projections are
in order with the police regulations. The

development in the use of the motion pic-
ture in teaching medicine must consequently
imply the building of new halls or the
adaptation of the already existing ones so as
to meet police requirements. The question
becomes complicated when we want to use
sound and talking films for the following
reasons.

(i) We have to obtain proper acoustic
conditions which means bringing in spec-
ialized technicians, if we do not want to run
the risk of having to reconstruct our halls
or have defective ones.

(2) We must insist on the use of a
projection cabin to isolate the apparatus from
the hall, so as to avoid all sounds and noises
damaging to a perfect audition.

Projection Apparatus. — Projectors are
still too litde used, and their cost is generally
beyond the financial possibilities of the ma-
jority of schools and even university clin-
ics. This difficulty could be overcome by
subventions and grants from various gov-
ernment bodies and institutions.

Locations and Studios for making Pic-
tures. - — The studios for making pictures
in our university clinics are few in number,
and the exception rather than the rule.
Three rooms are required : a hall for the
operations, a laboratory and a studio intend-
ed for making pictures of cases of various
illnesses. Each of these halls or rooms will
not require much modification to make it
suitable for our purpose.

Subject Matter suit- The cinema can be

able for Cinema , . ,, ,

Use used in all departments

of medicine, as also
in surgery and biological science.

Surgery. — The production of a surgical
picture is by no means an easy task for
anyone wanting to follow this method of
instruction. But when once the picture is
made, it permits the most exact and definite
demonstration before a numerous gathering

IN TEACHING OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY

677

of spectactors of all the details of an oper-
ation which usually pass unobserved by
those who witness it.

It has been often said, and not without
reason, that during an operation it is only
the surgeon who is in a position to note
all its successive phases; his assistants who
might be expected to do this being generally
unable to. All the more difficult is it then
for the other spectators who are less fav-
ourably placed with regard to the operating
table to follow the exact phases of the oper-
ation. A surgeon who interrupts, even for
a second, the rhythm of his work to explain
things to his pupils is losing very precious
time, and may risk the patient's safety.

This is a fact which should be duly
stressed because it implies a special res-
ponsability on the part of the director of the
film. Once the picture is made, however, the
view of the operation becomes a matter of
universal knowledge.

There are certain typical phenomena of
surgical practice which form exceptions that
only chance is likely to throw in the way
of the surgeon who has lessons to give to
pupils. The filming of such phenomena, if
made under good conditions, can be used
for demostration purpose at such time and
on such occasions as the professor may
choose, even if it does not fit in with the
ordinary didactic time-table.

Without insisting on other reasons which
militate in favour of the film in teaching
surgery, we can recall the remarks made by
Dr. Doyen on the subject as far back as 1899.

« The first time I saw one of my own
operations screened for me, I had to confess
that I myself was ignorant of the actions I
went through. A number of technical de-
tails which I had up to then throught suffic-
ient no longer appeared to me in this light.
I felt obliged to reconsider, improve and
simplify my methods, and I fully recognize
the value of the motion picture in perfecting
my work ».

We should remember in this connection
the great future value of a collection of a
series of operations carried out by our fam-
ous surgeons and operators, a comparative
study of which would do marvels for gen-
erally improving the standard of surgical
technique.

Medicine. — The film has an important
place in the teaching of medicine. Certain
technical processes such as bronchoscopy,
pneumothorax treatment of consumption and
others can admirably be illustrated by the
motion picture, and prove of the greatest
advantage to the medical students.

Other branches of medicine, such as
neurology open up a wide field of activity
for the cinema. It isN indeed, thanks to the
motion picture, that we have been able to
determine certain pathological phenomena
such as forms of tabes which have almost
disappeared from our hospitals, thanks to
the anti-syphilis campaigns.

The close connection existing between
medicine and social propaganda and the
struggle against the great social evil is a
problem which goes beyond the scope of
the present paper, but it has a distinct
importance for the motion picture which,
as Dr. Viborel has pointed out, has a fine
opportunity here, and has already proved
its value.

Biological Science. — The cinema repres-
ents in the infinite branches of biology
a supplementary way of stengthening
verbal explanation. Our remarks on surgery
and medicine may be taken to apply to
biology in general, but in this section,
perhaps more than elsewhere, the animated
drawing reveals itself as very suitable and
useful when used in conjunction with
lantern slides or stills.

The films which have been produced up
to now are too few to allow us to appreciate
them from the teaching point of view. This
fact is also supported by the circumstance

678

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

that so far no rational programme or cur-
riculum for cine-biological instruction has
yet been thought out, still less put into
practice.

There are films in this category, but gen-
erally speaking, they cannot be used, save
by the person who produced or directed
their production which was often enough for
reasons of a strictly personal nature. We
cannot therefore at the present moment say
exactly what can be done by the motion
picture in this department. The opinions
of the experts are so far contradictory and
lack scientific control and basis.

An official inquiry ought, in our opinion,
to be made among teachers and in all the
various branches of medicine on the follow-
ing lines:

— does the cinema seem useful to you
for teaching your branch of medicine?

— how would you propose to utilize it?

— what subjects should prove most in-
teresting for cinema study in your opinion?

The results of an inquiry or symposium
on these lines would certainly allow us to
prepare the way for the drafting of a pro-
gramme the expenses of effectuating which
with a similar rationalized system of work
would be reduced to the minimum. Duplic-
ations or triplications of the same subject
or theme would be in this way be avoided.

The Cinema as an Insistence has long
Instrument for , , ■ , . ,

Scientific Re- been laid on the value

search. of the motion picture

for scientific researches,
and it would appear that there is a gen-
eral agreement of opinion on this point
today. The registration of normal move-
ments, the registration and subsequent accel-
eration of extremely slow natural move-
ments and the inverse phenomenon with
extremely rapid motions (slow motion pro-
jection) are everywhere appreciated at their
proper worth. Motions and movements which

were completely unknown have been dis-
covered by the accelerated and slow motion
camera which has been able to reveal to us
rhythms inperceptible to our ordinary senses
of investigation.

Without going into details regarding the
various kinds of apparatus existing, we may
point out one detail which goes to show
the interest aroused by these practical applic-
ations of cinematography. There are mach-
ines specially adapted for use in different
kinds of laboratories. There is, as a matter
of fact, litde connection between makers of
cinema apparatus and experts in research
work, and the plant in use is as often as
not the result of some more or less succes-
sful adaptation made by the research men
acting as amateur cinema technicians.

Characteristics of The apparatuses must
Apparatus used , ,-

for Teaching. in the ordinary way

have special character-
istics when used for teaching purpose, but
there is also the question of the capacity
and worth of the operator who must be
a conscientious person. To have a proper
cooperation between man and machine, the
former must thoroughly understand the lat-
ter, and the film director must know the
work of the operator who projects, if the
best result are to be obtained.

In addition to perfect mechanical work-
ing, good luminosity of the optical system
and satisfactory light supply, the projector
should be solidly made, easily handled and
quickly regulated.

The psychological conditions which gov-
ern the teaching of medicine in special
schools, though somewhat different from
those obtaining in superior education classes,
have nevertheless several points in common,
also regulations which are applicable in
either case. The attention of medical as well
as of ordinary university students is likely
to be affected by any laborious handling or

IN TEACHING OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY

679

operating of the projector. If the working
becomes too clumsy or laborious, ir will
render the effect of the lesson nugatory.
The effects of a bad technical handling of
a projector go even beyond the limits of
the particular lesson and class-room, and
prejudice the students unfavourably against
such film instruction. It pays to have ap-
paratus that is easily manipulated.

It is a commonplace that a man can only
teach well that which he knows well him-
self. The teacher ought therefore to be
completely master of his apparatus, both
for handling it himself if needs be, should
the operator fail, and for adapting the pro-
jection to his lesson and deciding how much
film should be shown in a given instance
for a certain period of oral lesson.

Technical knowledge of this will be very
useful to him in projecting and supervising
the projection of films. It will be all the
more valuable when he comes to direct the
making of a picture for teaching purposes.

We should note the value for scientific
research that lies in the possibility of hold-
ing a given photograph on the screen for a
length of time and in the use of the accel-
erated and slow motion projection.

The Cinema is real- We cannot in this re-
ly efficacious in >

Teaching. Port 8° mto the <luest-

ion of the degree of

comprehension or visual or brain strain
undergone by the spectators, without enter-
ing the domain of psychology. We must
confine ourselves to the results we have had
occasion to observe when using the film.
In spite of the few regularly controlled ob-
servations it has been possible to make, it is
clear that the film arouses the students' at-
tention, facilitates explanation and the grasp
of details which are not easily explained
orally. It also comes to the rescue of lectur-
ers who are incapable of making sketches
or designs on the blackboard, and allows
considerable time to be gained in certain

subjects where not enough licence is allowed
by the official time-table.

Collaboration in the Dr. Imhof of Bask has
Production of , ,

Didactic Films. put it on record that...

« scholastic manuals
are not written by the publisher, but by a
pedagogue... why should it be different in
the case of the didactic film? ».

We are in full agreement, and it is clear
that between author publisher and even
printer of an educational text-book or man-
ual there is a closer collaboration than
would at first sight appear possible. It should
not be the printer's task alone to choose the
kind of type to be used, the size and style
of the capitals, and the general lay-out. The
author ought to have a say in this matter,
seeking a certain harmony and correspon-
dence between the typographical dress of
the work and its content. He should also
pay due attention to the publisher's sug-
gestions.

All these points are equally true in the
case of the didactic film. The close and in-
timate collaboration of the two experts is
indispensable: the work of the pedagogue
or scientist and the work of the film technic-
ian. This collaboration must not consist of
separate efforts by the two experts, but rather
of a communion of forces directed towards
a reciprocal study of the subject and theme
by the film director and of the movie tech-
nique by the author of the picture. In making
a surgical picture, it goes without saying
that the actual « shooting » of the film must
not in any way disturb the work of the sur-
geon who is operating on a living subject,
and it is therefore necessary that the film
producer learn the essential phases and times
of the operation just as the surgeon must
accustom himself to the process of the mak-
ing of a film. Professor Gosset has argued
in favour of this idea. He is of opinion that
the person who makes a film of a surgical
operation ought to have a thorough know-

680

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

ledge of the operation he is registering, while
the surgeon should have at least a fair
acquaintance with the technique and method
of making a surgical picture. This is an
inevitable necessity if surgeon and cinema-
man are not mutually to disturb and distract
one another. Such disturbance might well
be harmful both for the subject of the oper-
ation and the success of the picture. This
amounts really to a kind of reciprocal ap-
prenticeship for surgeon and « cineast », and
will certainly require more than a day or
two to complete, for a well made and pre-
cise surgical film may take one or two
months to finish.

This also applies to the medical film as
distinguished from the surgical picture, and
holds good equally for biological and scien-
tific films.

Some people have thought to resolve the
difficulties inherent in the question by
making the teacher the film director, but
this leads to another difficulty that concerns
the format to be used. Such a solution in
any case will not be suitable for surgical
films, and it is thus much better to have
two mutually interested experts engaged in
the production of pictures of this kind.

The medical-surgical teaching films must
be strictly scientific. It is meant to improve
the technique of surgeons, and to teach stu-
dents how operations and medical practices
are carried out. It has no place in a pro-
gramme where films of social propaganda
or pictures for the popularization of science
are included.

There remains one more point; the ques-
tion of the ideal programme for teaching in
institutes of superior learning that contain
subjects suitable for film teaching, in addi-
tion to other forms of instruction.

It seems to us necessary — and we con-
clude this report by expressing our hope
that an official inquiry or symposium among
teachers in medical faculties, surgeons, hos-
pital doctors and directors of clinics and lab-
oratories for scientific research be started
as soon as possible. This symposium ought
to set forth the necessities and requirements
of all the different clinics, schools, hospitals,
etc. in the matter of didactic films. Points
to be considered should include: subjects to
be treated cinematographically, length of
films, present technical conditions of projec-
tion obtaining in the various teaching insti-
tutes and also possibly a list of the films
already made.

The results of this inquiry, which should
have a strictly official character, would give
us a good idea of the views of the educ-
ationist and the body of teachers regarding
the use of medical films. We should bear in
mind that our first work on propaganda
lines ought to be directed to learning the
views of the present and possible future users
of films of this type. It is useless to produce
films without having a proper market for
them. An efficacious form of propaganda
for films of this kind could be made by a
series of demonstration projections of the
type given by Professor Gosset in the Sor-
bonne in December 1933.

The symposium would also allow us to
get an idea of the quantity of films required
for teaching, the meterage of same, the
number of copies it would be desirable to
print, and a notion of the total cost which
would permit the drawing up of a regular
financial programme. When we come to ask
government bodies for subsidies, our first
act must be to prepare a clear and definite
scheme of the work to be carried out.

THE CINEMA AND THE TEACHING OF THE ARTS

BY

Prof. Henry Focillon

OP THE PARIS SORBONNE

Ts there not an incompatibility between the
■Aplastic arts and the tendency towards move-
ment? Does it not seem that the essential
quality of a masterpiece is due to its eternal
immobility, since it appears before us as
a fixed and definite result that has overcome
time and our interior anguish? Does not
moving it mean destroying it? Architecture
is based on the earth, its mass condemns it
to a stability which never changes. If it
ceases to be fixed, if it tends to move, is it
still architecture? The great images of man
which sculptors have raised on the horizon
of our humanity are especially character-
ized by the fact that they do not move or
change. Baudelaire conceived beauty in
this form, and raised the statue to a com-
pact, radiant thing.

If the masterpiece does not move, we do,
however, and we feel the necessity of move-
ment in order to grasp the statue's immobil-
ity. Our sight must take it in from all angles
and in all its dimensions. We must step
around it, and it is through this process al-
one, this walking round an object that we
can possess it in a space not as a flat thing
covered with designs but as a mass and a
volume. When we do not have the work
itself, but an image of it, cannot it be
imagined that the latter, through a clever
artifice, will move at our pleasure before
us who remain motionless?

If we discard the use of the motion
picture, we condemn ourselves to consider
works of art merely as a collection of fig-

ures. Other pressing reasons invite us to
reflect on the matter.

(i) A short while before his death —
which deprived French art of a generous
and elect spirit — Ruhlmann spoke to us
about a film which he had prepared for
his own amusement with an amateur's cam-
era in the course of a trip in Southern
Italy. He told us his delight in having
learnt how to see and re-examine with the
aid of that wonderful optical memory, the
lens, the masterpieces of ancient and mod-
ern architecture in classic lands.

A work of art is not an abstract thing,
but forms part of a natural centre, and
belongs to the light which colours it. A
monument is only a large drawing sur-
rounded on every side by human life which
takes up diverse associations with it. The
temples of Agrigentum and Selinunte pre-
serve their intellectual beauty in an archi-
tectonic picture in a well made photograph,
but one rich and substantial quality is mis-
sing in them. Their life in the photograph
is sad and arid compared to their exist-
ence in nature and natural surroundings,
where we walk under a changing sky, past
shadows that tremble over a ground steeped
in reflections.

In order better to « understand » the
cathedrals of old France, placed on their
rustic acropoli on the heights of our old
cities, we must retrace the old paths that
lead up to them, pass through the narrow
ways that cross the mountainside. This kind

2 - Ice Ingl.

682

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

of thing does not imply any falsity nor the
addition of any theatrical setting to the
work of art; it means rather giving a work
of art its due space it which it can live;
it means associating it with history and
modern life.

The approach is made by a mazy path
where the marks impressed by the passing
centuries can be seen. The object of art is
discovered bit by bit. We see it under var-
ious aspects. It is no longer a concrete
crystalization preserved for us under the
glass of a museum show-case. It is some-
thing alive that lives with us.

The young folk will be especially sensit-
ive to this progressive and multiform rev-
elation of a thing of beauty. In this man-
ner, it would be possible to make short
<( type » films for scholars, films which,
while eliminating the merely anecdotical
element, would preserve the living essence.
2) The motion picture is more precious
still for research work. Photography has
done an immense service to our research
specialists, but it has exposed us to some
dangers. In the three-dimensional arts,
architecture and sculpture, we tend to be-
lieve that volume is only the super-imposition
and concatenation of a number of profiles.
We have endeavoured to show that profiles
can be innumerable, but even if we could
fix and project many of them with stills,
we should not obtain the fundamental mass
feeling of the interdependence of the parts
and the manner in which they accord with
one another and make their equilibrium.

I am convinced that the cinema is cap-
able of showing us — through the power-
ful effect of moving light which is more
revealing than our own sight — certain
processes and effects of relief, clash, quick
movement and roughness.

Animated drawings can prove extremely
useful in ornamental studies. The life of
forms does not always proceed by way of

sudden mutations, and still less through
sudden creations ex nihil. Baltruisaitis
has shown in his celebrated work on The
Stylistic Ornamentation of Roman Sculp-
ture that a strict and rigorous dialectic is
capable of producing incalculable variations
of the same motive which change under our
eyes almost without our perceiving them.
The rules laid down by the author already
constitute elements of the film. A few in-
termediate inflections can make die innum-
erable metamorphoses of the Roman capital
live again for us.

This is not a secondary or special aspect
of our inquiry, All the arts that are based
on abstract formulae — like those of the
Orient — ■ will derive great benefit from such
a technique.

Finally, we should analyse the work of
the artist's hands. Art is not a purely spir-
itual phenomenon, but is shaped out of
raw material owing to certain concerted
actions of our members. It is a triumph of
man's hands.

Admirable films have been made on the
playing of the pianist. Could not an exper-
iment of this kind be made on the hands of
a painter or a sculptor? The pianist's tech-
nique has certainly something quite defin-
ite about it, and is exercised on notes or
keys which are always in the same posi-
tion, while the painter or the sculptor move
their keyboard about so that the variety
of their attack is apparendy quite free.
This is only one more reason for registering
their endeavours and struggles with material.

We are not much inclined to believe that
works of art are created with the direct
cooperation of the Holy Spirit, and that
once the inspiration is there the work of
art reveals itself. We want to see the hands
at work.

(3) Films of this kind will be useful
for the historians of art. They will likewise
have their uses in schools where painting

IN THE TEACHING OF ARTS

683

and sculpture is taught. But on general lines,
the motion picture as a process which analy-
ses movement and represents movement
ought and must have its place in schools of
Fine Arts.

The work of art is a thing among the
movements of life, but we ought to know
all these movements or at least a great many
of them. It is not an admirable thing that
the study of form is subject to a kind of
century-old convention which treats the liv-
ing model like clay? The lines which life
makes widi the bodies of men are extreme-
ly marvellous as are those which life re-
veals to us in the bodies of the animals.

I have always thought it a pity that the
Fine Art schools have remained so exclus-
ively « human », and that since the times
of the Renaissance little attention has been

given to other phases of life. The Renais-
sance in any case, was more liberal and freer
than the Middle Ages of which it was
perhaps only a later arrested phase (all these
words are merely tentative). The Renais-
sance was interested in plants, animals, etc.

We all know how the spectacle of life can
arouse in the young man who is studying
form an appreciation of its movements not
as a mere passing lesson, but as a source
of unknown, unstudied phases of equilib-
rium.

The slow motion projection of a horse in
movement or a swimmer brings out solemn
and wonderful arabesques of motion. In
this way, the mobility of appearances may
attain the immobility of works of art which
should be a fixed and definite sign, full
of what has been long prepared and studied.

THE CINEMA AT THE SERVICE OF MUSEUMS
AND ART MONUMENTS

(REPORT FROM THE INTERNATIONAL MUSEUMS' BUREAU)

It may seem illogical to have recourse to
a technical means that is particularly used
for registering movement to present or ana-
lyse material and objects which express
thought and sentiment in a necessarily stat-
ic phase. The still or lantern slide will al-
ways be the best and most rational method
of studying works of art and monuments.

Having made this important admission,
we can now see in what measure and in what
special cases motion picture technique can
be usefully employed for the study of still
objects of art.

We have heard references made to the
useful services which the cinema can ren-
der in teaching art and archaeology. We will
therefore confine our attention in the present
note to the application of the film for mus-
eums and historical monuments.

It will suffice for our purpose, as a form
of simple illustration to point out the partic-
ular department where the use of the
motion picture may seem advisable. We
must, first of all distinguish between :
(a) films intended for the big public to in-
duce it to visit the museums and historical
monuments; (b) films meant especially for
students and experts; (c) films of a stricdy
technical character intended for museum
staffs.

As far as propaganda films for the pub-
lic go, one might very well use as pictures
of current events the inauguration of new
museums, new halls and temporary art ex-
hibitions, new archaeological discoveries, res-
torations of historic monuments, etc. The
object of propaganda of this kind should
be the arousing of the public's curiosity
and interest in the activity of museums and
all that it stands for.

In line with this form of propaganda,
brought forward and advanced by other
methods, pictures could very well be made
that would place a given work of art in
its natural surroundings whether historic
or artistic. Films of this type would form
a useful kind of comment of an attractive
nature that would assist the public to under-
stand and appreciate works of art and mon-
uments, at the same time providing a historic-
al and geographical background.

Besides works of art as such, there is a
whole mass of objects which are shown in
museums, the interest of which does not
lie so much in their special aspect and
appearance as in the reason for which they
were created. By this we refer particularly
to ethnographical collections. The film could
show pictures of such objects in their ordin-
ary use and illustrate how they were made.

A second class of pictures useful partic-
ularly for students and specialists would be
rather a development of the before men-
tioned kind of films. Objects of art and his-
torical monuments could be filmed as the
constructive features of a given epoch, school
or architectonic or archaeological period.

The technique of the motion picture per-
mits us to include widely varying periods
and styles in a succession of images which
it would be difficult to produce with a
series of super-imposed photographs.

On the other hand, for scenes and views
of a certain extent, width and architecton-
ic complexity, the film has distinct advan-
tages over direct vision, and allows the spec-
tator the chance of examining althogether
and briefly all the various aspects and char-
acteristics of the historical or artistic problem
under immediate consideration.

CINEMA, MUSEUMS AND MONUMENTS

685

The technical side of the creation of a
work of art or an ethnographical object
has an important function in allowing us
to appreciate such things. We might very
well produce a whole series of films cap-
able of showing the various epochs that
have passed between the conception and
realization of a work of art. Placed at the
disposal of the curators of the official mus-
eums, films of this kind could help to
round out the ordinary teaching which is
based on a simple view of such objects.

There remains for us to consider the
assistance which cinematography can give
to the technical side of museum work and
the preservation of historical monuments.

There is no doubt that this type of film
should be addressed to the staff of museums
and curators of historical monuments in
general. These films will have a teaching and
documentary character, and will show for
staffs and experts the results of recent
experiments and technique. We must draw
a distinction here as regards pictures in-
tended for showing the current technique
of preserving and maintaining museum ob-
jects and historical monuments and psychol-
ogical phenomena arising from a study of
the same, such as the reactions of the pub-
lic before certain works of art.

It will be possible and all to the advan-
tage of future museum curators to lay down
a regular system of film teaching capable
of registering certain ordinary operations
such as the packing of works of art, the
cleaning of halls in a museum, re-painting
and re-hanging of pictures and mural dec-
orations, how to deal with metal objets
d'art, how to handle objects sent in for ex-
hibition to a loan or temporary exhibition.
The use of the slow motion camera would
prove of great assistance in illustrating
some of these delicate operations which
require long experience and careful manip-
ulation. Oral instruction cannot easily deal

with the question. In matters of restora-
tion and preservation of objects of art, and
also for archaeological research work when
modern instruments are used, the film type
of illustration for students is very useful.
The great problem of how to protect our
museums and historical monuments against
fire is an apt subject for film illustration
and instruction. We can be shown in this
way the various systems used for preventing
and combating fire in museums and art
galleries. Alarms and methods of circum-
scribing fires can be explained in this way.

Defective systems and the proper way
of fighting fire and preventing it can be well
shown on the screen.

The cases briefly referred to are capable
of great development. The film's functions
in illustrating various forms of illumination
can easily be imagined. This refers to both
day and night illumination, to show off the
works of art to the best advantage.

In addition to these material applications
of the motion picture, we have mentioned
the utility of using the film for registering
and analysing the public's reactions in re-
gard to works of art. The information which
museum curators have in their possession
will form a useful guide in researches along
these lines, and will help us to learn how to
attract the public to museums.

Summing up, it is easy to see that in
spite of the criticisms which have been made
regarding the value of animated projec-
tions in the field of museum objects and
historical monuments, there is no doubt
that within proper limits the motion picture
is capable of being a valuable aid to mus-
eum curators.

The International Museums' Bureau has
been working on these lines, and has devel-
oped a scheme for placing the cinema's
resources at the service of scientific mu-
seumography and the preservation of histor-
ical monuments.

THE FILM FOR TEACHING ART

BY

Mario Meneghini

Panorama. In the Osservatore Ro-

mano of January 21st
1931, I examined, in an article entitled
(( Educational Cinema and Art » the pos-
sibilities of a closer and more efficacious
understanding between the artist painter,
sculptor, architect, etc. and the motion pic-
ture. I pointed out that such an understand-
ing could well offer new opportunities to
artists, and at the same time prove advan-
tageous to the industries connected with the
arts.

In Italy, unfortunately, genuine artists
are kept away from industrial production
establishments, out of a sense of precaution,
it would seem. Any competitions that there
have been have not affected the reality of
the position as stated above. Cinema
reviews have not up to now thought it
advisable to offer hospitality to this new
form of competition, which might very
well bring forth new artists of vigorous
and original talent, who could take their
place beside the recognized artists of repute
already doing work for modern furnishing
and decorating firms and arts and crafts
houses.

I have referred to the foregoing facts in
order to show that the question of associating
art with the cinema in a close, practical and
homogeneous form has for some time been
the idea of those who, like myself, add the
study of the motion picture to the study of
history and art.

It was indeed through the study of the

art of the great masters of the past that
I became convinced of the absurdity of
neglecting the educational possibilities of
the motion picture. As a modest student of
history and art, I propose to examine the
question of art-teaching not from the strictly
pedagogic point of view, but rather from
the aesthetic angle, for aesthetics offers us
a wider and more fruitful ground, of real
cultural value and import, on which to
base our technical demonstrations in the
department of art.

The Art Film and Art teaching can be

its Public. ,.-.

given in two different

sets of conditions: in the schools as an
obligatory subject, and in the academies
and Fine Arts institutes as a voluntary
subject, that is, as the result of an artistic
inclination on the part of the student
anxious to make spiritual and technical
progress.

If, in gymnasiums, (a grade in Contin-
ental schools) lycees, institutes, etc., the
« history of art » courses are somewhat
superficial and synthetic, tending to give
the student a varnish of general all round
culture, the same cannot fairly be said of
our academies and Fine Arts Institutes
where there are special courses which treat
the various subjects in a thorough and
careful manner, preparing the young people
to face the struggles of the artistic life with
a solid preparation.

Thus if in the first case many of the

THE FILM FOR TEACHING ART

687

students — little inclined temperamentally
to the study of art — give but a half willing
attention to the teacher's words, in the other
case, however, the position is different
entirely. Here the spiritual level of the
students is higher, and there is a genuine
ardent desire to learn. In this latter case,
the didactic aid of the film will be more
efficacious and more obvious.

Teaching Films. I am inclined to argue

from these facts that
the teaching film, when art is an obligatory
subject, may be useful to the pupils as a
superficial illustrative element of instruction
and be given in the form of documentaries,
historical films, etc., covering in this way
vast and complicated historical-ardstic per-
iods.

On the other hand, where the temper of
the students is finer, and their desire for
knowledge keener, the films projected
must be of perfect quality, produced by
specialists with the collaboration of pro-
fessional teachers. There are very few docum-
entaries in circulation today made with
broad concepts of their meaning and pur-
pose and capable of throwing full light on
a place or period. I remember « Assisi » and
the « Imperial Forums » issued by the Cines
Co. and the silent short made by Father
Dufays « Notre Afrique du Nord ». These
pictures can be included in an instructional
programme since they are made with a
certain nobility of intent as well as with a
profound knowledge of the subject treated.

It is therefore risky to include — • in a
list of pictures suitable for teaching pur-
poses historical — films made with commer-
cial intent and with historical bases that often
become the subject of much argument.

The speculative element in commercial
producdons is always a little alien to
absolutely historical and artistic faithfulness
and correctness. If it does not exactly follow

the often unhealthy or sentimental taste of
public, the industry takes care, at any rate,
not to offend this taste, and in the most
favourable circumstances will probably in-
vent some details or development of the
central facts of the story dictated entirely
by a more or less scrupulous fancy.

The disadvantages deriving from this
relative respect for historic and artistic
verity are from the teacher's point of view
of capital importance.

The observation recently made by a
critic regarding the personality of a Roman
emperor — ■ Nero — who was interpreted
for the cinema in an inexact and even
grotesque fashion, gave rise to a discussion
which suggests the advisability of putting
some restraint on certain producers. The
figures of sovereigns or artists who have
left a deep mark on their time by their
acts of heroism or intelligence, or form the
nucleus of malevolent legend are certainly
very attractive to the makers of films. This
should not prevent them from exercising a
litde caution in choosing their film directors
and scenario writers, nor it should it urge
them always to seize on those incidents
in the lives of their heroes which are most
extravagant, just for the purpose of win-
ning the applause of the gallery.

Indulgence in this kind of thing renders
the instructive value of the historical part
of such film doubtful, and offends the taste
of the cinema's more cultured patrons.

In my modest opinion it is frankly
absurd to hope to be able to use for did-
actic purposes the results of these hybrid
compromises between art and commerce.

The historical-artistic teaching film, to
be used profitably and for ethical-educational
ends, must be produced with special care by
persons having special qualities chosen from
experts and with a complete exclusion of
choreographic and spectacular tendencies.

688

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

A strictly conceived instructional curriculum
implies the use of serious and exact didactic
means.

Control and Limita-
tion of Produc-
tion.

After having said this,
I am of the opinion
that the didactic possi-
bilities of the art film will be best revealed
during die development of a fixed pro-
gramme. If the real benefits deriving from
film teaching do not easily appear as the
result of an examination, art teaching of
several subjects by means of the motion
picture will have its sure place in the not
distant future.

In several subjects I say, and by this I
want to make certain reservations regarding
the use of the motion picture and put a
bridle on excessive enthusiasm for this form
of instruction.

I do not intend to make a dissertation on
art and artists. I shall only express the
sensation which I myself, as a follower of
the plastic arts in my youth, can still feel
in my memory.

To make my meaning clearer, I should
like to say that when I speak of art, I mean
the transfusion of one's own personality
into artistic conception, the materialization
of the lyrical element which animates crea-
tion, the effort to excel oneself spontaneously.

Therefore, to consider teaching drawing
with film projections as some people have
suggested makes me wonder if these counsel-
lors are simply excellent educationists or also
real artists.

A drawing often reveals to us — in its
nervous fragmentary outlines — the artist's
inner character. We can sometimes see in
a drawing a vision suddenly captured
in this way. Again, a page of drawings can
sometimes show us the trouble and torment
which the artist has suffered before being
satisfied with the hang of some drapery,

the position of a person or some piece of
decoration. A book of drawings is like a
volume of confessions. They are more
interesting the more intimate and real they
are.

A good painter or sculptor must have a
knowledge of drawing, but we must avoid
exaggeration and not reduce this study,
which is always difficult, to a mere mechan-
ization. If this were all that was required,
it would be sufficient to provide young
men and women with a simple « panto-
graph » to save them all difficulties. I often
admire the lack of correctness in Tintoretto
and Tiepolo which came from their
exuberance of fancy and superabundant
genius, and take pleasure in admiring in
these instances the mark of genius and true
art.

I would even go further and say that if
in the teaching of drawing — the a b c
of all artistic instructions — ■ we were able
to make the artist's first steps easier, we
should be doing harm to his spirit, and
damaging, and perhaps rendering sterile, his
innate personal faculties. These personal
qualities, in order to attain their maximum
development, must be steeped in meditation
and strengthened with exercise and effort,
trained to meet the difficulties that lie along
the path of art.

To make easy the path of an artist is far
from being the same kind of thing as ef-
fecting mechanical improvements in pro-
jectors or in increasing the selectivity of
a wireless apparatus.

It is, therefore, not with the assistance
of the screen as if it were a geometrical
theorem that one should guide the steps
of the young in reproducing a model, but
with the aid of the living model itself or
himself as is the best current practice today.

The same thing applies in the case of
painting. None of the modern three-colour
processes nor the coloured film have been

THE FILM FOR TEACHING ART

689

able to reproduce exactly the canvases of
Franz Hals, the limpidity of a sky by
Guardi, or the delicate veiled effect of a
painting by Titian. I do not believe there
is any use in having recourse to the motion
picture to teach the technique of mixing
colours or to illustrate the various kinds of
paint and varnishes and the effect of time
on them.

I prefer to take my examples from the
past, because there are few ardsts to take
as models and types at the present. Just as
modern ardsts have risen to giddy Olymp-
ian heights with amazing rapidity, so will
the merciful veil of oblivion fall over their
efforts with equal rapidity, hiding them from
the non-compassionate gaze of future gen-
erations.

Authentic Possibili- As I have remarked
before, films of an
historical character (including ethnographi-
cal and paleontological, etc.), can be of
valuable assistance in studies of this kind,
provided they are studied produced and
projected according to strictly educational
notions and by persons of unquestioned
competence.

A scene of Roman life, for exampie, if
made with scrupulous exactitude and cor-
rectness can illuminate the scholar's mind
in the most effective manner on all the life
of an epoch, and will be useful for vaiious
departments of study (from religious rites
to arms of war, from commerce to architec-
ture, etc.), and can be helpful also to acade-
mies and Fine Arts institutes.

For some of my demonstrations and stud-
ies made of late years, I sought for and
discovered, covered with a thick layer of
dust, the model of Imperial Rome made
by Professor Marcelliani.

Over the gate is the sacred warning Roma
communis ars omnium nationum. Every-

body is in agreement about this, but not-
withstanding it, the work which Professor
Marcelliani laboriously and patiently put
together and presented to the city of Rome
is falling into pieces, and before long noth-
ing but a memory will remain of it. This
does not strike me as generous behaviour,
and I am sure that if a film had been made
of a work of the carriers-on of the tradition
of topographical studies of the city of Rome
(not forgetting among them the drawings
and plans of Lanciani, Falke, etc.), we
should have rendered a well deserved
homage to the professor and done something
worth while for classical studies.

It is generally admitted now — and it
is logical enough — ■ that the motion pic-
ture is extremely useful in teaching archi-
tecture. If we could illustrate our text-books
with a complete picture of Rome with its
temples, classical buildings, etc., we should
be well on the way to suggest new and
important reconstructions, and might be
able to prepare a collection of cine-didactic
material that would serve as a basis for
future programmes of study and curricula.

The Italian Ministry of National Edu-
cation made the interesting and enterprising
experiment of making a partial reconstruc-
tion of a section of the Marcellus Amphi-
theatre, of the Roman Forum, a section of
the Temple of the Vestal Virgins, and the
entire facade of Diocletian's Curia Romana.
In a little while a complete reconstruction
of a portion of the Colosseum will be under-
taken.

These various enterprises have won the
general approval of the experts and classical
scholars. They will doubtless prove of ines-
timable advantage to persons living in Rome
or able to allow themselves the luxury of
an extended visit there, but it is only with
the aid of the motion picture that this
wealth of new material will be offered to the

690

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

distant schools and academies of the world.

Moreover, a model constructed properly
does not run to an excessive cost, and with
the technical means now available can easily
be filmed altogether and in detail so as
to look like the thing itself.

The same may be said of all those
buildings of the most remote civilizations
spread throughout the world which Catholic
missionaries have described and often re-
constructed for us with able designs.

History, architecture, uses, costumes, relig-
ious rites, etc., may all be used in art teach-
ing for one or another department of study,
and even film-producing firms of modest
financial resources can very well make some
pictures on these lines when helped by the
scholastic authorities.

One place where, in my opinion, the film
can be of undoubted benefit is in dealing
with the technical questions inherent in art
and in the technique of certain artistic in-
dustries or applied arts.

With regard to technical problems, I will
confine my remarks to the work of restoring
paintings, which, though it may seem at
first glance a very easy matter, can in effect
prove the ruin of a work of art if improperly
carried out. For the operation of « lining »
there are many systems in use, but not all
are suitable to all schools of art. For ex-
ample, the English system is harmful for
paintings of the Venetian school. A most
useful series of films could be prepared to
give a theoretical-practical demonstration of
the various systems.

In the matter of cleaning old paintings,
the processes used vary according to the age
of the picture, its school and epoch, the
quality of the colours, the nature and ex-
tent of the changes in the varnishes used
and the so called patina.

There is the well known case of the harm
suffered by the famous Last Supper of Da

Vinci which was due more to badly executed
restorations than to chemical and atmospher-
ic action on the fresco. This proves that
it not enough to have a knowledge of a
single method to form an exact diagnosis
of a case. It is clear that to teach methods
of restoration of paintings, etc., if we cannot
have the masters or their work before us,
the best thing we can do is to make films
which will prove of use to us.

I have often seen students and others
carrying the really worth while manual by
Count G. Secco Suardo, but theory is not
enough, and for a work of real preparation
practice is necessary. Today with the X-rays
and the quartz lamp, we can obtain splendid
photographs, and see paintings liberated
from all their restorations, which — espe-
cially eighteenth century restorations —
have massacred a good proportion of the
pictures of all the art galleries of the world.
The use of these systems is not easy, but
when combined with the film, the results
can soon be made popular and widespread.

There is another very delicate operation,
namely removing frescoes from walls or ceil-
ings. To attain perfect ability in this work
much experience and a special aptitude are
required. There are at the present time most
capable professors specialized in this work,
and I think it is a pity to lose the benefit
of the experience of these experts which —
unless we film some examples of it ■ — will
perish with its possessors.

The same thing may be said of the mag-
nificent if costly Roman mural painting
known as « encaustic », the secret of which
was won from the centuries by our Ven-
turini Papari.

If I well remember, at the beginning of
this century there was in Rome a school for
working in hard stones. Today scarcely
anyone remembers its existence. If motion
pictures had been taken of its classes and

THE FILM FOR TEACHING ART

691

operations, we should be in a position to-
day to train fresh artisans and craftsmen,
and give back life to an art which was a
purely Italian glory.

Recendy, in a lecture I gave on the cir-
cumstances connected with the forthcoming
reorganization and development of the Rome
Ardstic-Industrial Museum, I pointed out
the scarce consideration given in Italy to
museums of this kind. I sought to demon-
strate the many advantages which come from
the existence of such museums, and referred
to the esteem in which such institutions
are held abroad. The small industrial art
museum which is given hospitality in the
Sforza Castle in Milan, though admirably
housed, needs a wider development and
scope if it is really to be of effective use
to the higher schools of applied arts that
are connected with it.

I have mentioned this in order to show
how in decorative art and arts and crafts
the film can go a long way towards ensuring
success.

I will now refer to some of the best
known minor arts which are quickly under-
stood and can be best illustrated by means
of the film in art schools. They are : lace
work, art fabrics, tapestries, mosaics, enam-
els, glass work, majolica and coloured
glass.

It will be seen from the foregoing list
that the motion picture may be very use-
ful employed in teaching various arts and
crafts connected with sacred art. Since the
flame of faith is necessary for a proper
manifestation of sacred art, I would pro-
pose to circumscribe the use of the art teach-
ing film to the technical-illustrative part
alone.

With regard to discussions concerning
the advisability of producing both sound
and silent pictures, it is my opinion —
since we are dealing with serious works of
art — that it is wise to remove from the

very beginning any possibility of being
grotesque by making unsuccessful « dubbed »
versions.

In documentary films dubbed sound
tracks can be used without risking any
grave inconvenience because the words are
uttered by persons who are not seen and
who will have agreeable voices. The same
thing is not true of films of a technical
character.

The speaker may be a man well on in
years or with an accent not suitable for
microphone reproduction. For the explan-
ation of pictures of this kind, it is better,
I think, to supply a comment for the film
which allows the teacher or professor to
follow with correct synchronization the
development of the picture as it is unrolled
on the screen.

I do not know the film, « The Teacher's
Art » which, I understand, is limited to
illustrating acqueforti. We should not for-
get, however, that prints are produced from
copperplates, wood-cuts, monotypes, mezzo-
tints, dry points and colour plates. Which
all goes to show the utility of a small series
of teaching films.

In such films, the documentation ought
not to be limited to the processes of today
or those of antiquity, but should deal with
every epoch, place and style. To avoid ban-
ality, such works should illustrate all the
details with a refined artistic sense and
precision capable of rendering them con-
tinually interesting. It is not necessary to
add that it would be a serious mistake to
produce long films. The educationist ought
to be allowed to enrich his lessons and ren-
der them easy with a projection, whence
there must be an abundance of short films.

I do not mean to say by this that fixed
projections should not be used for the ex-
planation of particulars. The still is and
always will be of the greatest utility.

Moreover, since there is a tendency today

692

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

to eliminate the distinctions between pure
and applied art, I will quote the words
reproduced by Vasari in the life of Spi-
nello Aretino which are to be found under
a painting of the author : «Simone Cini made
the intaglio work, Gabriele Saracini filled
in the Gold, and Spinello di Luca d'Arezzo
painted it in the year 1385 ». A return to
a frank camradeship in art would be agree-
able to-day and would permit the possibilities
of exquisite artistic collaboration.

Before concluding this brief report of
mine, I should like to refer to another Ital-
ian glory which only today begins to make
an occasional timid reappearance. I mean
the art of printing.

If the inventor of printing was Guten-
berg of Mayence, and the art reached Italy
through the work of two Rhineland priests,
Conrad Sweinheim and Arnold Pannartz,
the craft took on added glory and sobriety
and elegance of proportions through the
work of Emiliano Orfini, Luca Pacioli, Aldo
Manuzio, Soncino da Fano and Giambattista
Bodoni. These early Italian printers were
able to compose their book with such a
typographical poise and art that they won
the admiration of the entire world. (In archi-
tecture, this sense of balance or poise is
the perfect mingling of the mass in relief
on the flat plane).

Our exhibition of the printers' art held
in Paris last January under the auspices of
the printer Leon Pichon, at which were
exhibited the first three volumes of the

the printer Leon Pichon, and at which
collection « Masters of Humane Letters
printed by Artists Printers » make me hope
in a real and definite renaissance of this art
which I would like to see flourish again in
the pages of reviews and even in daily pa-
pers. The foreman printer ought not to be
ignorant of the proper balance between
matter and space on a printed page, that
is between text and illustrations. This know-
ledge should permit him to arrive at that
« musicality » — to quote Focillon — which
makes the play of black and white harmon-
ious. This artistic sensibility would certainly
be developed in the workman printer if, in
addition to the mechanical teaching of his
craft, he were given ■ — in the proper place
and with the use of special films — some
idea of the classical examples of printing
among the nations of the world.

In his opening address at the Photo-
graphic Congress held in Rome in April
1911, His Excellency Corrado Ricci — then
director of Antiquities and Fine Arts — •
after having stated that the two strongest
passions of our time are for speed and light,
spoke of the photograph as « the daughter
of the sun », capable of providing criticism
with « marvellous means of study and com-
parison ».

After only 23 years, « the daughter of the
sun » has grown to great stature, and has
given birth in turn to another star, whose
luminous surface lights up the furthest off
lands and the limits of whose power are as
yet undefined.

THE CINEMA AND STUDIES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
AND THE HISTORY OF ART

(REPORT OF THE INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION)

Tn the department of archaeological studies
* and the study of the history of art, the
practically limitless resources of motion pic-
ture technique provide us with an admirable
means for popularizing knowledge and the
latest progress of science in the various
countries of the world. In this section of
science, it may be said that to know is to
understand, to become acquainted means the
breaking down of nationalistic barriers which
often interpose their political fences between
exponents of various branches of culture.

It will be sufficient to quote a few cases to
show the immense possibilities for the applic-
ation of the motion picture in this field of
study and the splendid services it can render
both nationally and internationally.

In the department of university archaeolo-
gical teaching, for example, it would seem
a profitable idea to establish a more direct
contact between professors and students in
the various university courses and the definite
work being carried on by explorers and
heads of archaeological missions, etc. What
better means for forming this contact than
the motion picture?

It is not generally possible for both
material and financial reasons to arrange for
the attendance of professors and students at
certain highly important excavations taking
place in various parts of the world — as for
instance at Herculaneum and Pompei, or in
the Rome of the Emperors, or in the Valley
of the Kings in Egypt, or in the Aegea 1
isles. It is, however, perfectly practical for
every archaeological expedition to be accom-

panied by a well fitted out cinema service
which could reproduce a series of pictures
of the various operations of the excavations,
illustrating the strata formations, and the
latest methods of work which vary according
to the territory that is being explored and
the kind of material it is expected to find.
Another department where the resources
of the cinema could well bring a valuable
contribution of important knowledge is that
of the technique used in the execution of
ancient works of art. It would be a good
and valuable idea to furnish university stud-
ents and perhaps also the directors of some
of the less important museums with a series
of motion pictures giving a notion of the
various processes through which a work of
art must pass from the rough sketch to the
perfect finished work, whether this be in
marble, or bronze, or other metal. In the
same way it would be advantageous to learn
the physical and chemical properties and
qualities characterizing such works, the
instruments used in their creation, and the
history of such instruments. As far as is
possible, these motion picture methods could
render useful service, from the educational
angle, if applied to other arts like painting,
ceramics, glyptics, numismatics, etc. The
slow motion projection could also be very
well used to illustrate and explain clearly,
and with the least waste of time, the crea-
tion of those works of art and those aspects
of their execution which are not generally
understood with ease. The film comment
would prove better than any amount of

694

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

verbal explanation or photographs or slides.

The fundamental importance which a
knowledge of art technique has for studies
of archaeology and history is a common-
place. These ' branches of science, neglected
in the past, continue to gain in importance,
and will go on doing so gradually, the more
such studies abandon empiricism and the
academical spirit and tend towards the strict
formulae of science and research.

In all epochs, national and regional schools
and single artists have used certain art
formulae, certain expedients and processes,
even certain instruments and tools and cer-
even certain instruments and tools and
certain types of material which form a
whole indicating or marking this or that
artist. It sometimes happens that ■ — thanks
to this valuable coefficient and index and our
accumulated technical knowledge — we can
determine the authorship and date of a work
of art which might well be impossible with-
out such knowledge and with ordinary em-
pirical means. There are certain special sec-
tions of art teaching which seem particularly
suited to motion picture illustration. The
scientific and aesthetic study of classical
sculpture requires an examination of the
various parts of the works both in their
connection with one another and their value
as statuary. Sometimes university and fine
arts school teachers can enjoy the advantage
of illustrating their lessons or lectures with
the original work or, if not that, then per-
haps with a good copy. Failing this, the only
means left to the teacher will be photographs,
or some form of mechanical reproduction,
or lantern slides. The use of the film in a
series of pictures illustrating the various
views and angles of the piece of sculpture
so that all its stylistic qualities are perfectly
revealed would, however, be much more
profitable and advantageous both for pro-
fessor and teachers.

It we are not making a mistake, there is

yet another field of art and archaeology
which could be usefully explored with the
resources of the modern motion picture. I
mean those researches which are specially
intended to elucidate and fix the character-
istics and signs that distinguish a real and
genuine work of art from a forgery or fake.
This kind of knowledge is not a matter to
which museum directors and managements
and the occupants of university chairs can
afford to be indifferent. The « faking » of
works of art has from time immemorial been
an illicit phase of the activity of unscrupu-
lous art dealers, but never as today has this
trade or craft reached such a point of per-
fection, while the danger resulting from this
commerce in false antiques and faked works
of art is becoming a serious menace both to
private individuals and public institutions
engaged in collecting the masterpieces of
•the past. The idea of establishing in the
most important museums and art galleries
of the world a special bureau or repository
for false works of art acquired by the cura-
tors for one reason or another has been before
public opinion for some time now. The
idea behind the suggestion is to allow mu-
seum and art gallery curators and directors
and students generally to learn from the
unfortunate experience of others and gain a
knowledge of how to tell the genuine work
of art from the false. The motion picture
might very well be used in this connection
to help the investigations of the experts.

Many of the observations and possibilities
of a useful employment of the film which as
we have suggested might well be made in
the departments of archaeological studies
have equal application to later art and the
art and the art of our own time. With regard
to the strict art teaching given to the students
of academies and fine art shools, it is
obvious that there are countless ways in
which the motion picture can successfully be
employed. The careful report prepared on

AND STUDIES IN ARCHAEOLOGY

695

this matter by E. Katz and published in the
January number of this Review provides
interesting documentary evidence of this.

The Cinema and In the department of

Folk Lore Art. ., u r

art, the phase or po-
pular art or folk lore has for some time now
attracted the attention and interest of the
motion picture producer. The general grow-
ing interest in folk lore phenomena, espec-
ially those instances of it which are rare
and seem to be passing away has contributed
to this end. What has especially attracted
the public interest in these manifestations
has been their original character and indi-
vidual charm, their picturesque qualities
which are different from anything else. We
can now often see in public cinema halls
projections of folk-lore customs, habits, reli-
gious processions, games, dances accompan-
ied by popular music.

There can be no doubt about the value
of these shows from the instructional point
of view and the knowledge of foreign coun-
ries. There is still a great deal to be done
along these lines, however, and the tech-
nique of the modern cinema gives us every
ground for believing that vast improvements
and progress will still be made with pro-
jections of this character — all to the benefit
of culture, propaganda of folk-lore arts and
, the fraternization of the peoples.

If we look more closely into the activity
of the cinema industry and technique in the
field of popular arts and folk lore manifest-
ations, it would appear fairly obvious that
apart from a few special and meritorious
exceptions, the work done by the produc-
ers along these lines has aimed chiefly at
registering the gay and picturesque aspect
of popular customs so as to amuse the public
rather than provide any sources of culture
and instructional propaganda for it.

Films made up to now in the depart-
ment of popular art and folk lore have been

of the most varied quality from the docu-
mentary and art excellence point of view.
There have been some admirable pictures
made along these lines, but there have also
been many which have been put together
without any proper documentary study or
background with the result that they are
quite unsuitable for the instructional and
cultural propaganda to which we have re-
ferred. There would seem to be a lack of
any proper plan of serious research and
study for utilizing on serious lines the mo-
tion picture and its precious resources for
the purposes mentioned. The industry cannot
very well be blamed for this lack of prepar-
ation and study, for its objects do not lie
in the same direction as the reproducing of
spectacles, customs, dances and folk lore
events such as we have referred to.

The assistance and practical cooperation
of the public authorities, whether from
universities or art academies will always
prove of the greatest utility and value. Fre-
quent meetings and understandings between
representatives of the film industry and the
authorities are also most desirable with the
object of securing those cultural advantages
which should really be watched over and
procured by the state rather than by the
trade inasmuch as they have a public utility
character.

If this principle is true and has numerous
applications, it can certainly be applied with
advantage in the field of the popular arts
and folk lore. In our opinion, the interven-
tion of the public authorities in the depart-
ment of artistic production is especially ur-
gent and desirable. The government author-
ities are in a position to prepare and arrange
for the carrying out of rationalized schemes
for controlling the cinema industry in this
particular section.

Popular art production is every day on
the decrease, both as regards quality and

696

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

quantity. Influences of first rate importance
of a cultural, social and economic character,
the vast development of machinery and ra-
tionalized industry, the general levelling of
the classes, the ease of relations between
various sections of society, the increased fre-
quency of contact between cities and the
country all tend strongly to reduce the field
of production and sale of popular handicrafts
and folk lore output.

Attempts at preserving and defending this
popular art have been numerous and still con-
tinue. Very sick people always collect a lot of
doctors around their bedside. It is beside the
question to examine here whether or not
these efforts are likely to be crowned with
success.

Another point is what should be done
about preserving the popular art left us by
the past, or that part of it which is still
living and vigorous. What are the means
best suited to attain this end? Up till recently
all that was attempted on these lines was
confined to museums of folk lore, art, oral
and written propaganda, to lectures and
books, or folk lore spectacles and ceremoines,
dances, processions, music, etc.

Today the marvellous resources of motion
picture technique furnish us with a new ally
capable of exercising a powerful influence on
the public. Unless we are very much mistak-
en, the cinema's action could easily surpass
that of the museum or indeed any other of
the propaganda means we have referred to.. If
the museum represents the fixed, static and
necessarily limited presentation of the popular
art of the past and its surviving elements,
the cinematographic vision of such art is a
living representation which can carry pictures
of that art everywhere to city and village
and even into furthest off and loneliest
parts. The exceptional efficacy of film pro-
paganda is self-evident, for it is a multiform
and varied propaganda that interestes both

the cultured and popular sections of the
public. It is a form of propaganda that is
ideally suitable for favouring the mutual
understanding between men of different
countries and the formation of currents of
reciprocal sympaty through the medium of
one of the finest vehicles of expression for
artistic talent.

If it is possible to aim at such important
results today, thanks to the resources of ci-
nema technique, we are faced with the prob-
lem of determining those special spheres
of popular art that best lend themselves
to this kind of treatment.

In other words, it seems to us indispens-
able that a careful work of selection and
rationalized endeavour based on proper rules
and criteria be allowed to operate in the
whole field of popular art. Choice must be
made of those subjects, actions and figures
which merit cinematographic treatment for
propaganda purposes. Up to now, this kind
of control has been somewhat lacking. Work
has been carried on in a more or less em-
pirical fashion, under the pressure of cir-
cumstances with an eye chiefly on filming of
shows that would seem likely to appeal dir-
ectly to the big public instead of spec-
ializing in those sectors to which we have
referred. If we want to utilize cinema teach-
nique properly in this department, and ob-
tain all the advantages it can offer, it is
time we proceeded to a shrewd and care-
ful organization of the programmes to be
carried out and the methods to be followed.

The matter is urgent, for it is a com-
monplace that the popular arts are disappear-
ing before our eyes and threatening to van-
ish entirely. The valuable propaganda work
which the motion picture can carry on in
their favour ought to be started at once, and
without further delay, that is, while it is
still possible to exert a stimulating and ben-
eficient action, while, in short our subject

AND STUDIES IN ARCHAEOLOGY

697

is still alive. Ther is no need for us to go
into details regarding the preparation of a
plan of action. Studies and special researches
will be required for this purpose and the
collaboration — in our opinion — of the
most intelligent and liberal-minded persons
at the head of the film industry.

We can, however, give some examples
of how plans of this kind should be pre-
pared.

Up to now, the film has reproduced the
gayer aspects of popular life and its more
spectacular sides : dances, music, processions,
religious rites. The other side of popular
life has been much less often shown by the
film, that is, the people at work, producing
and creating things artistic and non-artistic,
as well as the instruments and surround-
ings connected with this production. It
generally seems useful for students of past
civilizations and for the public generally to
dig deep into memories, traditions and his-
torical sources both written and in the form
of drawings and painting to find a basis for
comparison with the folk lore and popular
arts of other peoples. Artists of every age,
mediaeval designers, miniature workers and
sculptors, painters and intaglio workers of
the Renaissance have left innumerable doc-
uments representing the man of the people,
the artisan, the peasant at his work with
all the tools and instruments of his trade or
art and everything necessary for carrying it
out. This is a psychological, aesthetic and
historical phenomenon that is fixed and
constant: the innate passion of the people
in all times to see itself reproduced in the
multiform aspects of its life. The same need
operates widely in exterior, artistic mani-
festations of various kinds. Our modern civ-
ilization has in the motion picture a won-
derful means for satisfying this need in a
complete fashion. It is not advisable in our
opinion to film this or that episode of pop-

ular life whether joyous and playful or
serious and belonging to the sphere of work.
The cinema ought rather to make an inte-
gral documentation of the whole life and
activity of the man of the people, and
specially the artisan, in all its forms and
with the various results of such activity.

It is our opinion that — with the assist-
ance and collaboration of competent per-
sons and institutions associated with repre-
sentatives of the motion picture industry —
a sort of census of popular activity should
be made, especially in so far as it con-
cerns popular art.

The result of such a census or inquiry
would show which forms of popular life
and art were in the opinion of the experts
the best suited and the most deserving of
beng handed down to posterity by means
of the cinema. Among such forms of pop-
ular art, we may mention : the carving
of sacred and other images in wood, mo-
saic works; glass-blowing, lace, embroidery,
coral-working, popular musical instruments,
hand-made fabrics of various kinds, beaten
iron and other metals, rustic hand-made
furniture, and house decorations, etc.

A series of films ought to be dedicated
to each of these sections of peasant art,
reproducing all their various aspects, their
technique, materials, surroundings, uses,
with examples of the finished article and
an explanation of their purpose and utility.

In those cases — and they are fairly
numerous — in which these arts are prac-
tised at home, the cinematograph document-
ation could give us a rapid synthesis of
a day in the life of one of these peasant
workers or peasant families, their home
surroundings, dress, house furnishings,
decorations, and show us how they run their
homes, and handle their domestic utensils
and other objects.

A collection of pictures of this kind

3 - Ice Ingl.

698

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

should form a regional picture, if possible,
concentrating eventually in a national pic-
ture of the peasant and folk lore life of
any given country.

To cycles or series of pictures like the
foregoing dealing with the laborious side of
the existence of these peasants, should be ad-
ded other series contemplating and represent-
ing them in their gayer moods, their pleasure
time, and hours of relaxation. Such films
would treat of folk lore processions, dances,
religious and traditional rites which give
these folk an opportunity of showing off
their costumes, dresses, etc.

It is clear that in order to determine
the extent and character of films of this
type and the things which should be in-
cluded in them, that authoritative persons or
bodies ought to make a regular preliminary
study of the region it is proposed to illus-
trate. Then rational schemes for making
the picture could be formed, such as would
offer guarantees of work being seriously
and adequately completed, with due tech-
nical knowledge.

There should be still a third category of
folk lore films to go with the two just
described, and this should deal with popu-
lar music that could be recorded on discs
or cylinders. The objects of the film reposi-
tory which would result from the activity

suggested would be of notable importance.
They would insure for the future a proper
documentary preservation of all the outstand-
ing facts, objects and phenomena concerning
contemporary popular artistic activity linked
up with popular life and close to it as
possible.

These film repositories would correspond
and have similar functions to museums of
folk lore art, but would be limited in the
material treated of folk lore art. but would
be limited in the material treated to liv-
ing artistic production, except in the case
of music which has an indefinite life. The
existence of such repository or repositories
would make it possible to give cinema pro-
jections all over any country for cultural
and instructional ends as well as for pro-
paganda in favour of peasant and popular
art. Finally such archives of pictures would,
in virtue of the possibility of international
exchanges that might very well be organized
between peoples of different lands, spread a
knowledge of popular art that would cross
frontiers, bringing to far off nations a per-
fect vision of branches of popular art in
other parts of the world and spreading ar-
tistic notions and concepts likely to bring
about good and friendly international rela-
tions, stimulating sympathy between peoples,
and laying the seed of future fraternization.

THE CINEMA AND THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE

G. Thevenot

PROFESSOR AT THE MONTAIGNE LYCEE

To suggest the use of the cinema in the
teaching of literature may seem rather
remarkable advice to some people. The uni-
versities have begun to make use of the
motion picture in scientific teaching, es-
pecially for geography and natural history.
Its use in literature, however, does not at
once become generally obvious.

If it is true, and no one denies it that
the teaching of literature has a triple pur-
pose, that is to give the pupils a literary
education through a study of the chief na-
tional and foreign masterpieces, to form
through them the pupils' normal personal-
ity and to teach them all the shades of their
tongue, it is also clear that the essential
study in class comes down to a minute and
careful study of the text-books. It is necessary
to repeat this: the matter on which teach-
ers and pupils have to work is the text-
book. If the film can render the lesson
livelier and more attractive than any kind
of description in the study of natural
history or geography, the same does not
seem to be true of the teaching of litera-
ture.

In order to understand the services which
the motion picture can render in this de-
partment, we must look at the inherent
difficulties of the case. Some of these dif-
ficulties depend on the pupils and others on
the discrepancy between the time at the
teacher's disposal and the requirements of
the curriculum.

It is a commonplace with all teachers of
literature that unfortunately pupils are gen-
erally incapable of extracting the logical
content of a literary text.

They do not, except in rare cases, succeed
in feeling and realizing the human exper-
ience and interest value of a literary work.
A work reduced to algebraical proportions
is naturally stripped of all its originality
and freshness. This applies, especially for
secondary teaching, to the literary classes
VI to I, with the exception of the Upper
Class I which includes a group of picked
literature students.

The other difficulty comes from the short
time available for literature classes in the
continually augmenting curricula.

A student who aims at taking the degree
of Bachelor of Letters must know the whole
history of French literature from the Middle
Ages to our own time, and must possess a
good knowledge of the outstanding works
of the whole period.

Since it is not possible seriously to start
this literary study before the Third Class,
the time at disposal for attaining this
complex collection of knowledge and in-
formation is limited to a bare three years.
The teacher therefore finds himself in the
position of being hesitant whether to do a
little of everything to meet the demands of
the examinations, or to study certain essent-
ial works thoroughly. In this latter case, he
will be following the instructions of the
ministry. The first method is more com-
promise than culture, while the second is
dangerous in practice. It is truly a pity that
a student should not know, in addition to
the masterpieces of his country's literature
something also of the general evolution it
has passed through during the centuries.

Though the motion picture cannot solve

700

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

all these difficulties, it can render important
service towards eliminating some of them.

Modern criticism admits that a literary
work cannot be understood if a proper
grasp of the conditions in which it was creat-
ed is not obtained.

Any great work contains human truths
which are true in all times and epochs. It is
this especial quality which makes it great
and allows it to survive amid the ruins of
empires and civilizations, becoming a wit-
ness of dead generations.

The author's genius is that of a man whose
experiences are unlike those of anybody
else. The work of art, however, comes to
being in a special atmosphere. All such
works, including theatrical works, present
different aspects in different epochs. If then
we want to find the original life in a work
we must possess an elaborate and varied
documentation. Those persons who possess
this background of knowledge utilize it
almost unconsciously, forgetting the years
it took them to acquire it.

The young persons, our students at the
beginning of their lives have no such store
of accumulated knowledge and notions. The
teacher's problem is to supply something to
fill this want, and to furnish them with as
rich as possible a background of ideas and
facts in as quick a period of time as is
possible. One must remember the vastness
of their curricula and choose the outstand-
ing subjects.

We can now begin to get an idea of how
the motion picture may be a precious in-
strument in this connection.

Let us take one or two examples. We
have had occasion to explain to students
of the Vlth (French) Class (children about
ii years of age) a short Latin text, some
verses of Ovid describing a chariot being
broken during a race in the arena. One
section of the class found no little difficulty
in describing the chaos of broken wood and
wheels and rearing horses, while others
among the pupils had perfectly grasped the
details of the text. In this particular case, the
difference in grasping the text did not de-

pend on the degree of knowledge of the dif-
ferent students with the Latin language,
but on quite an extraneous factor. When
one examined the matter, it turned out that
the better appreciation of the details of the
text depended on some of the pupils having
recently seen the film Ben Hur, in the course
of which there is of course the famous char-
iot race scene.

Films like these and others of the kind
(such as The Sign of the Cross) which re-
construct scenes of the persecutions of the
Christians under Nero can render great
service to teachers.

Reconstructions of this kind would be
more useful for history courses than for
literature courses.

We know perfectly well that the various
differences and alterations in the mise-en-scene
costumes and manner of acting must be
understood for a proper appreciation of
the evolution of the classic drama to the
romantic plays of our own time. A film
might make this quite clear by showing a
scene here and there carefully chosen from
the repertory of various periods.

The motion picture too could very well
show the inner details of a writer's life,
thereby illustrating the connection between
his life and his work.

Chateaubriand laid great stress in his
writings on the powerful influence exer-
cised on his temperament by his own part
of the country, Brittany. It is no easy mat-
ter to make this comprehensive to a pupil
from a calm Southern city, or a busy mel-
ancholy city of the North. It is easy to
image the usefulness of a film illustrating
views of the castle of Cournbourg and sur-
roundings: the wild rocks lashed by the
tempests, the melancholy countryside that
Rene liked to stroll in. As a matter of fact,
this method has already been employed by
one of the most distinguished of our liter-
ary historians. M. Trabard, dean of the
Faculty of Letters at the University of Di-
jon and professor of literature, in the course
of a lecture given in 1933 on Merimee's
Colombe and the Trip to Corsica used a

AND THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE

701

commented film projection which, in view
of the theme, was an admirable idea.

There would be no difficulty in finding
countless other cases. Whenever we have
to secure precise knowledge of a place, an
epoch or a man, the film can give us the
valuable assistance of a rich and lively doc-
umentation.

It can do more; it can help us to study a
great work in its entirety. In the ordinary
way, owing to the shortness of time, a
work of this kind can generally only be
studied in certain parts, that is the essential
parts. Whence derives the difficulty that
each scene and each page is closely connect-
ed with the total effect, and the task of the
pupil is to learn the entire thing and not a
part of it.

What are we to do in order to give him
knowledge and learning? The best way
is to let the pupil read the work, but even
here difficulties arise, for, if left to himself,
the child understands badly, reads too fast,
or copies from the summary of the work
which he finds in the text-book.

The oral summary made in class by the
teacher requires much time, and is not very
useful.

This is where the motion picture can
lend us its aid in the form of a film based
on the novel or play which is being studied.

The projection can be given in two sec-
tions. The first should be a sort of prelimin-
ary show to awaken the imagination. The
scenes and parts studied in class would be
shown. Then, following a scholastic exam-
ination with exercises and questions, a sec-
ond projection would synthetize the observ-
ations and studies, and round off the film
lesson in an artistic fashion. This all opens
up the way for a vast amount of work to
be done in teaching literature with the help
of the motion picture.

Considering the matter especially from the
point of view of plays, etc. the question be-
comes even more interesting. It is a common-
place that to judge a scene without having
seen it acted does not help good criticism. In
every work, there are scenic effects and char-

acteristic gestures which no explanation can
properly illustrate. For instance, make a
pupil read the scene in which M. Jourdain
receives a fencing or dancing lesson.

The pupil will not be amused. If you
tell him that the episodes are comic and
that the comic sense is brought out by the
strange miming of the actors, he will doubt-
less take your word for it, but he will re-
ceive no direct impression.

If, on the other hand, a motion picture
shows him the grotesque and clumsy efforts
of M. Jourdain to handle a foil or to execute
the steps of the minuet, he will laugh
spontaneously and naturally, and this will
be an excellent way for proving to him that
Moliere knew how to portray the ridiculous
and the contradictions in men's characters.
But you may argue, why the film rather
than the stage? The answer is: for various
reasons, the first of which is that the use
of the theatre is only possible for Paris and
Parisian scholars, and useless for the prov-
inces, which is enough to put it out of the
question. It is not in any case at all an easy
matter for pupils to visit theatres, and a
pedagogic instrument ought to be at the
disposal of the person who wants it when
he wants it, and when he judges the condi-
tions favourable for its use.

Here then we have the problem con-
sidered from the theoretical point of view.
We may then very well be asked how is
the matter to be practically realized, what
examples have we to show of efforts in this
direction, what possibilities the present trend
of the cinema offers for teaching literature.

It is easy to answer these inquiries.

The cinema, as we have said, can supply
us with abundant documentary material of
various kinds. We can use both stills and
films in this department. Any film which
faithfully reproduces an epoch can provide
us, for one reason or another with points of
interest. We may cite in this connection
Ben Hur, The Sign of. the Cross, The Three
Musketeers, Notre Dame de Paris, etc.

We must, of course, choose out pictures
with a strictly scientific spirit, banning

702

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

fantastic works produced merely to amuse
the public by popularizing legends and tales
that have long been discredited among
serious people and students.

It is, on the other hand perfectly possible
to make short documentary pictures for
pedagogic use in this section of literature.
Thus films on the life and customs of a de-
termined period, the history of theatrical
scenography, landscapes, described by fam-
ous authors which permit comparisons.

The cinema can, as we have had occasion
to remark, facilitate for pupils the general
understanding of a work. Pabst's Don
Quixote is an example of this kind. It is
a film with rare artistic qualities and pro-
duced with more than ordinary intelligence
from Cervantes' ponderous and complicated
work, packed with philosophy; the scen-
ario writer has been able to choose the best
known and most striking episodes, the
attack on the flock of sheep, the liberation
of the prisoners, the Duke's tourney, the
attack on the wind-mills and the hero's
death before the burning library. By group-
ing scenes together, and through the reac-
tions of those who approach and surround
Don Quixote, the producers have succeed-
ed, in so far as it was possible, in captur-
ing the figure of the hero and the feeling
of the book.

Doubdess the film does not entirely repre-
sent Cervantes' work, but it was impossible
that it should. At the same time, the pupil
can derive much benefit from seeing it.
He will get a good general idea of the book,
and his imagination will be stirred and
freshened. He will acquire the desire to read
and know Cervantes, and he will find in
Don Quixote a mass of attractive pictures.

Other good examples of recent films made
from books include La Maternelle, from the
novel ol Leon Frapie and Colombe from
the work of Merimee.

We should also not fail to note that
many bad films have been made on these
lines — in fact there are more bad than good
— films which do not in any way meet the
demands of fair criticism or offer anything

attractive for the teaching of literature. This,
however, is not a question to enter into
here. There should be a regular pedagogic
commission charged with giving or refus-
ing its approval for films of this type. We
must always remember that films of this
kind are not intended to take the place of
teachers and study, but only to facilitate the
process of learning and make it livelier and
more attractive.

In the case of the theatre, the matter is still
clearer. We ourselves defended these ideas
at the International Cinema Salon in July
1933, and projected, for demonstration pur-
pose, the film M. Pourceaugnac, based on
the comedy-ballet of Moliere. There are
undoubtedly objections to be made against
this picture and fantastic scenes in it that
should be cut out, but in spite of every-
thing, it shows very well that what can be
done with films of this kind.

We must, however, come to agreement
on one point: a film of any kind is, in a
way, an adaptation. There is a world of dif-
ference between using the motion picture
for literature classes and for purposes of
scientific study. In a geography lesson, for
instance, or a lesson in natural history, the
film forms an integral part of the lesson
as a demonstrative means corresponding to
the experiment made before the pupil's
eyes in a lesson on physics or chemistry.
It should be well defined and definite when
applied to specific instruction or any
particular lesson.

On the other hand, since the film for
teaching literature is only a synthesis or a
means of exciting the imagination can it be
used in the form of an adaptation of the
original work? The question is a serious
one and full of possible consequences. We
must be precise.

Adaptation does not mean for us trans-
forming a work to meet the requirements
of modern taste. A work which has attained
a certain age should be throughly respected
in its spirit.

In our case, adaptation means bringing
over in an intelligent manner, the salient

AND THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE

703

episodes of the work and its atmosphere,
while preserving the essential lines of the
original.

Doubtless, the ideal arrangement would
be a complete and integral reproduction of
the work such as is given on the stage.
The high cost of full length pictures makes
this out of the question at present. We must
admit that literary films have to be made
both with an eye to commercial possibil-
ities and with due consideration of their
usefulness for university film archives.

It may be that in the future filmed plays
will be able to give us more.

After enjoying many big theatrical suc-
cesses, a modern writer, M. Marcel Pagnol,
has gone over to the motion picture and
after having put his own plays on the
screen, is now working at making film
versions of theatrical works of the classic
repertory. It is not any commercial attrac-
tions which have inspired him to do this,
but rather an artistic intention which he has
more than once vigorously expressed. To
quote him:

« Humanity has known at least three great
inventions: the press, the registering of
music, or the gramophone, and the register-
ing of the acted play, otherwise the talking
picture.

« The silent picture reproduced panto-
mime; the talking film reproduces the
theatre.

« It must not be said that I have betrayed
dramatic art. For three years now, I have
been writing and proclaiming that the talking
picture is the new stage form, that the
theatre, abandoning its scenery and renounc-
ing ephemeral representations that are dead
almost as soon as they come to life will find

its true development on the screen, from
which it can make its appeal to millions of
spectators on the same day and at the same
hour. I venerate and love, as much as anyone
else, our great classics, and I am original in
that my veneration and love have not been
merely of a platonic kind. I intend to bring
our classics on to the screen in their com-
plete original texts. If, one day, the project-
ions of he Malade Itnaginaire or On ne ba-
dine fas avec V amour reach 25,000 in 15
months I shall be content.

« Do not tell me that this is impossible.
If a play like Fanny has been able to do this,
what may we not expect from a master-
piece? ».

We have then a good and useful cause to
fight for in the use of the motion picture
for the teaching of literature. Moreover, pro-
gress may soon be looked for, if we think of
the excellent efforts that have already been
made.

The advantages, moreover, surpass in a
remarkable way the merely technical benefits
obtained. They can penetrate through the
school and the people to the very spirit of
the nation. It is not enough merely to state
that a nation's spirit is formed — among
other things — by the intellectual legacies
of the past if, as a matter of fact, the major-
ity of a nation's literary masterpieces are only
a name to the mass of the people. If, in a not
distant future, our great literary works are
able, through the medium of the film to
exercise a moral and spiritual action on the
masses, inducing the public to read the orig-
inals (is this too much to hope?) who will
dare to say that this would not be an im-
mense benefit for our national culture?

NORMAL SCHOOL TRAINING FOR TEACHERS
BY MEANS OF PSYCHOLOGY
AND SCIENTIFIC PEDAGOGY

BY

AdoSph Ferriere

DOCTOR OF SOCIOLOGY AT GENEVA

The Rome Cinema Congress considered
among many other subjects normal
school training for teachers and the psy-
chology of children. I would like to con-
sider these two subjects together and ex-
amine the question of technical or normal
school training by illustrating child psycho-
logy and education.

It is obvious that the education referred to
is of a different nature from that which the
pupils at state normal schools are at present
receiving and which they are later called
upon to apply. This kind of education is
traditional, regulated by law and scholastic
curricula, national education in a word.
Science, on the other hand, is international,
as international as objective truth, towards
which it is making a gradual approach.

Ought one then to say that the teaching
of scientific pedagogy is useless or super-
fluous? Science and truth can never be con-
sidered useless. Are not science and truth
perhaps, after all, at the base of the tradition
of scholastic regulations? We must use the
means that lead us to the desired end. The
end, in this case, is the child's good, and
the means to attain that will be those meth-
ods which contain the fewest possible er-
rors and mistakes on the one side and imply
the minimum of effort and loss of time
on the other.

In countries with a lengthy scholastic trad-
ition the teaching of scientific pedagogy
will form an indispensable part of normal
school studies. It will show to what point
one can arrive when one goes beyond the
strikct routine of school teaching.

No pedagogue is a slave to regulations to
the point of being unable or unwilling to
renovate and improve his technique in this
or that detail. It is the sum total of the im-

provements thought out by teachers which
urges pedagogic opinion towards reforms,
and it is rare that the scholastic and legisla-
tive authorities refuse to approve and sanction
with orders and eventually with laws those
reforms and new ideas which objective
science, the practical experience of teachers
and the welfare of the pupils demand.

In certain young countries pedagogic meth-
ods based on the psychology of children
have been taken up for some time. In these
lands, the teaching of the new methods is
even more necessary, since it will form the
indispensable basis for the preparation of
future teachers. It will not be a mere sup-
plement or illustrated appendix to normal
studies, but the very beginning of such
studies.

Teaching by means of the motion picture
has a marked advantage over book teaching
because it substitutes the visible and dynamic
example for oral explanation which has to
be translated into perception and conception;
in other words into logic. The usefulness of
the book will always remain, however, since
logic is indispensable. The book will hold
its place in order to indicate the reasons for
any act or phenomenon, the variety of pos-
sible and useful actions or acts the conse-
quences of such acts or actions and their
effects. This is because vital thought tends
towards the future.

It may be said that practically, the cinema
must confine its efforts to ordinary things
as opposed to exceptional. It thus reveals the
fundamental principles of self-education, the
methods daily employed by the teacher, in
a word, everything which is based on the
constant application of psychological laws
which are everywhere accepted as true, the
application of which should be limited to

NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR TEACHERS

705

the essential and should forego the use of
artifice. In this way, it will produce its due
effect on simple minds.

The case occurs often enough that we
have to explain to a woman or a young per-
son what she or he should do. The person
sometimes fails to understand. The little
thing we have asked him or her to represent,
evoke, or memorize proves too much for
him or her. The pupil's answer is always
couched in the same terms : « I haven't
quite understood : show me what it is, and
how it should be done ». It is easy to under-
stand the value of the cinema for teaching
young people and adults the theory and
practice (especially the practice) of the meth-
ods of the so called new education based
on the discoveries of science and the psycho-
logy of children. To observe children at
work, to grasp the true mission of the
master is the best of all possible ways for
giving a right direction and tendency to
the studies of our future teachers. This study
on its theoretical side should be explained
by teachers and also from books. Not all
normal schools offer their students the pos-
sibility of practical exercises where applic-
ation of the methods of the active school can
be made.

If often happens that instruction, practice
and apprenticeship all take place in strictly
traditional surroundings. I have met pupil-
teachers of twenty years and even old teach-
ers with a career behind them who knew
nothing of the new methods. They did not
even know the first elements of such meth-
ods. They had not learnt them from books
— they had no time to read such books —
nor by visiting the new classes. (Experi-
mental schools did not exist in those parts).

The same thing can be said about sup-
plementary courses for adult teachers. Such
courses which bring together in turns and
at intervals the teachers in the central halls
of the Superior Institutes of Teaching or
unite them in obligatory summer courses are
indispensable. They awaken the teachers'
memory, bringing them afresh into contact
with theory. They permit the teachers to

become acquainted with the most recent
scientific discoveries, with connected lessons
that are much more efficacious than popular
articles in pedagogic reviews. Further, they
teach the masters the methods, and deduc-
tions of experts in the field and the results
of the work and experiments of specialists
in scholastic work and the active method.
(Courses of this kind have existed in Switz-
erland since 1884, with the help and en-
couragement of the authorities).

But this is not sufficient. I mean to say
that it is rare to find supplementary courses
which answer the conditions necessary for
the proper explanation and demonstration of
the principles and details of modern scien-
tific methods in a thorough and competent
manner.

The motion picture has a task of the
greatest importance to carry out in this field
of activity, because it is by forming the
character and aptitudes of the young pupil-
teacher or the adult master that we form
the character of the child and in the end of
the nation. The entire progress of nations
depends to a large extent on the clear in-
tellectual faculties of the teacher, just as
such progress will suffer if the teachers are
not up to the level of their task.

We are entering here the kingdom of
mechanical methods, of dead technique, of
possible errors which may cause the gradual
suffocation of youthful intelligences. It is
our duty to make intellectual, physical and
moral health, rendered almost tangible,
penetrate into the schools and the life of the
pupils just as they transform and beautify
the life of the teachers.

In certain countries, all this has been duly
understood. Unfortunately, those persons
who had recourse to the motion picture in
this special form — that is, to show teachers
the practice of social moral and scholastic
didactic methods — have not always been
informed of the latest discoveries and de-
ductions of modern science. Consequently
they chose, for cinematographic representa-
tion, the best official lessons as given in the

706

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

regular curricula of their country. Certainly,
for teachers who are subjected to rigid schol-
astic regulations and orders, the possibility
of learning the new methods in the best
way is a great help and assistance.

Official methods necessarily contain er-
rors which psychology is capable of rectify-
ing. All the force of suggestion that is made
use of in propaganda work through the
employment of the cinema will help to
correct these mistakes. Official methods,
moreover, are bound up with a law which
limits them in time and space: in space for
the country where the scholastic law obtains,
and in time because a fresh ministry suc-
ceeding to the existing one can modify them.
This for the reason that once a law has been
recognized as a source of errors, it will al-
most certainly be altered, and it is well that
it should be so altered. It follows that the
film which illustrates methods based on a
law that is losing its efficacy is itself inef-
ficacious.

In the United States, scholastic pictures
have been made in supposedly ideal didactic
conditions, which a capable psychologist could
not but disapprove because such methods
have been quite in contrast with the require-
ments of children's and young people's
psychology. I saw in 1930 scholastic films
shown in Buenos Aires which were full of
pedagogic errors, and yet were lauded as
being models of the latest in didactics.

The collaboration between authorities for
making pictures and experts and psycholo-
gits do their best for the technical qua-
lities of films and their practical applic-
ation in modern education is an indispens-
able necessity. Still more indispensable is
the existence of experimental or modern
schools in which the new methods can
enjoy every opportunity and advantage and
where cine-producers can base their methods
on experience with the living models under
their care.

In 1927, on the occasion of the IV Inter-
national Congress of New Education held
at Locarno, some of the delegates, among
whom we may mention Dr. O. Decroly

and the writer of this article, founded an
International Association for films in the
New Education — films that were to be
scientific-theoretical and practical-pedagogic.
Owing to lack of means the association has
never been able to assume an active interest,
and has remained little more than an idea.
The withdrawal of the nations within their
customs barriers had a good deal to do with
our unsuccess. The impulse given by the
idea, however, worked miracles in the circles
interested in the New Education.

At the 1929 Congress at Elsinor, and at
the Congress of 1932 held at Nice, new edu-
cation films were numerous. Their actual
worth was not always high, however. Em-
piricism, exaggerations, a striving after the
picturesque and the superfluous were evi-
dent on all sides. One film alone, Home,
chez nous a la Clochette sur Lausanne
seemed to fulfil all requirements of a school
for young children where the methods of
the active school and child psychology could
be properly applied.

To sum up then, the requisites of a good
scientific film for normal school pupils are
as follows:

a) It should be strictly scientific and have
a simple and universal character;

b) It should illustrate children's activity
in the following scholastic fields:

1) use of auto-educative material (Mon-
tessori, Agazzi, Alessandrini, Decroly, Au-
demars, and Lafendel, Artus, etc.) (at the
Universal Pedagogic Congress of Geneva in
1929 some 30 firms exhibited);

2) preparation and use by the scholars
of the scholastic material used in the Active
Method; classification of cards in index diar-
ies based on systematic classification of
objects in use);

3) methods of study and control (Win-
netka, Dalton Plan, etc);

4) manual work in connection with the
various branches of teaching (first grade of
the Active School or Method intended as
work shop;

NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR TEACHERS

707

5) practice in the active method in
conformity with the curricula of the Cen-
tres d'interet (school centres) This second
grade active method is used in several coun-
tries ;

6) documentation, research for figures,
objects, documents, proofs, and elaboration
of same with collective work resulting there-
from. (Standardized individual work, or-
ganized collective work, individual work at
choice, socialized activity, third grade active
school method);

7) technique and practice of the « Se-
rene school » method. Ordered and disciplin-
ed activity with a certain liberty of selection
and time (concentrated activity of fourth
grade of Active School).

e) to show the children in the act of put-
ting into practice hygienic social moral and
artistic rules and regulations of life :

1) elementary hygiene (principles of the
nature cult applied to the growing infantile
organism);

2) physical hygiene (natural gymnastic
and preventive heliotherapy;

3) open air exercises and gardening, etc.;

4) manual crafts (carpentering, working
in iron, cardboard, etc.);

5) applied arts (plastic arts, painting,
small handicrafts);

6) various grades in the practice of dis-
ciplined autonomy for the pupils (special
individual commissions and tasks squads,
leaders, organized collective discussions,
scholastic regulations);

7) choirs and orchestras;

8) rhythmic gymnastics;

9) sport and excursions.

All this must be given and practised
without losing sight of the coordinated com-
binations of the various activities here listed
as, for instance, excursions made with a hy-
gienic or documentary or scientific or sport-
ing purpose as the case may be.

d) The teachers' personal activity in the
working of the Active School such as :

1) preparatory activity: observation of
the children through their spontaneous ges-
tures (notes to be taken on the children's
ways and habits in order to understand
their temperaments and psychology;

2) control by means of study of apti-
tudes, knowledge, etc.;

3) the teacher's contribution to the pu-
pil's choice of a career trade or profession
(at the age of from 12 to 16);

4) the teacher's activity in directing the
pupils' work as per section b);

5) the teacher's coordinative work on
the children's various contingent interests
and the demands of society (curricula and
state examinations, or better still, requests
for explanations of useful and efficacious
activities);

6) post-scholastic activity: formation of
summer classes, arranging for teachers as
pedagogic inspectors, medicine in schools
and school doctors, school nurses, their work
and mission in connection with the pupils'
families; schools for deficient children, etc.

As can be seen, the field to be worked in
is vast, and so far nothing or very little has
been done in it. In a hundred years, it will
be incomprehensible how in the year of
grace 1934 there was such a penury of films
coordinating theory and scientific and pedag-
ogic practice with the work of the teachers
themselves, who are the creators and sup-
porters of the nation's health and its fu-
ture greatness.

It would then clearly appear to be the
moment to lay down a technical and scien-
tific plan of an international character for
this urgent question.

The I.I.E.C. is the body most suited to
carry out this work, and it seems to me that
it could not be entrusted with a higher and
nobler task.

THE UTILIZATION OF THE CINEMATOGRAPH
IN TECHNICAL TEACHING

BY

Marc Cantagrel

PROFESSOR OF APPLIED CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE HIGHER SCHOOL OF COMMERCE OF PARIS.

HP he « Film Library of the Schools of
•■■ Higher Commercial Teaching » was
founded at Paris in 1926 in response to the
request of a number of teachers. This Asso-
ciation, which groups the French schools
together and is recognized by the State, aims
at forming a collection of films suited to
the programme of these schools.

The originality of this association undoubt-
edly consists in the fact that it does not
confine itself to the part of distributor but
is primarily a creative organization. For
some time past the association has been in a
position to mount on its own account all
the films that it produces, in its own prem-
ises, which are situated in the Higher
School of Commerce of Paris, 79 Avenue de
la Republique. The works produced by the
Film Library are therefore perfectly suited
for the teaching imparted in our schools.

I trust that I may succeed in contributing
something to the study of the scholastic cin-
ema question by summarizing here the
results of an experiment extending over a
period of more than eight years, during
which we made a methodical use of the
films of our Film Library, which had been
conceived and carried out by us for the
precise purpose, as stated above, of illustrat-
ing our courses. This experiment, therefore,
was an experiment not only in the use of
the teaching film but also in its creation.

Methods to be Used
in Teaching by
the Film.

A film that is well
conceived and execut-
ed for a determinate
didactic purpose becomes an integral part
of the course. The teacher makes use of it,

as of any other means of demonstration, in
the school premises where he teaches.

It is impossible to fix a general rule as to
the most favourable moment for the projec-
tion, which depends on the subject. It may
be given at the proper moment during the
lesson, although the necessity of darkening
the room means a waste of time, or it may
be given after the lesson in those cases
where the subject is easy to understand and
when it is desired to show the real aspect of
things by means of the screen.

There is, however, from a general point
of view, a rock that must be avoided. After
listening to the lesson, the pupil sees the film
and, especially if the latter makes the
explanation very clear, he frequently thinks
he has understood it and that there is no
need to make any further effort to dive more
deeply into the subject and master it.

The cinema in this case becomes more
harmful than useful; it suppresses the indis-
pensable and fruitful struggle which the
mind must make with ideas and facts, if it is
to assimilate them; it is this struggle alone
which places the acquisition of knowledge
on a sound basis. We therefore prefer to
allow a few days to elapse between the
lesson and the projection, so that the pupil
may have time for the personal work of
assimilation.

By interrogating the pupil, we may as-
sure ourselves that he has done this necessary
work, and at the same time we are able
to judge by his answer which particular
points must be dwelt upon when comment-
ing on the projection. This is the case
when pupils are well prepared. Those who

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY IN TECHNICAL TEACHING 709

have understood will find the confirmation
of their conclusion as compensation for the
efforts made; while those who have not
understood so well will find in the film
the clear understanding that they were un-
able to reach without it. For all the pupils
without exception, the film constitutes the
transposition into the external world of what
they have learnt in theory, thus establishing
that bond with reality which is of such im-
portance in the teaching of industrial tech-
nique, which in its essence must be a living
thing.

Thus conceived, the use of the cinema
makes a deep impression and gives im-
portant results.

This has been demonstrated by numer-
ous experiments, among which we may
mention the following. The examinations
that are held in our schools at the end of
the scholastic year — > the oral examinations
being held in June — begin with two written
compositions, for which three hours are
allowed, on two of the subjects that have
been taught in the preceding year. The
subjects are drawn by lot and the candidates
are given the names of the subjects on
which they are to write only at the time
of the examination. We endeavour, in this
way, to obtain regular work on the part of
students throughout the year, since they
know there will be no time to cram up at
the last moment the subjects selected for
examinations.

One of the subjects thus drawn two years
ago was Technology, the section being « The
glass industry and the evolution of its
technique ».

I had already dealt with this subject,
with the aid of a good film, at the end of
December, that is to say five months ear-
lier, and no one imagined it would be the
subject of a written composition at this
time. The film had made the whole mat-
ter so clear and had made such a deep im-

pression that the average number of marks
obtained by the 120 compositions was the
unusual one of a little over 14 out of
a possible 20. The examiner was astonished
to see .faithful reproductions of the designs
in the animated cartoons used to explain
the working of the different automatic
machines in the film.

Comment is indispensable; it must be
made before and during the projection. In
order to make a satisfactory comment, the
teacher must obviously know the film well
in all its details, and he must also have
it timed, so that he may know when to
speak and what to say. It is a good plan to
give a summary of what is to be shown
on the screen before beginning the projec-
tion, pointing out the scenes that should be
studied with special care; and these points
should also be called to the attention dur-
ing the projection itself, care being taken
to announce them just before they appear
on the screen.

The projection may be interrupted if it
is necessary to give a rather longer explan-
ation of the scenes that are to follow. Our
students are well prepared, and it is seldom
necessary for us to have recourse to this
expedient, which, when the subject is
complete in itself, has the defect of inter-
rupting the continuity of the impression.

This need of comment caused us to
proscribe the use of sound films in our
teaching. This was not done out of system-
atic hostility, but because we consider that
the stereotyped and unchangeable discourse
of the « speaker » prevents the teacher from
talking and, however well done it may be,
can never replace the living, variable
discourse of the master, who knows his
audience and what it needs. It may be
that in this way we lose by not having the

710

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

reproduction of certain machine sounds
which are not without interest, but it
would be paying too dearly for them if we
had to purchase sound films and the relative
projection apparatus for the sole purpose of
having the reproduction of such sound.

Utilization of Lan- It is obvious that Ian-
tern Slides and t£rn Ud af£ used
Animated Car-
toons, only for objects with-
out movement. But the
cinema can replace them with advantage,
because the cinematograph camera being
moveable, can register every aspect of an
object just as the observer would see if
if he walked round it. An impression of
truth is obtained in this way that could not
be given by lantern slides.

The latter, however, have their use, since
their fixity and permanence on the screen al-
low of long explanations and the detailed
study of a mechanism or a piece of arch-
itecture. They have the further advantage
of costing very little, and may be consid-
ered as sufficient when the subject is not
worth the expenditure of the always high
cost of a film.

Repercussions of the I said above that a

Use of the Cin- ,, i ri„ •

• t u- - well made nlm is an
ema in Teaching.

integral part of the
course, like any other demonstrative means.
This conception of the film, however, is still
far from being widely accepted by teachers,
which fact is, I think, due to the extreme-
ly small number of films in existence which
can be exactly adapted to given teaching.

When a film has been produced, the
master making use of it must take into
account the values it gives him and the
time needed for its projection.

Experience has shown that a rational and
methodical use of the cinema allows us to
give a much less elaborate explanation of

many details, which can be presented much
better on the screen with the accompani-
ment of comments. The result of this sys-
tem is that the total amount of time given
to a subject comes to the same, whether the
film is used or not, and there is no notice-
able repercussion either on the programme
or the timetable.

We have also found that there was econ-
omy of time when a film was used on a
complex subject, provided that we had a
film sufficiently well done to make the
subject clear.

I may mention one such case: our tech-
nology course includes a lesson of an hour
on the manufacture of tiles for floors, roofs,
etc.

We endeavour, in our teaching, to sep-
arate general ideas first of all, and we insist
on this, because in our opinion they form
the soundest and most enduring acquisition
that our students make in the course of their
studies. The question we are dealing with
now is that of the rational utilization of
heat, the best example of which is given
by the kiln which supplies a continuous
heat for firing the tiles. In spite of all care
with which, one at a time, we endeavoured
to explain the working of this kiln, there
were always some of the students who had
not properly understood, and we had either
to give a new lesson or a supplementary
explanation, and even these were not al-
ways sufficient for the comprehension of all
the students.

For the past four years we have had a film
in which the study of the kiln is given in
detail by a succession of pictures and an-
imated drawings. We are able to give our
explanation in 40 minutes while the projec-
tion of the film takes 20 minutes, making a
total of an hour for the lesson. The students
understand it so well that we have never been
asked to supplement our explanation; and
what is more, even the least bright of them

IN TECHNICAL TEACHING

711

answer most satisfactorily at the examin-
ation, when this subject happens to be
drawn.

Thanks to the film, therefore, we have
succeeded with a lesson and made a very
delicate technique much clearer.

The question of manuals does not come
into our teaching, but I wish to connect the
question of the explanatory matter and fig-
ures extracted from films with that quest-
ion, because we made a very conclusive ex-
periment on one of these subjects. The sal-
ient figures of some of our films were en-
larged, reproduced in phototype and distrib-
uted to students to be inserted in the margin
of the notes in their class-books. These pic-
tures, thus brought under the eyes of all
the students, act as a reminder of the lesson
and familiarize them with what they will
see on the screen; and the examination of
them, even a long time after the view of
the film, recalls the movements that animat-
ed them. The yield of the projection is
thus increased, by preparing the pupil for
it and prolonging the impression made
by it.

We intend to develop this method, but
experience shows that it is best to decide,
from the very beginning of photographing
the film, which scenes are to be enlarged,
and to photograph them separately, at an
identical angle, by man of an ordinary
camera. Such enlargements are better than
those obtained from photogrammes of the
film, which are never perfectly in focus.

We hope, also, to publish some explan-
atory notes, including a list of titles and
indications of the relative scenes; that is to
say, a brief monograph of the subject, ac-
companied, in the case of an industry, by
the principal economic data.

There is no doubt that the idea formed by
the film and the relative notes and draw-
ings would give the student all the elements
necessary for a complete understanding

of the subject, and would be of inestimable
aid to the master.

Subjects in which The cinema is not ev-
the Cinema can , • L.

be Used with erything in teaching

Advantage. and, unlike those who

see a panacea in it,
we consider that it is useless in many sub-
jects and should be used sparingly even in
those subjects where its use is advisable.

Even in reduced size, the film is always
expensive, and its use should therefore be
excluded whenever the benefit drawn from
it by students would not be such as to
justify the money and time spent in pro-
ducing it. Film should be even more
rigorously excluded when the additional
knowledge that it brings can be gained
at the cost of a certain effort, by reflection
or the simple observation of the external
world. In fact, it should be excluded just
for this reason, for students are only too
liable to avoid making an effort, and our
duty, on the contrary, is to stimulate them
to make it.

Up the present, our Film Library has
dealt only with the applied sciences and
industrial technique : mechanics, machinery,
technology, for it seemed obvious that the
cinema was needed mainly in the dominion
of fact and movement. It is now thinking
of producing or purchasing, as soon as pos-
sible, films on economic or descriptive geo-
graphy. The teaching of drawing is very
efficaciously completed by the film, but it
is not our task to dwell on the very inter-
esting results obtained, which are now
known to everyone.

We do not intend to speak, either, of
the natural sciences, for they do not come
within the realm of technical teaching,
but we must acknowledge the utility of the
cinema in these subjects.

Perhaps physics and chemistry properly so
called may have recourse to the cinema,

712

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

but only when it is necessary to show rare
experiments or those which would be dif-
ficult to reproduce in school laboratories.
Experiments that can be carried out in these
laboratories should, on the contrary, invar-
iably be done by the master.

On the other hand, we do not see exacdy
what aid the cinema can give in certain
subjects, such as history, law, political econ-
omy, accountancy, financial mathematics or
even mathematics proper, outside a few ex-
amples of descriptive geometry or the geom-
etry of space, or in languages.

It must be understood, of course, that
it is quite possible to conceive a film on
any subject and sometimes even to reduce
into concrete form the most abstract ideas
by means of analytical or synthetical ani-
mated cartoons. I have had occasion personal-
ly to make films dealing with the scientific
organization of labour, one of which is
used in the Higher School of Aeronautics
to illustrate a course on those methods of
organization in that industry. They tell me
that it helps to make the subject much
clearer, but such cases are exceptional and
we should not generalise from them.

Special Qualities of The apparatuses on

the Projection , , Dresent

Apparatus and sale at me Presem

Lantern Slides in time are as a rule

Schoolrooms. i , i

good, but choice must

be made of those that

can be easily handled.

The maintenance of these apparatuses is
of the utmost importance although it is
unfortunately only too often neglected:
proper oiling, periodical tightening of nuts
and screws that have been loosened by vi-
bration and especially the perfect cleaning
of the gearings, grooves, etc. with which the
film comes into contact.

It is impossible to insist too strongly
upon the fact that the deposits of gelatine
left by the film during its passage, becom-

ing hardened, scratch the surface and
render it useless.

The necessity of a good projection must
always be kept in mind. Young people are
too accustomed to seeing perfectly projected
films in cinemas to accept an inferior pro-
jection in school. The lack of luminosity,
in addition to disillusioning students, makes
it impossible to see a number of details,
while the scenes in chiaroscuro which the
author of the film arranged expressly to
give the character of certain interiors such
as laboratories or workshops, with exact-
itude, become invisible.

It is therefore necessary to have a suf-
ficiently powerful source of light, a correct
optical system and a good screen.

We prefer the arc-reflector whenever it
can be used.

The rigid screen formed of a wall or a
canvas drawn tight over a frame and if
possible running in grooves is preferable; the
layer of white gelatine that covers the sur-
face with time only increases its reflecting
power.

An ideal room for projecting a film
would be one where small lamps by each
student enable the latter to take notes, but
although such an installation may be nec-
essary in a drawing course, we think it
can be dispensed with in other cases.

Instead of writing, students ought to
study the projection attentively and listen
carefully to the comments. This of itself
means a considerably strain, and they would
need a much greater training than they
possess to be able to take notes also, at the
same time.

The best thing is to have the room in
penumbra, so that the teacher may keep
an eye on his audience and follow its
reactions. We attain this end by drawing

IN TECHNICAL TEACHING

713

the blinds of the windows furthest from the
screen half-way, but this necessitates a very
luminous projection.

Yield of the Cinema I mentioned above
in Teaching. , .

some conclusive ex-
amples, taken from
among many, in corroboration of the ob-
vious fact that a well made film — and I
must insist on this qualification — contrib-
utes to the acquisition of knowledge in the
most effective way.

There is no doubt, either, that it also
helps to develop the spirit of observation
and especially the memory, if the teach-
er makes use of it to this end: and to
some extent it influences the imagination
and therefore the creative faculties.

We have not noted any action of the
film on character. I am of the opinion that
the cinema, properly used in technical
teaching, as in our case, is an aid of the
first rank and becomes daily more so: but
I repeat that we must not look upon it as
a panacea for all the ills of the intelligence
or a sure stimulant of all its qualities.

In the case of the cinema, as in all comple-
ments of an experimental order, the yield
increases with the number but only up to
a maximum, beyond which it generates
confusion and fatigue.

It must therefore be used with method
and restraint, in order not to cause intel-
lectual and visual fatigue, which are clearly
evident in this case and are soon shown
when it is necessary to follow with great
attention phenomena or events that suc-
ceed one another rapidly on the screen.

Teachers and the Cin- It is possible for every
ematograph. The , , ■

Creation of Films. teacher to have *c
aid of the cinema in

his teaching; he has only to ask for it.

But before using the film he must follow

a special preparatory course in order that he

may know how to co-ordinate the two parts
of his teaching, the verbal explanation and
the film. But is not this one of the chief
qualities of a teacher, namely constantly to
modify his methods for the better, and intro-
duce new features in them? « Pedagogical
formation » is a very comprehensive term.
As to technical formation, if we lim-
it ourselves to that ineherent in the
manipulation of projection apparatus and
film, what is needed is so slight as to
be negligible, namely, the possibiliy of
control when an assistant is charged with
the projection and the care of films, or a
simple initiation, which means nothing more
than a little attention and the formation
of a habit when the teacher himself has
to take charge of the projection and main-
tenance.

In the reproduction of didactic films, on
the contrary, the teacher's task is one of
the highest importance. I wish to refer to
it here, profiting by the experience acquired
during eight years in our Film Library.

First of all, let us define the didactic
film. It must not be confused with those
pleasantly superficial films which are in-
tended to please but not instruct the public
and which are called « documentary » films,
a term that may be used ironically if we
keep to its ethnological meaning. We
know very few of such films that really
form a documentation of the subject, at least
when they deal with industrial problems.
The didactic film is an instrument of
demonstration created for a very definite
purpose, a given order of teaching, with
the same scientific exactitude as the lesson
that it illustrates and completes. Its realiza-
tion is essentially a pedagogic work in which
the teacher must have the preponderating
part.

The question is not, however, generally

4 - Ice Ingl.

714

EDUCATIONAL CZXE.1.' A 7 : S7A7A7V

understood in this way. It is still cnstc

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deal direcdy with the artisans of the film,
cameramen, designers and distributors, and
it mounting is done in our own premises,
which have been equipped for the purpose.
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lisher. with the resul: that flat :::: price
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the s;-

715

THE CULTURAL
FILMS OF THE UFA

ALWAYS IMPROVING

The long meterage cultural film

THE CRADLE OF THE HANSE

has just been released. It is a film with original " sound views" shot in the Church of
Sainte Marie of Lubeck. Great documentation of the history, cul-
ture and architecture of Hanseatlc towns. 1,800 m.

Another great success is our film on Beyrouth:

BEYROUTH PREPARES
FOR ITS FESTIVAL

800 m.

Our latest biological films reveal some of the secrets
aspects of nature which are quite new to the screen.

IBEX AND ALPINE GOAT FILMED SIX-LEGGED BUILDERS

First authentic views taken by the teie-photo Original film on the life of ants in all its

lens of the life of some the most timid wild aspects; views shot by the most modern

animals. technical processes with newly invented

IN THE QBEDSKA BARA lens"

First sound film on the nesting and incuba- THE FRESH-WATER SHARK

tion of rare aquatic birds, filmed direct from

nature on the banks of the Save. Biological film on the pike.

ON MARVELLOUS COLOUR FILMS:

COLOURED CREATURES

AQUATIC REVELS AT THE ZOO

ORCHIDS

Ask for our last catalogue of cultural fims. It is copiously illustrated and gives some idea of
our film library, which contains more than a thousand cultural films.

UNIVERSUM FILM AKTIENGESELLSCHAFT

BERLIN, SW 19 - Krausensfrasse, 38-39

716

Metro

Goldwyn

Mayer

717

vwfownmovw

So easy; no previous knowledge required.
Just the Agfa Movex with Agfa Reversible Film and

you are ready for taking cine pictures. You don't need a stand,
nor even a cranking handle.

For showing the pictures at home, there is
the Agfa Movector, equally handy and easy to use by
connecting it to any electric supply. f

718

If it is

• '• '5

a Paramount

picture

it's the best

show in town

1 -/

719

In January 1935 Ihe Re-
view of Ihe International
Institute of Educational

Cinematography

will appear in a new form which will mark a step
forward in its general appearance and subject matter.
The Review will be published in a larger format, and will
contain a number of typographical improvements. It will
also include a number of handsome illustrations.

The scope of the Review will, moreover, be widened,
and questions of all kinds, technical, economic, spiritual,
artistic, social, etc., brought to the front by the cinema and
having as their object the raising of the moral and
intellectual level of the masses, the refinement of taste
and spiritual and material progress generally, will be
dealt with in its columns.

The 1935 volume of our Review has secured contrib-
utions from the best known figures in the international
cinema world. The formation of correspondence bureaux
in the chief centres of the world will enable the Re-
view to publish an extensive service of information that
will be both direct and strictly reliable.

The Review in 1935 will certainly please all
Ihose who are interested in Ihe cinema/ from
an elevated, that is to say, educational
point of view.

Annual Subscription?

§

80 Italian llres, or the equivalent in foreign
money at the current rate of exchange on
the day of taking out the subscription.

4i:ii9wmim:MV]*7ji&7M*i!

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPH

LEAGUE

NATIONS

m - \

v

I

ffl

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

MONTHLY PUBLICATION
OF THE INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY (L. OF N.)

ROME - I-a, VIA LAZZARO SPALLANZANI - ROME

YEAR VI. - N. 11. NOVEMBER 1934.

CONTENTS

*** The Educational Film in the World of

Labour (Communication from the
B.I.T.) 723

H. LUC The Cinema in Vocational Guidance . 742

J. FONTEGNE The Vocational Guidance Film . . . 744

M. PRUDHOMMEAU . . . Utilizing the Cinema for Teaching Ab-
normal Children 747

M. MASSE The Agricultural Cinema in France. . 762

P. DE VUYST The Cinema for the Improvement of

Rural Life 767

R. EVANS Twenty Years' Experience with Agri-
cultural Films 673

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING BODY

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of State, Professor of Law at the Univer-
sity of Rome, President.

LUMI£RE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.

BROWN J. W., Director of the British Film Institute.

CARTON DE WIART Count Henry, Minister of State, Member of the Child Welfare
Committee of the League of Nations.

FOCILLON Henri, Professor at the University of Paris, Member of the Permanent
Committee of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.

GANGULEE Nagendra Nath, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor of Agriculture and Rural
Economy at the University of Calcutta.

KOZMA Nicolas de, Ministerial Councillor, President-Director of the Hungarian Tel-
egraph Agency.

LLOPIS Rodolfo, Deputy in the Cortes, ex General Director of Primary Education at
Madrid.

MISTRAL Gabrielle, Authoress, Ex-Directress of the Lycee for young girls at Santiago.

OPRESCU Georges, Professor at the University of Bucharest, Member of the Perma-
nent Commitee of Letters and Art; of the League of Nations.

ORDYNSKI Ryszard, President of the Polish Film Producers' Association.

REYNOLD Gonzago de, Professor at the University of Fribourg, Member of the
Commission for Intellectual Cooperation.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,

The President of the International Agricultural Institute,

The Director of the International Labour Bureau and

The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the I.C.I.C., Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW
Dr. Luciano de FEO, Editor.

P. Berne de Chavannes, Ernest Holzer,

Giuseppe de Feo, Edward Storer.

Jose Maria Gimeno,

Maria Elena Apollonio, Secretary.

THE EDUCATIONAL FILM IN THE WORLD

OF LABOUR

(COMMUNICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL LABOUR BUREAU)

I.

THE INTERNATIONAL LABOUR
OFFICE AND EDUCATIONAL FILMS

The International Labour Office has al-
ways taken an interest in educational films.

In 1926 it took part in the first Internat-
ional Cinema Congress held at Paris, and
communicated preliminary reports on the
role of the cinema in workers' spare time,
and on occupational diseases in the cinema
industry.

The Office collaborates closely with the
International Institute of Educational Cine-
matography, and it is officially represented
on its Governing Body and Executive
Committee. The relations between the Office
and the Institute form the subject of an
agreement (1) which provides for exchange
of legislative, statistical, etc., material and
for systematic collaboration.

Apart from these general relations, the
following facts will testify to the Office' s
interest in educational films.

1) In 1927 the Office library started a
catalogue, which it keeps up to date, of
cinematograph films on social questions.

2) For several years the « Co-operation
Information » published by the Office has
given, on separate pages that can be put
together, lists of films produced by or for
co-operative organisations in different coun-
tries, with particulars of the producers,
length, and when known, the price or rent.
The aim was to make each film generally

known and to facilitate loans, exchanges,
hiring, etc. (1)

3) Since 1925 the « Industrial Safety Sur-
vey » published by the International Labour
Office has printed material on the cinema
in relation to accident prevention. At the
1928 and 1929 Sessions of the Conference,
when industrial safety questions were on the
agenda, some 30 safety films from various
countries were shown to the delegates. Fur-
ther, the International Labour Office jointly

(1) A similar agreement has been concluded with
the International Institute of Agriculture.

(1) But this arrangement was abandoned for sev-
eral reasons, one being that while it had a docu-
mentary interest, owing to customs difficulties it
could not serve the practical purpose for which it
was instituted. It should be said, however, that the
co-operative movement continues to interest itself
in all activities of this kind.

In a letter of 2 February 1934, the Secretary-Gen-
eral of the French National Spare Time Committee,
Mr. A. Fauconnet, who also conducts « L'Agence
Co-op » makes the following practical suggestions:

1) It is better to make films intended to be
commented rather than talking films;

2) These films should not last longer than ten
minutes;

3) In every country they should be given over
to a national organisation not seeking any profit
(co-operative film library);

4) Schools, colleges, etc., should be informed
where they can obtain the films and on what hiring
terms;

5) All organisations requiring films should sub-
scribe to a monthly magazine, published by the in-
ternational organisation, and reviewing new films.
The last page might give a list of existing films, so
that each organisation could compile a small cat-
alogue;

6) These films should be placed at the disposal of
commercial amusement undertakings with a view
to educating audiences and earning a rent to pay
off the cost of the films.

This system of « curtain raisers » might prove
satisfactory to cinema theatre owners and instructive
to audiences and at the same time help pay off the
cost of the films.

724

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

with the International Institute of Educa-
tional Cinematography set up a committee
of safety film experts. This committee is
composed of three cinematograph experts
appointed by the Institute, and three safety
experts appointed by the Office. At a pre-
liminary meeting of technicians held in the
Office in December 1929, at which the cine-
matograph experts were chosen, a first dis-
cussion of the utility of educational films
for accident prevention resulted in the adop-
tion of a resolution and two recommend-
ations of a practical nature (1).

4) The Bibliography of Industrial Hy-
giene published by the Office has a section
for films.

5) The quesdon of the cinema and agri-
culture was placed on the Agenda of the
Fourth Session (Rome 1929) of the Mixed
Advisory Agricultural Committee, which in-
cludes experts appointed by the Governing
Body of the International Labour Office and
by the International Institute of Agriculture.
At its Sixth Session (Rome, March 1932),
the Committee had before it a final report,
prepared by the Director of the International
Institute of Educational Cinematography, on
the use of educational films as instruments
of propaganda and education in agriculture.

6) As regards conditions of labour, in
response to various requests for information,
the International Labour Office undertook
inquiries into the employment of children
in the cinema industry, and the results were
published in the International Labour Re-
view of February 192 . At its Session of
1929, the Advisory Committee on Profession-
al Workers discussed a report on working
conditions in the studios. This report was
published in the International Labour Re-
view of June 1 93 1.

7) Lastly, the recommendation concern-
ing the utilisation of workers' spare-time,
adopted in 1924 by the Sixth Session of the
Conference, is of special importance for the
development of educational cinematography.

As will be seen from this brief enumera-

(1) See Appendix.

tion, the interest of the International Labour
Office in cinema questions and its collabor-
ation with the International Institute of
Educational Cinematography have been
continuous, and this is one of the reasons
why the present memorandum has been
prepared for the first International Congress
of Educational Cinematography held in
April at Rome. It is hoped that it .will be
of some service in advancing the great and
vital cause of educational cinematography.

II.

THE INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OF-
FICE AND THE PRODUCTION OF
FILM

1. General. — In a propaganda pam-
phlet published on the occasion of the tenth
anniversary of the International Labour Of-
fice in 1929, a writer said that the Office
was not filmable. He doubtless meant that
the work of the Office was not the stuff
of which films are made. We must emphat-
ically disagree with this assertion, which
seems to be as frivolous as it is ill-founded,
if only for the reason that no subject is
specifically filmable. In cinematography, the
subject counts for little, the presentation for
almost everything.

The international Labour Office is emin-
ently alive. No other organisation has its
finger more constantly on the world' s pulse
than the International Labour Organisation.
It lives in the very midst of the things of
to-day; more, it is, and to a remarkable
extent, shaping the world of to-day. And
not only is the Office drawn into the great-
est and most pressing of man's problems —
those of his daily bread — but in the per-
formance of its own specific tasks it is
inspired by moral principles that are most
essentially human. The Preamble to Part
XIII of the Treaty of Peace outlines a verit-
able system of ethics. Even in cinemato-
graphy, there can scarcely be any better
source of inspiration than powerful moral
principles.

THE EDUCATIONAL FILM IN THE WORLD OF LABOUR

725

2. Types of film. — There is not only
one, but four types of film that the Inter-
national Labour Organisation might inspire,
according as it is looked at from the angle
of the legal status of the Office, its underly-
ing principles or its activities.

The International Labour Office is a
technical organisation.

It is an expression of contemporary
in dus trial civilisatio n .

Its work derives from moral principles.

It performs definite tas^s.
Keeping to educational films, the only
ones in question, here, it is not impossible
to imagine;

a) Films explaining what the Inter-
national Labour Organisation, and more
particularly, the International Labour Office
is, in theory and in practice;

b) Films illustrating the principal econ-
nomic and social problems of industrial civ-
ilisation;

c) Films justifying and explaining fun-
damental moral principles;

d) Films illustrating the problems dealt
with in the various Draft Conventions
framed by the International Labour Organ-
isation.

The films under heads (a) and (d) form
the first category. These are educational
films in the strict sense, or better still,
instructional films; but if intelligently con-
ceived, they could prove to be effective
means of propaganda. A technical subject
is not necessarily a dry subject.

The films under (b) and (c) form a second
category, to which we attach considerable im-
portance. One of the ideas dearest to Albert
Thomas was the humanism of labour. This
new humanism might find eloquent and
magnificent expression in the cinema. Every
civilisation is based upon a few great moril
principles, whose development is marked by
concrete acts or by incidents, whether real,
legendary or symbolic. Just as the Christian
civilisation of the Middle Ages created vast
Bibles in stone, the cathedrals, so can we
create a cinematographic encyclopaedia that

will faithfully depict the new world of
labour.

To make these ideas clearer, we may give
by way of example, a list of subjects for
each of the types of film mentioned.

a) - What is the International Labour Or-
ganisation?

(Part XIII of the Treaty of Peace; the
principle of tripartite organisation. Stress the
close connection between the various ele-
ments of the world of labour and their nat-
ural expression through the Organisation).

What is the International Labour Of-
fice?

(Description of the working of the Of-
fice, its sections, its daily tasks).

What is an International Labour Con-
vention?

(Explain the reasons for drafting Con-
ventions; the drafting machinery; ratifica-
tion procedure; application).

b) - Industrial agreements.

(Explain what industrial agreements
are; their economic functions, their social
effects, and what the Labour Organisation
may expect of them).

Rationalisation .

(Explain what is meant by the ration-
alisation of an undertaking; the principal
methods, their positive and negative conse-
quences; what a healthy conception of ration-
alisation should be).

The recruitment of labour.

(Show the different forms of placing
organisation, and the relation between plac-
ing and unemployment).

c) - Social justice.
Co-operation.

(Both these themes can be illustrated
in short films turning upon an event, pref-
erably of a general nature, in the labour
world).

d) - The Convention on the 48-hour
wee\.

The Convention on Compensation for
Industrial Diseases.

The Convention on Night-wor\ in
bakeries.

(For each of these subjects, illustrate

726

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

by concrete examples the situation existing
before the Convention was applied, the cir-
cumstances that it was intended to remedy,
and the remedies to be applied).

3. Influence of the public. • — Generally
speaking, it may be said that the various
kinds of film appeal to various classes of
the public, e. g. school-children, trade-
unionists, the general public.

It is also clear that only certain kinds of
film suit certain classes of the public. The
particular class catered for will determine
the manner in which a subject should be
treated: the International Labour Office
could scarcely be explained in exactly the
same way to children of 12 or 14 years as
to adult workers; also the subject may lend

itself better to a particular form of treat-
ment rather than another; sometimes it will
be better to have a simple descriptive film
with no attempt at a story, intended to be
accompanied by a lecture (unless this is
directly recorded on the film), and some-
times a short play designed to strike the
imagination of the public, expecially if the
audience is young.

Further, films may be of more or less
permanent value (e. g. those in categories
a) and c)), or on the contrary, be essen-
tially topical (in particular those in cate-
gory d) or even some in category a)) (1).

Starting from the three factors men-
tioned — nature of the public, nature of the
subject, degree of actuality — we may com-
pile the following table :

Relation between the nature of the public, the nature of the film,
and the degree of actuality.

Nature of the subject

Nature of the public

Films of permanent
interest

Topical films

a) The International Labour Organisation and I School children, Trade
its method of working 1 unionists.

General public.

b) Problems of industrial civilisation

c) Fundamental moral principles

d) Definite tasks of the International Labour
Office (Conventions)

School children, Trade
unionists.

School children.
Trade unionists.

General public.

It will be seen that certain subjects lend
themselves to three different types of film,
while for others, a single type meets all
requirements. For example, a film on the
working of the International Labour Of-
fice might be composed: a) for school chil-
dren, with the help of strip cartoons and
a simple story; b) for trade unionists, em-
phasising the aspect of the workers' rights
and the relations between the unions and
the International Labour Organisation;
c) for the general public, emphasising the
actuality of the Office' s tasks and giving
prominence to members of technical com-
mittees or the Governing Body. On the

other hand, a film dealing with fundamen-
tal moral principles will appeal in the main
to school children, whose outlook should be
formed as early as possible, and this by
fostering moral standards in them that will
determine their every-day actions when they
grow up. School children then should be
given useful lessons in human co-opera-
tion. Although adults are inclined to scoff
at films of this kind, on children they may

(1) The interest of the general public in the Inter-
national Labour Office might be aroused for instance
on the occasion of a session of the Governing Body
or of the Conference.

THE EDUCATIONAL FILM IN THE WORLD OF LABOUR

727

exert a decisive influence and prepare the
ground for the growth of a new oudook.

4. Practical possibilities. — The prospects
of actually producing films, of whatever
kind, depend essentially on financial consid-
erations — the capital outlay and the
chances of selling or hiring the film. As
regards outlay, there are two questions to
consider: 1) the initial sum required for
the production and the means of raising
this sum; 2) the placing of the finished film,
and recovery of the outiay.

Who is likely to advance the money for
such films? It would seem that certain of-
ficial, or semi-official, or even private sup-
port may be reckoned upon : school or
agricultural cinema associations, public or
private associations for workers' spare-time,
leading public bodies, trade unions, inter-
national associations for mutual understand-
ing and assistance, etc. Also, the cinema-
tograph companies themselves might be in-
terested in the movement. The expenditure
required should be relatively modest, and
there would appear to be prospects of recov-
ering it.

Three classes of public, then, have been
distinguished, and films are needed for all
three. It will be best to consider them separ-
ately. As regards school children, few films
would be needed, and none would call for
a large outlay. Moreover, there would almost
certainly be an outlet for them. A silent
version of such films could be given with
captions in any language, or at a little more
expense, with a sound accompaniment ap-
propriate for the country in question. It
should also be borne in mind that school
films with sound accompaniments are usually
short films that are not very costly.

As to films for trade unionists, while
they should be more numerous than those
for school children, they would, like the
latter, be sure of a regular public; and here
again production costs would certainly be
low, for the subject requires no professional
action, and only short films are used.

There remain the films for the general

public. At present curtain-raisers in cinemas
are supplied to managers free of charge by
the distributing agencies, so there can be no
question of profit. If it was decided to show
such films at certain times of the year, cin-
ema managers and distributing agents would
certainly not object. It does not seem that
the cost of topical films need be higher than
that of ordinary curtain raisers.

In conclusion, it may be hoped that the
foregoing pages have sufficiently covered the
various aspects of the production, exhibition
and circulation of educational films.

III.

THE CINEMA AND INTERNATIONAL
LIFE, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
THE PROBLEMS OF LABOUR AND
THE GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE
WORKERS

1. The interest of the international

labour office in the question. the

Preamble to the International Labour Char-
ter, as Part XIII of the Treaty of Peace may
be called, refers to the perils to world peace
inherent in conditions of labour entailing
hardship and privation, and mentions the
obstacles to social progress, both national
and international, constituted by the fail-
ure of any nation to adopt humane conditions
of labour (1).

The functions of the International Labour
Office include the collection and distribu-
tion of information on conditions of labour
in the various countries and the exploration
of means of unifying these conditions, espec-
ially by the adoption of international con-
ventions and recommendations.

Hence, the numerous questions considered
by the Congress are so many sources of inter-

(1) « And whereas conditions of labour exist in-
volving such injustice, hardship and privation to
large numbers of people as to produce unrest so
great that the peace and harmony of the world are
imperilled...

« Whereas also the failure of any nation to adopt
humane conditions of labour is an obstacle in the
way of other nations which desire to improve the
conditions in their own countries. »

728

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

est for the International Labour Office, as
has been seen in the opening chapters of the
present report, and the question of the cin-
ema and international life is no exception.
It gives rise to two questions with both of
which the Office is concerned:

i) How can the cinema demonstrate the
international repercussions of industrial, so-
cial, economic and political happenings that
seem, often quite wrongly, of purely nation-
al interest?

2) How can the cinema spread a know-
ledge of movements, plans, schemes and
experience of worldwide interest; in other
words, express the principal aspects of in-
ternational life?

It may even be said that the reality of
international life will not be clearly attested
until the questions set out above are con-
cretely treated in a single socio-economic
film. In this domain, as in the political, it
may be that some events and policies inter-
est only small national groups; but their
intrinsic importance and their augury of
good or evil call for consideration from the
international standpoint. The stone that falls
into the water need not strike the centre of
the pond, but it will set up ripples that
spread over the whole surface. If we want
to stop the ripples, we must prevent the
stone from falling into the water and to do
this we must consolidate the ground.

It will be well to consider a few concrete
cases from the angle of their cinematograph-
ic and educational possibilities, especially
for adults. They do no more than offer sug-
gestions of what could be or could have
been done, general adumbrations rather than
definite proposals.

2. The law of supply and demand; its

EFFECTS ON HUMAN LABOUR. It is plain

that the international collaboration that has
been evolving during the last ten years is
not yet understood by the mass of the people,
and the consequences even of a general law
like that of supply and demand are not
clearly perceived in their social and inter-
national aspects. For instance, the first prin-

ciple of the International Labour Charter —
that « labour should not be regarded merely
as a commodity or article of commerce » ■ —
is closely bound up with the law of supply
and demand. This law should receive con-
crete treatment by the cinema, but with no
departure from the truth: it seems both
possible and desirable to demonstrate its
reality without any exaggeration, and not
only from the purely economic standpoint
but also as it relates to labour, itself a factor
in production costs. It will be immediately
apparent that such a subject, impinging as
it does on the problem of production, would
raise the question of wages, and finally
compel a popular exposition of the prin-
ciples of political economy, principles that in
many respects regulate the growth of inter-
national life. It would also be only natural
to show what becomes of the law of supply
and demand in economic systems other than
the capitalist, and how in every economic
system there is an endeavour to mitigate its
harmful influence on human personality.

3. Competition. — The law of supply
and demand has a close bearing on certain
modern forms of competition (cartels, trusts,
etc.) arising in national and international
trade; and it is common knowledge that
competition often reacts adversely on living
and working conditions. It is this effect of
competition that is alluded to in the Pream-
ble of the International Labour Charter quot-
ed above. Certainly some emphasis should
be laid on the stimulus and fruitfulness of
economic and industrial freedom, its crea-
tive achievements, its international aspects
(the consequences of great inventions and
discoveries); but there is another side of the
picture : the destructive social effects of com-
petition that have become more marked
since the industrial revolution. To-day, fierce
competition still foments rivalries and dis-
putes; and the people suffer, both individ-
ually and collectively. This has been shown
by Mr. G. A. Johnston in a study of « In-
dustrial and Labour Influences making for
War ». This study contains interesting sug-

THE EDUCATIONAL FILM IN THE WORLD OF LABOUR

729

gestions of an historical order that could be
utilised in films (i).

4. Interdependence. — From competition
to interdependence is only a step, but a step
to another vast domain for the educational
cinema. All modern international life is shaped
by the gradual, too gradual, realisation of
the truth of the law of interdependence,
which when interpreted in a spirit of com-
prehension and mutual aid is the law of
common interests and human unity.

To-day, opportunities for depicting the
reality of interdependence are many. In his
book « Les contradictions du monde mod-
erne », the French economist Delaisi has
imagined a Parisian's day, which is partic-
ularly instructive, as may be judged from
the following extracts:

« When he gets up in the morning, Mon-
sieur Durand washes himself with soap
(made with groundnut oil from the Congo)
and dries himself with a towel made of
cotton from Louisiana. Then he dresses him-
self: his shirt and collar are made of Rus-
sian flax, his trousers and coat of South
African or Australian wool; he adorns his
neck with a silk tie made from Japanese
cocoons; he puts on his shoes, made of leath-
er from the hide of an Argentine bullock,
tanned with German chemicals.

« In his dining room, complete with a
Dutch sideboard made of wood from the
Hungarian forests, the table is laid with
white-metal ware made from the copper of
Rio Tinto, the tin of the Straits Settlements
and the silver of Australia. Before him is a
new loaf made with wheat which, according
to the season, comes from Beauce, Rumania
or Canada. He eats eggs freshly arrived from
Morocco, a slice of mutton that a refriger-
ator has perhaps brought from the Argen-
tine, and tinned peas that have been grown
in the sun of California; for dessert he takes
English jam, made with French fruits and
Cuban sugar, and he drinks an excellent
cup of Brazilian coffee.

(1) The Causes of War, Macmillan and Company,
London, 1932, Mr. Johnston's study is one of a
series dealing with various causes of war.

« Thus replete, he goes to work. An elec-
tric tram (driven by Thomson-Houston gear)
drops him at his office. There, after looking
at the quotations for the Liverpool, London,
Amsterdam or Yokohama exchange, he dic-
tates his correspondence, to be typed on an
English machine, and signs it with an Amer-
ican fountain pen. In his workshop, mach-
ines built in Lorraine under German pa-
tents and running on English coal manufac-
tured materials from all parts of the world
into articles of Paris fashion for Brazilian
customers. He gives directions for forward-
ing them to Rio de Janeiro by the first
German liner calling at Cherbourg.

« Then he goes to his bank to cash a
cheque in florins from a Dutch customer
and buys pounds to pay an English whole-
saler. The banker seizes the opportunity to
tell him that his account is very large and
that oil shares are rising. He advises him to
make an investment. Monsieur Durand
allows himself to be persuaded; but as it
does not do to put all one' s eggs in one
basket, he gives instructions for the purchase
of four shares of Royal Dutch and ten of
a French company affiliated to Standard Oil.

« After which, well satisfied with his day,
he suggests to his wife an evening at the
theatre. Madame Durand dons her best
gown (by Paquin), her pretty blue fox cape
(from Siberia), her diamonds (from the
Transvaal); then they go out to dine at an
Italian restaurant. They wonder whether
they will go to see the Russian Ballet or
hear Raquel Meller at the music hall, unless
they prefer to see a play by Gabriele d'An-
nunzio with Ida Rubinstein in the leading
part and scenery by Bakst. Lastly, after
supping in a « Caucasian » cabaret to the
strains of a negro jazz band, they return
home; and, tired out by a day so well filled,
Monsieur Durand falls asleep under his
eiderdown (from Norwegian ducks) dream-
ing that France is certainly a fine country
that can get on perfectly well by itself and
cock a snook at the rest of the world ».

On a general theme of this kind, and by
broadening out the conclusions, and in some

730

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

respects by renationalising it, it will be pos-
sible to compose a film eminently and pro-
foundly international.

Further, in the structure and development
of the economic crisis, instructive illustra-
tions are to be found, quite apart from any
schematic representation of the theory of
crises. Without being strictly scientific, or
over simplified which would be pseudo-
scientific in a subject so complex, some
essential features should be singled out, e. g.
a) the course of the world economic de-
pression; b) the spread of industrial stagna-
tion (production, consumption, etc.); c) tariff
consequences (closing frontiers, rasing bar-
riers); d) unemployment (economic, social
and domestic consequences; insurance, etc.,
etc.). Some of the heads of a report such
as that compiled in 193 1 by the Director of
the International Labour Office may serve
to show how a document of this kind affords
a better understanding of international life.

Unemployment problems in 193 1. (Extract
from the « Report of the Director »).

I. -

Social dangers (p. 11); The International
Labour Organisation and the depression
(p. n); Resolution of the Governing Body
on unemployment (p. 11).

II. - The Economic Depression.

Its Extent, Causes and Possible Remedies.
Unemployment statistics (p. 14); Extent of
the economic depression (p. 14); Causes of
the depression (p. 15); The agricultural de-
pression (p. 17); Industrial over-production
(p. 19); Monetary problems, gold (p. 20);
Lack of confidence and its effects (p. 22);
Fall in the price of silver (p. 22); Too high
costs of production (p. 23); Disturbances in
commerce (p. 24); Population and unem-
ployment (p. 28); Mechanisation and rational-
isation (p. 30); Delimitation of responsibil-
ities (p. 31).

III. - Direct Action by the International
Labour Organisation against Unemployment.

Direct action against unemployment (p.
32); Placing (p. 33); Migration (p. 36);
Unemployment insurance (p. 36); Public
works (p. 41).

IV. - Hours of Wor\, Wages and Unem-
ployment.

Another line of action for the Organisa-
tion (p. 44); Short time (p. 44); The workers'
case : permanent reduction of hours of work
(p. 45); The employers' case : costs of pro-
duction (p. 47); The level of wages (p. 49);
New considerations (p. 51).

It would also be possible to show the
interdependence of industry and agriculture.

On this point, in an address which he
delivered at Geneva on Peace and the Teach-
ing of History and Geography (1) Mr. Mau-
rette, Assistant Director in the International
Labour Office showed what could be made
out of a description of human effort, variety
and solidarity.

« France — he said — is indeed a country
both of agriculture and industry, of Medi-
terranean and Atlantic crops, of tillage and
stock-breeding, of heavy industry and those
more delicate manufactures which have come
to be known as articles de Paris. But, for
all that, she could not forego contact with
other countries. Imagine her without world
trade! Where would she find the petroleum,
copper, cotton, rubber and silk of which she
stands in need? Where could she sell a great
deal of her potash, iron ore, machinery and
articles de Paris? She needs the other countries,
all of them, and if here we are dealing with
an outside case, how much more necessary
is such interdependence, how indispensable,
in the case of countries which are almost
entirely agricultural or almost entirely indus-
trial? Try to picture them shut off from
the rest of the world : it would be tant-
amount to several centuries of retrogression.

« Interdependence of production, interde-
pendence of trade, and also interdependence
of man! Where would the new countries be
if they had not been able to draw upon
Europe, that reservoir of surplus man-pow-
er? Human migration, consideration of
the attraction which large cities have for the
population of rural districts, together with
the long succession of trains bearing the

(1) Sec Educational Survey, December 1933, pp.
157 et seq. League of Nations, Geneva.

THE EDUCATIONAL FILM IN THE WORLD OF LABOUR

731

produce of the coutryside to the city, all point
to that idea of interdependence which every
master worthy of the name will be able to
instil into his pupils, just as easily by describ-
ing life on an island inhabited by a couple
of dozen fishermen as by an account of the
activities of capitals such as Paris or New
York, or a port like Marseilles or London
heaped with the produce of the entire world.
And this notion of economic interdependence
will bring even the most prosaic and the
most utilitarian of his young pupils to sound
ideas of war and peace by a train of reason-
ing at once simple and exact. All political
events, without exception, are followed by
economic consequences. The latter can never
be limited to the country in which the pol-
itical event occurred; they are always world-
wide in their effects. Economic consequen-
ces on a world scale in their turn produce
political consequences of equal scope, so
that it is impossible to live undisturbed in
one's own land unless others are living un-
disturbed in theirs ».

In the same connection, a study like that
published by Mr. de Michelis in the Inter-
national Labour Review of November 193 1
on « A world programme of organic econ-
omic reconstruction » deserves consideration
from the standpoint of the educational film.

It is in this way that due prominence
would be given to means of lifting the world
depression and preventing its return. In some
cases specific proposals such as large-scale
international public works and certain
schemes for industrial recovery can be treated
in their relationship to the world market.
Naturally care should be taken to abstain
from any form of national propaganda or
furtherance of particular interests, and to
keep to the international value of the schemes
in question. What should be emphasised
is general suggestions for international action.

5. Native labour. — Here too there are
a number of points worthy of mention. The
cinema, if it were improved, might contrib-
ute powerfully to the education of the na-
tives and serve as a means for exchanges of

information between Colonial powers (films
describing various aspects of colonisation,
especially labour and hygiene).

6. General international information.
■ — Lastly, we should like to draw attention
to a field that is more restricted, but none
the less seems to offer some interesting open-
ings for new methods. What we have in
mind is a sort of chronicle of international
events.

To-day the stereotyped method of pre-
senting the facts of international life is mere-
ly to film a meeting, the arrival or de-
parture of delegates, etc.; the personal ele-
ment is emphasised while the problems un-
der discussion are wholly neglected. One
can hardly help thinking that in the pre-
vailing lack of confidence in international
action, better use could have been made of
cinematographic depiction with its direct
appeal. For instance, on the occasion of a
recent decision of the Governing Body of the
International Labour Office to convene a
conference to discuss ratification of the Mines
Convention, a film on the lines we suggest
would aim at a concrete portrayal of the
social importance of the decision; but it is
obvious that such a film would require con-
certed technical preparation.

Social data collected by the international
institutions are also fraught with possibilities.
A film on the channels of information of the
International Labour Office (correspondents,
requests for information, their nature, etc.)
combining a strip cartoon with photographs
and « animated » graphs (1) would certainly
be interesting.

These few general ideas and suggestions,
which we do not claim to be easily realisa-
ble, serve to support the contention that
social policy and the work of the Interna-
tional Labour Office deserve a larger place
at present in any scheme of educational
film concerned with international life.

(1) Particularly charts with moving points of
light: to illustrate certain economic developments it
would be well to take as models quick motion
films on the life of plants.

732

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

While we think that the official internat-
ional institutions should take the greatest
possible interest in such a scheme, it may
seem neither possible nor desirable for them
to assume direct responsibility for the pro-
duction of the films. They should be closely
associated in their preparation and their in-
formation sections might be in closer touch
with the cinema world, and even employ
veritable experts. It is only in this way that
the systematic preparation of « reporting »
would achieve rapid execution and effective
presentation. It should be kept in mind that
there are great possibilities in talking films,
but only if the spoken word is given its ap-
propriate pictorial setting.

The great private associations, both nat-
ional and international, would also seem to
have a part to play. As a rule they enjoy
independence of appreciation and judgment,
and can resort to forms of presentation not
open to official institutions. In this domain
they could undertake a vast campaign for
the dissemination of information; in so doing
they would certainly carry out the wishes of
their members, and further their aim of
keeping the general public better informed
on the developments of international life.
It may not be out of the question to con-
template agreements between these associa-
tions and the biggest cinematograph compan-
ies, whose co-operation is obviously an es-
sential condition of success.

To recapitulate, it is by the collaboration
of the three movements mentioned that pro-
gress seems possible towards a better under-
standing of the work of the International
Labour Office and its powerful auxiliary, the
educational film.

IV.

THE CINEMA AS A MEANS OF EDU-
CATION IN THE UTILISATION OF
SPARE TIME

Everyone knows the part played by the
cinema in the leisure of all classes of society.
Some go so far as to think that this part
is too large and prevents people from devot-

ing their leisure to loftier distractions or
occupations. However this may be, there can
be no question of running counter to a
movement that certainly meets a real need.
If it is regrettable that the cinema diverts
people from other forms of amusements,
would it not be the wisest thing, by reversing
the course of events as it were, to attract
attention to these other forms of amusement
through the medium of the cinema itself.

At the present time, in all countries and
in all classes of society, there is to be noticed
an extremely powerful movement towards
the better use of spare time. It is not a
passing phase due to the fact that millions
of persons have had to rack their brains
for ways of filling in the enforced idleness
of unemployment. It is to be foreseen, and
recent events in the United States confirm
the view, that spare time will increase. As
Mr. Justin Godart puts it, we are entering
upon an age of leisure. But if the civilised
peoples are really ■ entering upon an age of
leisure, they ought to know how to make
good use of their leisure. In countries where
the question has taken definite shape, care
is taken not only to furnish people with the
means of utilising their leisure, but also to
teach them how to use these means.

In this education in the use of spare time,
the role of the cinema cannot be over-estim-
ated. The various means of employing
spare time are all « filmable » in a high
degree: sport, travel, popular festivals, plays,
etc. Films showing various forms of distrac-
tions (i) and how they can be brought within
reach would not, like certain documentary
films, have to contend against the indiffer-
ence of the public.

The various problems arising here would
have to be solved by the producers them-
selves. Without being versed in studio tech-

(i) A single example will suffice to show the form
that this sort of advertising of spare-time occupations
could take. At present in cinema theatres, fairly
long extracts are shown of forthcoming programmes
either in the theatre itself or in associated theatres.
There would be no difficulty in replacing part of
this often irksome advertising, by short films show-
ing what pastimes could be followed in a given
season and district.

THE EDUCATIONAL FILM IN THE WORLD OF LABOUR

733

nique, it is quite possible to point to certain
forms of spare-time occupation that lend
themselves readily to cinematographic pro-
paganda.

As regards sport, the tendency at present
is to give first place in the cinema news
reels or documentary films to the more
spectacular forms of sport. It seems hardly
necessary to focus attention through the
cinema on this sort of spectacle. The public
is well enough informed of what goes on
in big contests. It would be better to turn
its attention to sports that are little known,
or a least rarely indulged in and in partic-
ular to active participation rather than mere
watching. We may take two characteristic
examples. At the present time winter sports
are growing in popularity, ski-ing in partic-
ular. Many people, however, are still held
back by certain apprehensions : they are not
perhaps aware that a little training is very
helpful. It would be easy to imagine a film
showing what is done in Switzerland, for
example, to encourage ski-ing: preparatory
classes indoors, beginners' courses on the
snow, general courses in the mountains.

For some sports that are not practised
in certain countries but are surprisingly pop-
ular in others, one need only mention base-
ball, which flourishes in the United States,
and doubtless is capable of appealing to the
masses in Europe.

As regards travel, there is no need to
dwell on « grand tours », the preserve, for
the time being at least, of the wealthy. The
propaganda films in which we are interested,
should concentrate on the organisation of
travel for the masses. Film publicity should
be given to activities of associations like the
Workers' Travel Association in England, the
Agence Coop in France, and Escursionismo
in Italy. Doubtless too, films on the camp-
ing movement in the United States would
interest audiences, and move them to in
quire whether there were not similar move-
ments in their own country or district. For
young people, more particularly, films show-
ing juvenile hostels organised in different
countries, and the facilities they offer for

the utilisation of spare time would obviously
be a powerful influence.

Popular arts take on manifold forms and
not all are suitable for film propaganda; but
a few that best lend themselves to filming
could be drawn upon.

It is certainly possible to interest an aud-
ience in foreign costumes, which when
first seen nearly always seem curious, not
to say bizarre. But this is not enough :
attention must be subtly drawn to local
customs with a view to their revival. This
applies especially to folk dances and local
festivals, especially when there are occasions
for wearing traditional costumes. The same
remark obviously applies to choral associa-
tions and the theatre when, as is the case
with Belgian sports associations, large num-
bers of performers take part.

Handicrafts are not so suitable for the
cinema, but it is possible to concive of at-
tractive films showing the fashioning of
objects of popular art. There might be illus-
trations, for example, of the application of
the small electric motor to handwork.

There is, however, one domain in which
the educational film should exert a powerful
influence and that is housing. It could pre-
sent the innovations in domestic organ-
isation and show how they give added charm
to family life, while promoting social life.
And after covering the inside of the house
the film could turn to the outside. Still too
little is known of not only the allotment but
also the children's playground, of which
splendid examples exist in nearly all coun-
tries. Through the cinema all aspects of
daily life, embellished by civic planning,
could be made to interest the masses who
have the examples before their eyes.

There remain certain aspects of spare-time
occupations which do not seem to lend
themselves at all to film propaganda.

V.

THE CINEMA
AND INDUSTRIAL WORK

At first sight, except for problems of
vocational training, it is not clear what form

734

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

relations between the cinema and industrial
work might take.

For the moment the cinema seems mainly
to be regarded as one of those laboratory
instruments with which industry carries on
its technical researches, and it is chiefly
in this connection that it has attracted the
attention of industrialists.

In 1912 American engineers, notably Gil-
breth, introduced the cinema in their re-
searches into manufacturing speeds and
workers' movements. Workers were photo-
graphed against a background ruled up like
graph paper so that their movement could
be carefully studied from the photographs.
This method obviously provides an accurate
chart of greater value than observations
merely noted down with watch in hand.

These methods were taken up later by
various physiologists for studies of fatigue
among certain machine operators. They have
also been employed in the investigation of
accidents and can show workers safe work-
ing methods. These various experiments and
trials prove that cinematography investig-
ations are means of achieving substantial
improvements in working methods.

From the study of human labour, the
cinema has been turned to the study of
certain mechanical phenomena liable to oc-
cur in machine operation. Direct observation
is easy when the machine parts are not
running too fast, but it is impossible at
high speeds. So the cinema has been called
in to investigate the origin of certain vibra-
tion phenomena, for example, the « shim-
my » of the front wheels of motor cars
running above a certain speed. Reeling off
a film slowly, even more than a study of
the individual snapshots, has yielded some
interesting discoveries in this domain.

These various investigations show that for
the present industry tends to regard the cin-
ema as a laboratory instrument, for apart
from this, there is as yet nothing to show
how it could be used in industrial processes,
except perhaps to convey information of
various kinds to the workers. For instance,
some firms have shown films to their work-

ers to acquaint them with the origin of
the products that they manufacture, and
the processes to which they have already
been subjected. Here the object is to give
the workers a better idea of the tasks in
which they share, and to stimulate their
interest in them.

If it is remembered that in this domain
cinematographic methods are only in their
infancy, it will scarcely seem possible to
predicate future developments. Recent devel-
opments following on the discovery of the
photo-electric cell, or the introduction of
strip cartoons, open out the prospects which
for the present are the preserve of scientists.

There remains one use of the cinema
which has long been associated with indus-
try-advertising; but it is too well known
and too common for it to be necessary to
dwell upon its value.

It is obvious that not many people will
be attracted to lectures or working-class uni-
versities by films showing what goes on at
the one or the other. But conceivably an
appeal might be made to the individual by
showing in a practical but attractive way
how to use libraries or museums. It must
be realised that if relatively few people visit
libraries or museums the reason is that the
facilities offered are not well known. The
person who reads sparingly is a little fearful
of borrowing books from libraries, and the
worker who does not know that for visits
to museums there are associations existing
for his special benefit is in a similar case.

It is also quite easy to picture workers
being shown what is being done in the way
of conducted excursions; visits to works,
archaeological or botanical rambles, etc.

These few suggestions, given out by way
of indication, show that not only film pro-
ducers but also associations interested in
different forms of recreation can lend valu-
able aid in these various domains. Would it
not be better for travel agencies to devote
part of their advertising outlay to small films
of the kind suggested rather than invariably
use the same forms of advertising, which by
their very repetition fail to focus attention.

THE EDUCATIONAL FILM IN THE WORLD OF LABOUR

735

VI.

THE USE OF THE CINEMATOGRAPH
IN VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE

I. The cinema and education. — No one
nows questions the utility of the cinema
as an instrument of juvenile education. What
is still discussed, and will doubtless continue
to be discussed for some long time to come,
is how to use this instrument and by what
practical and technical means it can be
made available to students, and what exactly
its scope is.

The objects of the educational film, and
it is these that distinguish it from the ordin-
ary documentary film, should be :

i) To cultivate observation, will power
and concentration;

2) To develop the habit of diinking;

3) To present an annotated recapitula-
tion of knowledge gained from theory or
practice;

4) In a word, to teach in a truthful,
impartial and precise manner (1).

Only on these conditions will the film,
a close ally of all other educational means,
obey the fundamental principles of educa-
tion, which should both form and enrich
the mind. Failure to obey these principles
would result in a dispersion of effort that,
more than anything else, every enlightened
person would wish to avoid. The most fer-
vent advocate of the cinema in education
will whole-heartedly accept these conten-
tions, which were discussed at the European
Conference on School Films held at Basle
from 8 to 12 April 1927.

Although readily adaptable to the teaching
of certain subjects (natural or applied sci-
ence, geography, etc.) the cinema cannot be
used, or only quite exceptionally, in others,
such as one's mother tongue or mathematics.
Others still call for particular circumspec-
tion and caution, a typical example being
history, where any departure from the truth

(1) Most of these points were considered and de-
veloped in detail in reports submitted by the French
Delegation to the European Conference on School
Films.

in one direction or another might be highly
dangerous.

From the practical standpoint, the edu-
cational film should merge into the general
conditions prevailing in the school or class
or in the method of teaching a given subject.
There must, then, be special films for the
purpose; it is not enough to use extracts
from general films. Active research in this
domain suggests that the ideal would be
to found special film libraries either for each
type of educational establishment (elementary
secondary, high or trade schools) or for each
subject and for each stage of a subject.

Every film of an educational character
should be preceded or followed by an oral
commentary by a competent person (school-
master, professor, industrial adviser, etc.);
otherwise the lesson might easily degenerate
into recreation pure and simple and so defeat
its object.

Collaboration of the various authorities
concerned with specialised cinematographic
educational experts in the preparation of
educational films seems more and more in-
dispensable.

Cinematographic technique must pay re-
gard to the circumstances of school life that
confront it with special problems difficult to
solve at the present time (shortening of films,
possible modification of the present standard
width to allow of pictures appropriate to the
size of the room and the shortness of school
hours). In spite of these limitations the film
must keep its essential qualities. Questions
such as these, however, are for the specialist
and need not be dealt upon here.

All general considerations of this kind
must necessarily underlie any examination of
two special questions bearing on the employ-
ment of films in vocational guidance and
vocational training.

2. The cinema and vocational guidance.
— The purpose of vocational guidance is
at once educational, social and economic.
The better to define the role of the cinema
in this sphere, we may recall the definition
of vocational guidance by Mr. Julien Fon-
tegne, of which its author says that it has

736

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

been « consecrated by both national and in-
ternational conferences »,

... « Occupational training has as its object
advice to children leaving the elementary
schools on the choice of a craft or trade suit-
able for their special tastes, dominating in-
terests, physical, intellectual and artistic
knowledge and moral and social aptitudes,
due account being taken of the situation and
wishes of the family and the state of the
labour market (i) »•

The influence of vocational guidance will
be exerted in the first place on the child and
secondly on the people around it (parents,
school-masters, employers, etc.).

It is mainly at the end of the compulsory
school period that the influence will be
exerted on the child, and at this time the
aim will be to create in him an occupational
atmosphere, to develop an occupational men-
tality, and to lay the foundations of an oc-
cupational ideal. This is what has been called
« vocational pre-guidance ». Various means
have been employed to this end, and the
instructional film is a valuable aid. In some
cases even it may be an apt corrective when,
for example, there are visits to work-
shops, factories and other work places, or
visits to museums or exhibitions organised
for school children. These methods, some-
times of a dynamic sometimes of a static
order, have long appeared to be the only
ones capable of initiating school children
into the ways of life and thus preparing
them for the choice of an occupation; com-
pared with them the film often seemed only
a makeshift for the real thing, which always
seemed preferable.

Today we realise that this kind of visit,
although certainly worth continuing, is often
insufficient in itself and in some cases diffi-
cult or even impossible to arrange. It also
has inevitable drawbacks, and these are ex-
cellently portrayed by Mr. Fontegne in the
article quoted. It would thus seem prefer-

able to combine these various methods of
vocational pre-guidance as far as possible,
leaving the educational film its due place.

The films used for this purpose, called by
Mr. Benoit-Levy « first stage films » should
according to him, « in the last school year
cover in a systematic way the largest possible
number of occupations, naturally with due
regard to the state of the labour market.
These occupations, carefully grouped, will
give the young pupils about to leave school
an idea of life that otherwise they could not
have acquired » (i).

The craving to see something new and
to be active and in movement, so strongly
implanted in children and young persons,
finds a common satisfaction in the film,
which at the same time will be a valuable
aid in teaching the history of human labour
and its essential unity.

« Second stage vocational-guidance films »,
as Mr. Benoit-Levy calls them in the same
report would,, according to him, deal with
one trade apiece, entering rather more fully
into detail but without going so far as tech-
nical educational films (i). In these films vo-
cational guidance proper should not stop at
describing a particular trade; it should show
workers at their job, initiate ycung people
in search of an occupation by showing them
the uses of certain substances or the handling
of certain tools. The results so far achieved
along these lines in certain countries seem
to promise a brilliant future for vocational
guidance films (2). They should, of course,
be impartial and show both the pros and
the cons of the various careers ».

This brings us to occupational monographs
which should, as it were, present as faithful
as possible a portrait of the occupation. The
film would be no more than a pictorial sup-
plement to the printed matter. Conceived on

(1) Julien Fontegne. The Use of the Cinema in
Occupational Instruction. International Review of
Educational Cinematography, Rome, March 19331
p. 177.

(1) Rapport general presente par M. Jean Benoit-
Levy a la 6^m= Commission du Congres international
de I'enseignement technique, Paris, septembre 1931,
compte rendu des Travaux du Congres, I" volume,
p. 481.

(1) Op. cit., p. 482.

(2) For further details see Mr. Benoit-Levy's Re-
port.

THE EDUCATIONAL FILM IN THE WORLD OF LABOUR

737

these lines films will be an instrument o£
propaganda in the hands of parents, school-
masters and all other servants of vocational
guidance.

If it is to be a good illustrated monograph
on vocational guidance, the film should as
far as possible furnish the information nor-
mally to be expected from any printed
monograph; according to Mr. Fontegne (3)
it should cover the following points:

1) the purpose of the trade;

2) the conditions in which it is carried
on;

3) the knowledge that it calls for if ap-
prenticeship is to bear good fruit;

4) the physical, intellectual, moral, ar-
tistic and social qualifications required;

5) the economic conditions attaching to
the preparatory period;

6) industrial accidents and occupational
diseases;

7) the future of the trade or occupation ;

8) the possibilities of advancement open
to the worker.

The examples quoted by Mr. Fontegne in
the article mentioned are among the most
successful of their kind.

If synthetic, not too long, with the essen-
tials shown in slow motion, the vocational
guidance film, general or special, could in
addition, and according to the use to which
it is put, serve to explain certain economic
and social conceptions or needs (e. g. advert-
ising of occupations little known or exper-
iencing a shortage of labour, etc.).

3. The cinema and vocational training.
— All the considerations advanced in con-
nection with films on vocational training
would seem to apply to films on vocational
guidance or technical education. But in these
domains the film would be essentially a sort
of complementary course like drawing in cer-
tain professions. The practice of the trade,
handling tools, various phases in the manu-
facture of an article, these are all matters
that the film can bring home to the pupil.

Slow motion will play a particularly im-
portant part.

Widely employed everywhere, films for
vocational training and technical education
have too long been useful and indeed indis-
pensable supplements to the first-hand know-
ledge gained from visits to workplaces —
which they by no means set out to replace
— for it to be necessary to dwell upon them
here. Their future is assured. Nevertheless,
for both these classes of film as for any
other really educational film there are cer-
tain conditions to be fulfilled, which can
be summarised as follows:

a) Collaboration between cinematograph
experts and teachers, technicians and those
in the trade. This collaboration will be par-
ticularly necessary in the case of technical
educational films.

b) Methods of presentation must be strict-
ly adapted to needs :

1) The vocational pre-guidance or vo-
cational guidance film should be shown at
school and in post-scholastic courses;

2) the technical educational film should
only be shown at school.

c) Sound films seem only suitable for
vocational guidance.

d) Every genuinely educational film re-
quires to be commented upon, especially the
vocational-guidance film, which at bottom
is only a means of illustrating a lesson and
should be closely related to it.

e) A condition which seems very impor-
tant in the production of educational films
(whether vocational-guidance or vocational-
training films) and in their proper use is
mentioned by Mr. Benoit-Levy in the follow-
ing terms :

« There is need for a national organisation
which would draw up plans for film pro-
duction to the requirements of vocational
guidance and technical education. The chief
task of this organisation, composed of tech-
nicians and teachers, would be to select the
subject matter of the films to be produced,
or to edit that of existing films (i)».

(3) Op. cit., pp. 193-194.

(1) Op. cit., p. 484.

2 - Ice Ingl.

738

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

The conditions in which vocational guid-
ance and vocational training films may
render valuable services in the national
sphere were fully gone into by a special
committee of the International Congress for
Technical education, which met at Paris in
September 193 1. This Committee, of which
Mr. Benoit-Levy was the General Reporter
and at which numerous national reports
were presented, expressed its views in the
following resolution which was adopted
unanimously by the full Congress and may
be quoted here by way of conclusion :

« The Congress recommends :

« 1) That in each country should be set
up a centralising body, a sort of National
Cinema Institute in the domain of technical
education and vocational guidance and hav-
ing the following duties :

« a) To see what vocational guidance
and technical educational films are required,
to keep up to date a catalogue of all such
films already in circulation, and to arrange
for their judicious distribution;

« £) To collaborate in the preparation
of films with due regard to the continuous
progress of the technique of teaching and of
cinematography;

<( c) To set up a permanent committee
of psychological, statistical, etc., research with
a view to verifying the results obtained and
constantly improving this new method of
teaching;

« 2) That use should be made of the Per-
manent Cinematographic Centre for Voca-
tional Guidance and Technical Education
attached to the League of Nations Inter-
national Institute of Educational Cinemato-
graphy, Rome, whose primary task is to
centralise documentary material on existing
films, and which would serve as a clearing
house for national institutions and facilitate
international collaboration;

« 3) That in addition to the existing size
of 35 mm. a sub-standard size should be
adopted to facilitate the popularisation of
films;

« 4) That Governments should take all
the necessary steps to ensure that only non-

inflammable film bases are used in educa-
tional establishments or educational meet-
ings;

<( 5) That Governments should encourage
as far as lies in their power the showing of
vocational guidance or technical educational
films approved by the national bodies, in
particular by lightening their fiscal dues (1) ».

VII

THE CINEMA AND THE PROTEC-
TION OF MOTHERHOOD
AND CHILDHOOD

With a view to improving the protection
of maternity, cinematographic education
might be directed towards a twofold end :

a) showing the injuries which certain
sorts of work entail upon the health of
mother and infant;

b) making known the social machinery
created for the welfare of the working moth-
er and her child.

A) The first of these tasks is a work of
social prevention specialised along certain
definite lines. The production of films in
this sphere certainly requires the collabor-
ation of doctors possessing ripe experience in
industrial hygiene and gynaecology. Without
in any way analysing the scientific data that
these films would aim at disseminating, it
may be said that it would be well to have
films showing, on the one hand, factors that,
even in the young girl, may in the long
run endanger maternity; and, on the other,
the dangers of pregnancy itself.

Among the first of these risks may be
mentioned bodily injuries that sometimes
develop slowly throughout the occupational
life of the adolescent, just at the age when
long spells in abnormal positions, as are
required in certain work, or the constant
carrying of heavy loads, most easily injure
growing organs, e. g., deformation of the
pelvis or displacement of internal organs.
The cinema can easily bring these dangers
to notice by showing the occupations in
which they arise. Sometimes slow motion

(1) Proceedings of the Congress, Vol. I, pp. 56-86.

THE EDUCATIONAL FILM IN THE WORLD OF LABOUR

739

films, by singling out different phases, will
show more clearly the abnormal features of
certain constantly repeated occupational
movements or certain attitudes imposed by
the work, and how they can impair the de-
velopment of a growing subject. Schematic
representation could be employed to show
deformities of the skeleton or internal organs
not ordinarily visible and, by contrasting the
deformed with the normal state, make it
easy to understand how deformities may ad-
versely affect childbearing. These methods
have been successfully employed for sex in-
struction and campaigns against venereal dis-
eases. They should be suitably adapted for
a campaign against the risks that certain
forms of industrial work entail for maternity.

This preventive campaign would be all
the more useful because in many cases by
merely slightly modifying working methods
it would be easy to attenuate, or even elimin-
ate, the danger inherent in certain work:
the fitting of a new device on a machine
might save the woman operating it from
having to stand, or sit, or stoop all day; a
more rational organisation of the workshop
might do away with the carrying of loads,
etc., etc.

Thus, by bringing home in a striking
manner the serious drawbacks of certain
methods of work that are liable to injure
young girls in such a way as to impair
motherhood, the film would unquestionably
make for a reform of these methods. The
remoteness of the danger and the slow if
relentless attack on the system are liable to
conceal the truth, and consequently it is
all the more desirable to utter a timely warn-
ing to working women and to those respon-
sible for this aspect of their health.

But other risks also are run by working
women during pregnancy itself; these are
more apparent. Neverthless, even at this
time ignorance is a source of injury to the
health of both mother and child. Here again
the method of photographs combined with
schematic explanations can bring out the
movements, positions and pressures liable to
injure them. It would be easy in this way

to prove the great need for the general in-
troduction of medical supervision of expec-
tant mothers. This is compulsory in some
countries and in others there are some in-
teresting examples due to private initiative.
For instance, the transfer of the expectant
mother from her ordinary work to work
that is suited to her condition might avoid
much suffering and perhaps, if effected in
good time, save an infant life. Photographic
analysis of the heavy work of many women
workers would demonstrate the great value
of the provision in the Washington Con-
vention establishing six weeks' rest before
and six weeks' after childbirth.

B) The second part of the programme of
cinematographic education that could be im-
agined in this domain is certainly more at-
tractive. It is always painful to lay suffering
bare, but there is infinite felicity in depict-
ing the benefits of institutions that help to
surround the child's entry into the world
with happiness. There is material for charm-
ing pictures in all that is being done to
this end in the different countries.

First, the institutions attached to the fac-
tory: the arrival of the young mother at
the factory nursery with her precious bur-
den; the reception of the babies by nurses
or social assistants who take care of them
in ideally hygienic surroundings, while the
mother is working; the various incidents
of the baby's day in the nursery where he
receives every attention from experienced
specialists — the daily bath, the weekly
weighing, and rational food at fixed hours
if the mother herself does not nurse him
between spells of work; the dormitory full
of cradles in orderly rows where, changed
into fresh linen on their arrival, the mites
sleep peacefully; the playroom where they
romp protected from accidents by suitable
equipment. There are also children's play-
grounds or places where children are mind-
ed after school hours until their mothers re-
turn home from work, so that they are not
exposed to all the dangers of running the
streets. Then there are pre-natal or infant
consulting dispensaries; mothers' dining

740

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

rooms where at a small cost expectant or
nursing mothers who would not have time to
cook a nourishing dinner can obtain whole-
some food that they need. Again, there are
infant-care courses of all kinds : some attach-
ed to the school, others to the factory or the
dispensary; permanent courses in the large
towns, itinerant courses in the country.
These latter are sometimes facilitated by
scientifically equipped motor-vans and pro-
vide lessons in maternal hygiene for future
mothers, adapted in each individual case to
their living conditions. The main object is
to deliver a direct attack on bad local habits
in diet or deeply rooted antihygienic preju-
dices. The cinema can not only spread the
news of this education in maternal hygiene
and infant care and thus stimulate other dis-
tricts to follow a good example; it can it-
self be the means of education in infant
care, and the most ubiquitous of all.

And it would indeed not be an ungrate-
ful task for a cinematographist to film
these scenes of childhood made radiant and
joyous by devoted care; with mothers hap-
py, or at least completely at ease, in the
security afforded them by well-organised
social assistance; future mothers intent on
the great duty awaiting them, and prepar-
ing for it with a devotion fortified by the
knowledge that there will be no lack of
the means of fulfilment.

C) The cinema may also employ its
varied resources to disseminate, in the same
way, the principle of the protection of
working girls. Much as before, its pur-
pose will be to make known the dangers
of various kinds that beset the child in its
working life, and threaten the healthy de-
velopment of ks adolescence; and to make
known also the necessary means of pro-
tection.

One of the first dangers to avoid in
childhood is premature employment; it
would be easy to show by films the phy-
sical, and in some cases the moral harm
that may be done to children of tender
age by various classes of work in industry,
on the sea, in the fields, in shops, in offi-

ces, on the stage, in itinerant occupation,
etc. The injuries here in question may take
on very different forms : some may result
in deformities in a body not yet robust —
this is a feature of many manual occupa-
tions — others contaminate the mind not
yet sufficiently stable to withstand bad
examples, or at least to save itself from
defilement by premature contact with adult
vice or passion. The occupational life of the
young hotel page or child hawker is
fraught with the dangers of the second
class.

After showing the need for fixing the
minimum age for admission to work suf-
ficiently high to avoid the most serious of
these dangers, the cinema might give an
idea of the precautions that should continue
to surround the child at work until man-
hood or womanhood; regular medical su-
pervision, reasonable hours of work, and
jobs that are particularly unhealthy, dan-
gerous or trying. It could also show how,
for the greater good of society and the
individual alike, the occupation should be
suited to the aptitudes of the individual;
and how in adolescence, through vocational
guidance well-conceived and generally ap-
plied, every endeavour should be made to
find everyone the job for which he or she
is best fitted.

VIII.

THE CINEMA
AND INDUSTRIAL MEDICINE

The service that the cinema renders hy-
giene may be instanced by the following
types of film:

a) Purely scientific films: The diffi-
culties of production are easily overcome
by modern technique. These films are
usually short but very interesting. They
appeal to the public because they take it
into a world that is almost, if not entirely,
unknown.

b) Films for auxiliary medical staff or
for schools: Here the aim is quite a special
one, and these films are extremely useful
for students and medical specialists.

THE EDUCATIONAL FILM IN THE WORLD OF LABOUR

741

c) Films for the public: With these,
the aim is difficult to attain and, to judge
from present experience, attempts have not
met with great success. In fact, the number
of films in this class is very limited, and
technically they are not always above crit-
icism. For the most part they are propa-
ganda films dealing with social diseases,
above all tuberculosis, alcoholism and ven-
ereal diseases. Such films should constitute
Lessons on specific points, and should be
prepared with the same care and the same
scientific accuracy as any other lesson or
textbook.

But the actual teaching which is the aim
of such films should be wrapped up in an
interesting or amusing story. Herein lies
their great difficulty, and it has not been
overcome despite the most cordial and
complete understanding between doctor
and technician.

The most serious handicap is that the
audience often compares these films with
others wholly within the theatrical do-
main. To get over this, the practical part
is often sacrificed to the story, and unfor-
tunately the story is not always free from
glaring scientific errors.

Collaboration between the different in-
terests capable of contributing to the com-
plete success of the undertaking is essen-
tial in the production of any film of an
educational character. It is in fact the only
means of ensuring a proper balance be-
tween the various parts of the film.

Several other facts explain why the
propaganda film has not attained its end,
why the technical side and the details de-
tract from the medical and hygienic data
— certainly the most difficult to handle —
why, in fact, we do not share the opinion
of those who think that industrial patho-
logy lends itself very well to every aspect
of cinematographic propaganda.

The reasons are very simple : the cultur-
al film on social diseases and, to a great-
er extent, the film on occupational diseas-

es, shows people suffering from a disease:
paralysis, palsy gout or what not. Here,
paradoxical though it may seem at first
sight, the elements are static and not
cinematographic. We shall always be
shown, for example, a doctor auscultating
a patient, microscopic examinations, var-
ious clinical researches in connection with
diagnosis, the part of the body affected,
etc. And this is all. Rarely will the film
deal with any characteristic lesion. An
emaciated, sickly, cachectic person may be
suffering from tuberculosis, serious lead
poisoning, or ankylostomiasis. Paralysis of
an arm or a hand may be due to widely
different causes.

It is true that medical propaganda could
be supplemented by notions of hygiene,
and it could be shown, for example, how
dusts or toxic gases can be eliminated. But
for this, one can only show parts of fact-
ories or places where the installations in
question are working, without offering the
« movement » essential to the success of the
film. Here again the subject is static, and
a spoken commentary must supply many
details that the film can only give inade-
quately or not at all.

Further, films on first aid in the metal-
lurgical industry, the prevention of cer-
tain accidents in agriculture, individual hy-
giene for the worker's welfare in the fac-
tory, for examples, are doubtless very in-
teresting for those dealing with problems
of these kinds, but they are not very at-
tractive for the general public, and espec-
ially for the persons directly concerned.

In conclusion, it must be said that as yet
there do not seem to be any propaganda
films on social diseases or industrial or
working-class hygiene that could be re-
commended as models. Most films on these
topics have drawbacks and defects so serious
that it would be better not to use them at
all. Consequently any practical suggestion
for the production of better films would
be welcome.

THE CINEMA IN VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE

BY

Professor Luc

GENERAL DIRECTOR OF TECHNICAL TEACHING AT THE FRENCH MINISTRY OF NATIONAL EDUCATION.

It was thought advisable and urgent, after
the war, to direct the attentions of our
children towards specialized crafts and trades.
It became, in consequence, necessary to
examine carefully the most suitable con-
ditions for inducing the child to show his
inclinations for any special trade or kind of
work. We thus arrived at what is known as
vocational guidance.

We are dealing with a comparatively new
science which it would be impossible to
examine properly within the limits of this
report. Those interested in the matter can
have any supplementary information from
the Institute for Vocational Guidance (29
Rue d'Ulm, Paris) or from the article on
the subject by M. Fontegne, General Inspec-
tor of Technical teaching and co-director of
the Institute in question. The article which
appeared in the March 1933 number of the
Review of the I.I.E.C. gives a fairly com-
plete picture of what the motion picture
can do for vocational guidance.

Ever since the creation of a vocational
guidance service, the objects of the bureau
of Technical Teaching have been twofold.
It was sought, on the one hand, to encourage
the children to learn a proper trade or craft
rather than yield to the attraction of im-
mediate earnings which inevitably result in
subsequent inefficiency. It was also desired
that the child schould be steered towards a
trade or craft which seemed best suited to
his possibilities.

We must take into account: (1) the physic-
al and psychical capacities of the child and
(2) his natural preferences.

The first of these questions is undoubtedly

connected with medicine, while the second
means a work of education in the case of a
child who is not only ignorant of his pos-
sibilities, but even of his likes and dislikes.
In order to choose a craft and know its
possibilities, one must know several crafts.
Visits to factories, etc. may seem useful, but
they are surrounded with difficulties and
drawbacks such as the material impossi-
bility of taking a large number of children
to factories and workshops, etc. at the same
time, the danger for the children in approach-
ing too close to the machines, the difficulty of
explaining their working and so on. It is
chiefly for reasons such as these that the
management of the Vocational Guidance
Service has suggested the use of the motion
picture.

If the screen is only a reproduction of real-
ity, it possesses advantages over the latter
from the demonstrative point of view. The
contrast of black and white revealed on the
screen shows the objects projected enlarged,
and renders them more easily understood.
In this way many details are observed which
would otherwise pass unnoticed.

The slow motion projector, moreover, can
split a movement up and reveal it in a way
that nothing else can. Animated cartoons can
break up the most complicated movements,
and recompose them without arresting the
motion. The cinema can therefore well
assist unaided in defining and helping one to
choose a craft or trade, for it should be
remembered that vocational guidance does
not set out to teach a trade but only to give
an idea and illustration of it. The child gets
a general idea from the projection, and can

THE CINEMA IN VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE

743

work out for himself the details of the
craft towards which he feels drawn.

The foregoing explains why we have ar-
rived at the creadon of a central organization
for the application of vocational guidance by
means of the film.

By a decree of May 14, 1923, modified
by a later decree of March 1, 1930, a special
commission for the cinema as applied to
vocational guidance was instituted in the
General Bureau for Technical Teaching at-
tached to the ministry. This commission has
control over the Central Film Repository for
Vocational Guidance (7 Rue Robert Estienne,
Paris). It is entrusted with the following
work:

(1) Collaboration in a general way with
the administration in the connection which
the latter has with the Central Film Re-
pository and the Vocational Guidance Bur-
eau; also with various courses of this kind
and schools run along these lines;

The Section for examining Pedagogic . ip
paratus, which is composed of technicians
and pedagogues, will examine apparatus sub-
mitted to it. The reports and decisions of
this commission are to be referred to the
teaching world and the various ministries.
(3) In the matter of films, the commis-
sion should make contact with the various
technical groups and assist manufacturers of
projectors, etc., to secure the production of
pictures considered necessary by the Bureau
of Technical Teaching. Such films should
be examined, reported on, and where alter-
ations or modifications are suggested, such
should be carried out. Commission to have
authority also to recommend purchase or
rejection of pictures.

Thanks to this organization the following
films were prepared and made.

Arts and Crafts. Wood-carving; chair-mak-
ing; working in iron; art foundries, cer-
amics; technique of ceramics, a great ceramic

worker, Delaherche; painting; book manu-
facture.

Manual Crafts. (Boys): Cart and carriage
works; carpentering; metal-turning; lead
working; blacksmith's work; how to become
an artisan smith. (Girls and Women): Arti-
ficial flowers; embroidery; linen and laundry
work, an unknown craft; ironing; minor
crafts for girls.

Technical Schools. Technical schools such
as the Colbert Institute at Tourcoing.

Various. The poetry of labour; the human
machine; the rural artisan.

Propaganda. All these films in 16 copies
have been consigned for free lending to the
14 centres near the most important inspec-
torates.

They were accompanied by detailed ex-
planation in five separate parts, that is, a
short prologue, the list of sub-tides, a com-
ment on the picture, general indications of
the subject matter dealt with, and an indica-
tion of the types of spectators for whom
the film was made. These are all useful
points for the teacher.

The management of these film reposit-
ories has been entrusted officially to the Cen-
tral Film Repository Bureau.

Meetings or classes for vocational guidance
are organized regularly in each of these cen-
tres with the assistance of the Vocation Bur-
eau and the Employers' and Workmen's
Syndicates. Such meetings are repeated every
year in a large number of villages, under
the control of departmental inspectors of
Technical Teaching, the directors of the
Bureau of Vocational Guidance and the Vo-
cational Guidance Councils.

These meetings take place on Thursday
mornings in Paris in the Recamier Cinema,
and are intended for boys, girls and young
men and women about to leave school. They
have enjoyed a gradually increasing success,
and the students and frequenters appreciate
their value and importance.

THE VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE FILM

BY

Julien Fontegne

INSPECTOR GENERAL OF TECHNICAL TRAINING, CO-DIRECTOR OF THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE IN PARIS.

In this brief report we shall limit ourselves
to summarizing the ideas on the vocational
guidance film which we have already had
occasion to set forth at national congresses
such as those at Lille and Paris, at internat-
ional congresses like that of Basle or in nat-
ional or international reviews of the type of
Information Professionelle, Cine-Document
or the Review of the I.I.E.C. of Rome.

Vocational Guidance. We must define this.
The definition which
seems up to now to have won the largest
share of approval is the following « Vocation-
al guidance aims at advising an individual
in the choice of a trade or craft which is
suited to his desires and particular interests,
and accords with his knowledge and apti-
tudes whether physical, intellectual, moral
or artistic; due account always to be taken
of the family situation of the individual,
and the state of the labour market ».

This definition brings in its train two dis-
tinct questions: that of the crafts available
for individual activity and the type of the
individual who will have to make a choice
among such crafts or trades.

Choice of Trade. A simple reading of

the literature on the
subject will supply a superficial knowledge
of the various trades and crafts available,
while visits to factories, workshops, farms
and offices, etc. will widen this knowledge.
Museums, exhibitions and technical exhibit-
ions especially should be visited, and con-
versations with experts and men and women

engaged in the trades under consideration
will prove extremely helpful.

At the same time, this is not enough.
There is always a lack of life in these books
dealing with crafts and trades. The young
person does not always feel, as he ought, the
enthusiasm which a great writer is conscious
of when he exalts the glory of work. Visits
to factories, etc., though agreeable, are not as
profitable as one could wish, while the mu-
seums sometimes prove sterile in suggestions
and the experts' talks are often superficial.

Can we not organize a regular methodic-
al teaching and illustration of crafts by
means of the motion picture? What is a
craft but a collection of gestures and actions
directed towards a given aim? Could not
the film represent all these motions and ges-
tures in one whole?

If this were true, would it not be enough
to split up a craft, decompose it as it were,
into a certain number of technical move-
ments and then reassemble these movements
in a synthesis? This sounds easier than it
really is and was tried some years ago, but
was abandoned. It is not easy to say whether
there is much more value in a series of
technical movements than in a collection of
printed lines indicating the motions used in
practising a certain craft, or in a lecture on
any given trade.

The important thing is that the child or
young person, after having left his element-
ary school, is able to obtain some notions:

a) on the work which he may have to
do one day, sooner or later;

b) on the tools, utensils and objects
necessary for exercising such craft or trade;

THE VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE FILM

745

c) on the way in which he must use
such tools or utensils, etc.;

d) on the knowledge it is advisable for
him to acquire in this connection;

e) on the special aptitudes required
for the craft or trade decided upon.

A good motion picture is able to provide
all these indications. The experience of the
men handling French vocational guidance
films shows that, according to the reports
of the General Direction for Technical
Teaching, such films can be of the greatest
utility. Examples are to be noted among the
following pictures: carriage and cart factory
in operation; artistic iron utensils and their
manufacture; the common motions of a ma-
son; the worth of good Vocational Guid-
ance and so on.

The vocational guidance film exists then,
and it is the task of an international congress
such as that which took place this year in
Rome to modify it and lay down its definite
characteristics.

All those persons who have had occasion
to take a practical interest in the technical
instruction film have been able to observe
that, at the moment of having to choose a
career, many children appeared undecided, if
not actually indifferent.

They do not, as a rule, show any special
tendencies, but rather a complete apathy for
work in general, a profound aversion for
manual labour. All the lessons in the world
have not really produced any effect on them.
The illustrations showing the different fu-
ture in store for the trained and untrained
worker have made but little impression on
them, while all the exalted phrases on the
nobility of labour have left them completely
cold.

Must we then consider their intelligence
closed to any of the ideas on the various
forms of work? Have they no interest in
the value of action and independence in life?

Film for Pre-voea
tional Guidance.

This leads us to speak
of those pictures
which might be des-
cribed as being pre-vocational guidance films.

The object of such films is to endeavour to
instil in the child's mind the first ideas of
technical training and vocational guidance.
Films of this kind exist today, and we may
find them among those pictures which show
the life and labours of fishermen, the flower-
ing meadows and fields where the market-
gardeners work, the miners' hard life wring-
ing the ore from the earth, and the refined
artistic creations of the French artisans. Nor
should we forget the tremendous tumultuous
life of our modern factories and workshops.

It may be argued that pictures of this kind
are not, strictly speaking, vocational guid-
ance films at all. Nevertheless, it is sufficient
if they can arouse the interest of the young
people in the various forms of manual labour.

We have used the expression technical
attitude or state of mind. We cannot expect
to create in the child in his early years a
workman's point of view. The thing to be
aimed at in films of this kind, whether doc-
umentary or otherwise, is to convince the
young person that a man is of worth for
what he can do, and not for what he
possesses. It is a good idea in vocational
guidance work to give an illustration of the
workman returning to his happy home to
enjoy the pleasures of family life after his
day's work. Bernard Palissy at work can
provide an admirable model of this kind.

Without seeking to stress this point over-
much, it can be argued that our film repos-
itories in France have enough pictures of
this kind to meet all the needs of the case.

Utilization of the We may allow our-
Vocational Guid- selyes tQ at oncc

ance Film. * .

again that vocational

guidance films should be shown in the
schools. Little accompanying comment is re-
quired, lengthy explanations are not desir-
able, and advice suggestions, though well
meant and intended to supply indispensable
illustration of the picture, often enough do
little more than waste everybody's time. One
might even go so far as to say it would be
advisable to eliminate all comment from
films of this kind. The child will have heard

746

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

talk of several kinds of trade and craft dur-
ing his school hours; he will have, often
enough, used the tools or implements of one
or more of such crafts, and the choice is up
to him in the last analysis.

The best thing to do is to leave him alone
to make his choice, and not to worry him,
not to distract his developing interests, his
budding enthusiasms, not to dissuade him
from likes or dislikes, but to leave him free
with the latent and mysterious qualities of
his own spirit. This is the careful and deli-
cate line we must follow when a child comes
to ask us advice on the question of choosing
a trade or craft. We should confine our ad-
vice to repeating for the child a film or
more than one film in which he has shown
a decided interest.

With what type of film ought we to begin
the work of vocational guidance? Just as it
would be unadvisable to go into detail over
the various operations of a specific trade
without indicating the general lines of it to a
student, so it is not the case to stress the
details of any particular craft or trade without
having previously shown the young person
various and alternative trades or crafts. The
first vocational guidance film to be shown
should be one on general lines, showing a
number of crafts or trades for boys and a
similar or smaller number of tasks for girls.

There are plenty of such films, or at least
a fair number of them. A request to the
General Direction of Technical Training will
bring forth what is required along these
lines. The synthetic films of A. Lomont and

jean Benoit-Levy may be used to render the
first phase of vocational guidance profitable.

When the young person or child has made
his or her choice among the various trades
or crafts shown him, then it will be advisable
to project for him or them films dealing with
these special kinds of work. Films of this
type can be found in the general catalogues
of film-producing firms, though often
enough the mere title will not indicate the
educational value of the film.

It should also be noted that romance
or theatrical films may have considerable
value for our purpose. Films of this kind can
show work being done — along the lines
under examination — by children of the
same age as the candidates undergoing voca-
tional guidance. Such films can show how
the work is actually carried out in the real
surroundings of everyday life in all its var-
ious aspects. This without neglecting the
moral aspect of all forms of labour.

We are not unaware of the numerous
objections which have been raised against
the vocational guidance film. The difficulty
of accompanying children to workshops and
factories has lost much of its value since the
coming of the sound film which can repro-
duce all the factory and machine sounds
and noises, and can even give us the very
atmosphere of the factory.

In any event, it is certain that the voca-
tional guidance film should be stricdy tech-
nical and cine-technical, and should take full
account of the nature of children and the
complex forms of modern technical labour.

ERRATUM. - The study « Cinema and Teaching », which appeared in
our September number, was erroneously attributed to M. Henri Duvillard,
teacher at Zurich. The article was written by « M. Emmanuel Duvillard »,
Director of Schools at Geneva.

UTILIZING THE CINEMA FOR TEACHING
ABNORMAL CHILDREN

BY

Professor M. Prudhommeau

Before entering into the heart of our
subject, it may be as well to observe that
the law of 1909 which governs the teaching
of abnormal children in France has given
rise to two sorts of schools : one of « per-
fectioning » or improvement attached to the
government schools and an « autonomous »
system for in-boarders and collegians. The
latter type gives greater opportunity for a
lengthy study of the pupils, for they are in-
structed in an art or craft. The conditions
of education in the two kinds of school
differ somewhat. Our own experience was
gained in a school of « improvement »,
which often contained more than the 20 pu-
pils contemplated by law and comprised all
types of mental deficients and backward
children. This lack of homogeneity among
the pupils tends to aggravate the social evil
and renders the experiment difficult.

One of the first observations which may
surprise some people is that the collective
reactions of abnormal children which are
full of interest and instruction are the same
as those produced on normal children in the
same conditions. This was discovered in
the course of experiments made some years
ago among pupils of the elementary and
middle schools and, in our opinion, has its
instructive value for the teacher of normal
children.

a) Methodes to Be 1) It is an error to be-
Employed in Film ^ ^ ± fijm .
Teaching.

educational in itself. It

is the master who teaches and educates.
2) The film ought to be for the child a

continually fresh source of observation : a
door that is opened for him on life and not
on a stage.

The abnormal child's faculties of under-
standing and perception are very limited.
The teacher must take care to avoid errors
which might be unimportant for normal
children who would themselves be capable
of supplying the necessary correction, but
against which abnormal students would
have no proper defence.

On these children's psyche the motion
picture produces a violent effect that is
much stronger than that deriving from any
other teaching means. We must take con-
stant care to avoid errors of interpretation,
which might lead to a continuous series of
errors with possible grave results. These
errors must be noticed and corrected in
time. Once they are firmly impressed on the
spirit of these children, it will prove dif-
ficult to eradicate them. In the case of
children of this kind, a mistake which has
exercised a prolonged influence can pro-
voke voluntary acts which, through the
effect of reaction, strengthen the mistake
and implant it firmly in the mind.

Before every projection, then, we must
assure ourselves that the children are
in a state to understand — as far as it is
possible for them — what they will see on
the screen.

Here are two other not less important
rules. The cinema which always has a great
attraction for children, should form part of
their scholastic life. The teacher's mastery
over the film must, however, be assured.

748

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

This is necessary. We must also go so far as
to allow the children to understand that the
film is not always a representation of reality
and that certain films can be a source of
error. The children should be taught to ap-
peal to the master for explanations when
there is some point in the picture which
they do not understand.

The teacher's first task is one rather of
preparation which he must carry out before
proceeding to the strictly pedagogical action.
The success or insuccess of the use of the
film as a pedagogic educational means will
depend on such preparation. Let us now
turn to the precautions of a practical nature.

The projection ought not to be a cause
of excitement for the abnormal child, and
everything which tends to distract the child's
attention or make him or her hypersensi-
tive and nervous should be avoided. Curios-
ity and attention are at once aroused as
the announcement is made that « there are
going to be pictures ». It is wise to take
advantage of this promising state of mind
and cultivate it without provoking danger-
ous reactions. The lesson completed with
the use of a film ought to be the common
routine and not an exceptional performance.
If we arrive at this state, we shall find that
the film lesson takes place in a calm atmos-
phere, and the collaboration between teacher
and pupils becomes easier and more prof-
itable.

The projection should be preceded by a
lesson. We might say that the word lesson
seems to us out of place in speaking of
abnormal children. But this preparation and
collaboration with the scholars is useful since
it allows us to approach our subject while
arousing their interest and curiosity.

This will sometimes be a sort of safe
guide for directing the children's interest
to the projection. The first essential condi-
tion is that the teachers should know their
films. The teacher may project the film for
bis own benefit previously, and in order to
make a detailed study of it, read a detailed
report and description of it.

Projections in School Our answer, which
Premises or in _„„
Special Halls? may .SUrPn$e some

educationists is: either

the one or the other. Our experience has
led us to include that in the best circum-
stances it is sufficient to give the projection
in the class-room. This does away with
useless moving about from one room to
another, which causes loss of time and
upsets the rhythm of the work. At the same
time one should be able to dispose of a
proper hall fitted out with all the requisites
mentioned in this article. The school ought
also to have two quite different motion
picture projectors.

The size of the screen and the rhythm
of the projection have their effect in the
matter of the abnormal child's capacity for
understanding. In order that the film may
become a source of lively observations, it
will be necessary:

i) to provide the best possible condi-
tions for the child to make its observations;
2) give the child a true impression, so
that it can establish a current relation be-
tween what it has seen and reality.

Our experience has led us to believe that
the size of the screen should vary according
to the results desired. For example, in the
case of a lesson on the exercise of a certain
trade or craft, or on the life of certain
animals, we have come to the conclusion
that, in the majority of cases, projection on
a small screen, in an ordinary room, with
the children placed quite close to the screen
gives the best results. Having begun with a
1.50 metre screen, a screen with the di-
mensions of m. 0.70 seems to us the smallest
size possible. As a result of further exper-
ience, we have decided that a 60 centimetre
screen may be big enough in a scholastic
hall. The details are still sufficiently visible
for the pupils who must be close to the
canvas, and the eye can observe, without
strain, the ensemble of the picture.

For showing geographical pictures meant
to reveal to abnormal children the beauties
of nature, I have obtained encouraging re-
sults by projecting the picture against the

UTILIZING CINEMA FOR TEACHING ABNORMAL CHILDREN 749

whole back wall of the class-room. In this
case, it is necessary to use a fitted out hall,
and one wants a special apparatus or at
any rate a projector with a short focal length
lens. This method gives an extraordinary
effect of reality, provided that there are not
persons shown in close-up or in the fore-
ground appearing larger than life size. If
one screens the film « A Storm at Pen-
march » for the children in a dark room, it
is not unusual to see them making motions
of dodging the huge waves, while some of
them show sign of actual fear. This fact
shows us the intensity of the impressions
which children receive from films, and
warns us to take precautions with hyper-
sensitive temperaments, remembering that
sensitiveness is always increased by the
darkness of the room. In some of the rail-
way travel pictures, such as « From Cha-
mounix to Mon ten vers », one gets the actual
impression of travelling in a train for noth-
ing is lacking not even to the sensation of
relief obtained by a special close-up effect
that constantly changes.

The back wall seems a huge bay open on
nature.

In pictures where there are a number of
close-ups, it is better not to exaggerate the
degree of enlargement to avoid any risk of
falsifying the children's capacity for obser-
vation. A screen measuring two metres and
a half seems to us to provide the most fa-
vourable conditions for obtaining verisimili-
tude. The work of the miner in the film
« Loos Coal Mine », projected in this way,
gives a curious effect of reality in a dark
room. Another important condition which
must always be taken into consideration is
the influence of the light in the room. To
sum the matter up, the projection should
be made either in the class-room or in a
special hall according to the circumstances.

Projections before or It is sometimes nec-
after the Lesson? essary £or ^ projec_

tion to be made before
the lesson. This happens with films seen
outside the class-room that can occasionally

be used to help the effect of the lesson. The
teacher should coordinate the scattered
images and ideas supplied by the film vis-
ion and correct them, lest their falsity vi-
tiate the children's judgment. This ought
to be the special case of the master and he
should regard films as possible adjuncts for
lesson aids for his pupils. In general, how-
ever, in the case of abnormal children, it
is our opinion, that both from the peda-
gogic point of view as well as the psycho-
logical one, one should prepare the children
for the projection so as to stimulate their
curiosity. This is an essential condition for
fixing their attention, holding their interest,
and preventing undue excitement.

In this way one can obtain collaboration
between teacher and pupils, provided the
former has a perfect knowledge of the film
and uses explanatory notes to illustrate it.

Continuous projections, or short pictures
detached from the teacher's explanations;
later, use of explanatory notes.

The projection will, according to the
circumstances, be continuous or interrupted
by comment. Everything depends on the
nature of the film, the result aimed at,
and the reactions of the children.

The teacher of « improvement » classes is
fortunate in having no other object than
education and the instruction of his pupils
to aim at. He has not to bother about exam-
inations and their result. This gives him
plenty of latitude in the choice of his means
of teaching and the subjects to be dealt
with. The level of his classes, and the edu-
cational purpose he is pursuing will be clear
guides for him when he wants to present a
certain film or is considering rejecting
another. We should not forget that a well
chosen film may be a documentary capable
only of illustrating a part of the lesson.

Using short pictures, with everything
likely to disturb the attention cut out, the
child ought to be able to support, without
interruption or diminishing interest, the
projection of an entire film. Interruptions
split the spectacle up and falsify the men-
tal image which the child should have of

750

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

the film. Take the case of the picture show-
ing a short railway trip, the film « From
Chamounix to Montenvers », already men-
tioned in this report. The action takes place
in a homogeneous setting, and the action
proceeds with the rapidity of a train in
motion; the camera-man having actually
made the picture from a train. The value
of this film would be rendered almost nil,
and the effect of the train journey destroyed
if the picture were stopped at intervals for
explanations. The same remark applies to
other films representing spectacles or natur-
al phenomena; such as seas, volcanoes, cas-
cades, etc. The film « Storm at Penmarch »,
for example, will give a fine impression of
the force of the waves, provided the projec-
tion is not stopped at any time.

On the other hand, it is useful sometimes
to arrest the projection to explain some
of the sub-titles. It is not to be denied, how-
ever, that sub-titles interrupt the action, and
if it is sometimes useful to give an explan-
ation between two different films, it pro-
duces a bad effect to introduce sub-titles
when the action does not demand them.
The only result is to destroy the picture's
natural rhythm, distract the attention and
produce a bad impression. Children are ac-
customed to exchange their impressions and
opinions during the running off of com-
ment and sub-tides, and well planned shows
keep them quiet and in order. The greater
the silence, the better the impression made
by the film.

We are in favour of the principle that
action should not be interrupted by sub-titles,
arrest of film, or remarks before the action
is concluded. To be more exact, to accom-
pany the action and sustain it with the
teacher's word is not interrupting it; on the
contrary, it is giving it greater definition.
The cinema performance means: collabor-
ation between teacher and pupil. When
ought the child to ask for explanations?
Errors of interpretation on the part of the
child should be avoided as they may lead
to permanent and ineradicable errors. For
these reasons it seems necessary to us — and

we want to insist on this point especially —
that the child ought to be able to ask quite
frankly for an explanation from the teacher
of obscure points as soon as possible. The
pupil should express his feelings and ideas
without delay, even if he feels vaguely that
these feelings may not be quite commend-
able.

Some films cause a lot of questions and
requests for explanations while others pro-
duce very few. Despite all his experience,
the teacher is likely enough to run across
unexpected cases and incidents.

As a second principle we would lay down
the ruling that the film must not be arrested
in the middle of a movement. The explana-
tions must be given at just the right mo-
ment, according to the phases of the action
of the film. The explanations can sometimes
be given at a moment when the action is
slowed down, but in this case the explana-
tion must be precise and brief, have the
tone of a friendly conversation with the
children, and sound like some one speaking
his own thoughts aloud.

The teacher has a great chance here for
exercising all his art and skill. It is all a
matter of the right time and using com-
mon sense and tact. The master must watch
the running off of the film with the great-
est attention and should almost feel the need
for the questions which the pupils will put
to him, or should put to him. The thing
sounds more difficult than it really is, but
there are obvious signs to be read among
the pupils and motions which cannot easily
be mistaken.

The greatest number of explanations will
come when one is showing films dealing
with men at work, and especially in trade
and arts and crafts pictures or documen-
taries. Then come films on animals, while
geographical pictures do not call for much
explanation from the teacher. Sometimes
the projection takes quite a different line
from what one might expect. The teacher
should mark this well, and it will prove a
precious indication for future projections. It
is often enough these first hand observations

UTILIZING CINEMA FOR TEACHING ABNORMAL CHILDREN 751

which determine the final modality of such
lessons and show which are the best films
to project.

It sometimes happens that the action will
reveal itself as obscure owing to the large
number of demands for explanations from
the pupils. In some cases it may be desir-
able to run over a section of the film again
to allow a better understanding of obscure
points and to give explanations. Sometimes
it may be best to run over just that portion
or those portions of the picture which have
not been fully grasped. Sometimes it may
be well to re-run the entire film or one or
two reels of it. It is not possible to lay down
a hard and fast rule for cases of this kind.
The most experienced teacher is likely to
receive a surprise every now and again. It
is by a quick and intelligent handling of
sudden small emergencies that he shows his
worth as a professional master.

The Use of Explan- There are on the
atory Notes. market commercial

films produced with
an educational intent that carry notes or
comments. Some, again have nothing of the
kind. We feel inclined to repeat that noth-
ing, not even a report, can take the place
of the examination of the film by the teacher
before the giving of the lesson. This does
not mean that the explanatory note is use-
less; on the contrary, it is often necessary.
What should it contain? Since it seems
absurd to produce teaching films that are
just like scholastic manuals, we cannot ac-
cept the notes which read like texts, contain
short indications for the use of the teacher,
and an illustration of the film planned for
a given lesson. This principle stands up well
in the case of studies for secondary or higher
education but for the first grades of ele-
mentary instruction, sufficient account is not
taken of reality. Moreover, the majority of
such notes were composed for films that
are out of date; films made 20 or even more
years ago. The teacher does not know them,
whence comes the risk of errors.

The brochures or notes accompanying a
film ought to bear indications of the date,
the place, and the circumstances where and
under which it was produced, and what
was the idea of the producer in making
the picture. Only under these conditions and
with these safeguards can the film provide
a complete documentary study on the sub-
ject under consideration which may very
well consist of something quite new even
for the teacher. Let us discard the idea of
including in the illustrative note instructions
on the way to prepare the class. Once the
teacher has seen and studied the film, the
matter of preparing the children becomes
his task.

The brochure or notes ought to contain,
for the benefit of the teacher, an analysis of
the film, with particulars of its various parts
and the explanations for a proper under-
standing of certain passages.

Silent and Sound The sound film has a
special attraction for
children and exercises
a profounder psychological influence than
the silent picture on many pupils. On the
other hand, there are some silent films which
exercise a great attraction on our abnormal
children of egocentric character, and in
these pictures the children's admiration is
turned towards one individual actor. The
interest which the child finds in the picture
and which leads him to follow the action
from beginning to end is so powerful that
it can be transferred from the film itself to
the person who presents the film. This is
an observation which is the result of years
of experience, and seems to be of consider-
able importance though perhaps it is not
generally known. It strengthens our convic-
tion, which we set forth earlier in this re-
port, that: it is not the film which teaches,
but the teacher.

The talking film, some people say, cuts
out the sub-titles which destroy the contin-
uity of the action. We have already pointed
out that badly arranged sub- titles are harm-
ful, but a few well placed and well chosen

752

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

titles in a film are no more out of place
than any sequence of images. They consti-
tute stages at which the commentator may
stop to give those useful explanations which
ought never to be lacking in a teaching
film. The teacher must speak, become an
essential character in the proceedings and
adapt his remarks to his audience. The me-
chanical word, invariable and implacable,
will never reveal to us a psychological error
made by the listeners. Words can be strange-
ly interpreted as we have learnt from ex-
perience. The child, moreover, prefers his
teacher's voice to that of the mechanical
commentator.

Sound films reproduce the actual noise of
machines or of nature, and we hoped, when
they appeared, that such films would prove
useful for teaching. We have been often
sadly disappointed, though, in hearing cer-
tain reproductions of animals' voices or ma-
chines in action post-synchronized on to
films. The impression of truth and reality
is lacking in such reproductions, and this,
in our opinion, ought to be in evidence in
all teaching films. On the other hand,
the introduction of a musical accompani-
ment to fill up the void left by absence of
comment seems to us a very unsatisfactory
soludon. Better no sensations than false ones.

We ought to consider the material dif-
ficulties which are connected with the use
of sound and talking films in the school.

Here are a few of such difficulties. In the
first place, such apparatuses cost a great deal
of money; their handling is difficult and
delicate, and their maintenance expensive.
Then there can only be one machine which
all the masters must use in turn. Then there
is the question of the film itself. The silent
film is delicate and fragile enough, but the
sound film is sdll more so, and one shud-
ders to think of the rough treatment it may
have to undergo in a school. It will be hand-
led by non-experts, as the majority of the
scholastic profession are not acquainted with
the technique of sound films. As likely as
not, it will be dirded with oil and run
through a worn-out projector with the reel

too tight. If it is broken, it will be difficult
to repair it, and with every chance of cuts
and breaks in the sound track, the audidon
is not likely to be very admirable. In our
opinion, the introduction of the talking film
in an « improvement » class for abnormal
children is a useless luxury. Even if the
sound is on disc, or ribbon, or arranged
for in any other special way or by any other
process, it is, in our view, a mistake and
undesirable, owing to its lack of flexibility
which hinders the teacher's work. For teach-
ing in the way we understand it, we prefer
to see a sound film projected without the
sound track and properly commented by the
master, for the registered talk is of no help.

b) The Use of Fixed Our experience in this
and Moving Pro- matter nQW dates back
lections.

a number of years. It

began with children of the elementary and
middle schools and then passed on to ab-
normal young people. The results have been
similar and concordant. The fixed projection
should be employed in cases where no move-
ment is required to be illustrated, for in-
stance in studies of architecture or sculpture.
Slides are not in contrast with the motion
picture; indeed they supplement it. In
certain films, the movement of the charac-
ters and their ridiculous dress distract the
attention from the principal object of die
picture and only tend to provoke laughter.
In other cases, for example in nature
spectacles, where movement is not of
especial importance, it is difficult to say
which form should be preferred. An exper-
iment made in an « improvement » class
of mine with slides of the forest of Fon-
tainbleau gave very strange results. The
projection was given on a Saturday. On
the following Monday, I asked 15 of the
pupils to draw me the picture which had
impressed them most, requesting them to
make as many drawings as they could re-
member of the slides. I got altogether 189
drawings. One pupil made 27 for me, while
another drew one only. Five pupils made
more than 20 drawings, and four more than

UTILIZING CINEMA FOR TEACHING ABNORMAL CHILDREN

753

ten. This test, made to see if movement is
always an essential condition for attracting
and holding the interest, did not confirm
the theory that movement is essential for
a full memory of a thing.

In the case of films where action and
movement is essential, the fixed projection,
though it may supplement the film, cannot
give the same results. This is true of natur-
al phenomena such as waves, cascades,
eruptions of volcanoes and all forms of
human geography.

There is one case which we have sought
to resolve on occasion with the use of fixed
projections, but without obtaining practical
results that is to endeavour to give the pu-
pils the impression of relief. We have had to
abandon — owing to the difficulties which
arose — the use of stereoscopic projections
in two complementary colours with coloured
glass and special lenses.

Some fixed projections on geographical
subjects, taken from the proper angle and
with a special light, sometimes give excel-
lent results in ordinary slides, but one can-
not count upon this definitely.

We use a simpler process, which consists
in observing the image given by a photo-
graph reflected in a concave mirror. Despite
the error due to the fact that the observation
is made on a picture turned upside down,
we shall go on using this simple method
until something better comes along.

We are of opinion that a great effort
ought to be made in this department for the
benefit of the motion picture. Landscapes
shown in close-ups in movement give the ef-
fect of relief better than all fixed projections.
We can often get a good clear idea, this way,
for instance, of the depth of a valley. In
this case the cinema is superior to the fixed
projection. Everything is relative therefore,
and depends on the case and the subject
matter to be taught or illustrated.

Provided we can use them with judg-
ment, cinema and fixed projection are mu-
tually complementary in the teaching of
geography.

It is possible to project slides on an entire

wall in the way we have described for the
cinema, provided we have a special room
at our disposal. Certain shots give a really
remarkable effect. For instance, where we
have close-ups of trees, we get a strange
effect due to the immovability of the leaves
and the branches.

On the other hand, in all cases where
movement is predominant: works, factories,
plants, lives of animals, the motion picture
is better than the fixed projection, which
should only be used when the film is
unobtainable. What we have said regard-
ing the dimensions of the screen for anim-
ated projections must be slightly modified
for slides on account of the absence of
movement. We will cite two common cases
which will often recur: powerful enlarge-
ment in a darkened room, and a small screen
in a lighted room.

Let us examine another side of the ques-
tion. When we began our experiments, our
projections were thrown on to a large sheet
of drawing-paper. The negatives taken gave
us a simple positive to project. After a num-
ber of trials, we succeeded in preparing the
show in the following manner. We reflected
our negative with the projection lantern on
a sheet of sensitized paper, thus obtaining
an enlargement which did not cost us any
more than a positive on glass, and was
always at our disposal. The use of fixed
projections becomes restricted then to those
cases only where there is a necessity for a
powerful enlargement.

Some apparatuses which project fixed
film pictures allow us to cast on the screen
multiple enlargements of small animals of
about the dimensions of a centimetre, or
even less. The results thus obtained have a
great interest for abnormal children. In the
matter of insects, these children have quite
definite notions which would not be clari-
fied by other means of demonstration. The
fact of a real animal being demonstrated to
them is of no little importance. It assists
their powers of observation.

An apparatus which projects opaque bod-
ies can at the same time allow a projection

3 - lee lngl.

754

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

of living animals, though certain illumina-
tion difficulties are likely to arise here, and
good results are difficult with very small
animals. It is preferable, in such cases, to
make direct observation from life, since the
lack of depth of the field of the lenses does
not allow us to see an animal clearly in
proper relief. Machines of this kind are very
useful for projecting microscopic prepara-
tions, but such subjects, though useful in
higher education, are out of the question
for instructing abnormal children.

The utilization of apparatus for fixed
projections of any type can prove fairly
satisfactory. Projections may be made on
any kind of superficies. With a blackboard
and a sheet of paper, it is ea.sy to make a
drawing that will follow the lines of the
light.

We have followed this method in order
to give the children an idea of a plane sur-
face of paper. We have projected on the
blackboard, in an illuminated room, cello-
phane views such as can be bought any-
where. The projection of the Place de
I'Etoile suggested our asking a pupil to fol-
low with the pencil the outlines of the
square, the streets that lead into it, and the
conformation of the Arc de Triomphe.

A check-up was made with the map of
Paris on a smaller scale. Further checks were
made with photographs of the whole site
or parts of it. In this way the child gets a
good grounding into the ideas and topog-
raphy one is seeking to teach him. Care
should be taken as to the scale used, both
in the optical enlargement and in the maps.
It is easy to give the childrens wrong ideas
of dimensions and proportions.

e) Results of Cine- In the preceding par-
ma Teaching: pro- agraph We pointed
grammes; rime- , ,. £

tables; scholastic out the utility of the
texts. two systems of class-

room and special hall projections. It is
clear that special halls ought to be reserved
for the sole use of « improvement » classes
which implies the fixing of definite time-
tables and hours for work. We must also

remember that the films we use may also
be of service to other classes in the school
or institute, and account must be taken of
the time-table in general.

In the following substance of this report
we must concern ourselves with the peda-
gogy of normal children, which in many
points does not differ at all from that for
normal children. Indeed the one tends to
clarify the other.

What quite distinctly differentiates our
teaching from that of normal classes is not
only the special aim we have in mind, but
even more the special methods we follow
to attain it.

We are continually under the necessity
of making an effort to adapt our teaching
to the mentality of the abnormal child. His
capacities and possibilities of understanding
only reveal themselves under the influence
of the surroundings and atmosphere which
we create. These minds require active work
done in an atmosphere of confidence, rel-
ative liberty and close collaboration with
the teacher. The atmosphere and surround-
ings for these abnormal children should
be as social as possible, if we are to obtain
the best from their possibilities.

Hard and fast programmes and curricula
are useless, for it will often prove imposs-
ible to stock to them. Here is another thing
of which we must take account: that is,
the lack of continuity of progress in the
mental development of abnormal children.
There will be sudden halts and even periods
of retrogression.

In ordinary schools, the necessity of hav-
ing the films by a certain date becomes one
of the great problems. All the schools in
France follow one official curriculum and,
theoretically speaking, they should all want
the same film on the same day. Which is,
of course, impossible.

For us who are concerned with the in-
struction and amelioration of abnormal chil-
dren, the fact of not being able to secure
a film by a given date has much less im-
portance. It sometimes happens that some
unforseen circumstance may render the

UTILIZING CINEMA FOR TEACHING ABNORMAL CHILDREN 755

projection of a certain film most useful and
opportune, with the result that the film
scheduled for projection on that day must
be postponed.

Our task is a constant case of adapt-
ing ourselves to circumstances. We will
try and get a film that suits our case
as well as possible, even if it does not
fulfil our needs like the film we have
been obliged to do without. It will not
be difficult to prepare the children for the
new picture. It is sometimes interesting to
project a picture that has not . direct connec-
tion with our course of teaching, but appears
to be a well made film and properly treat-
ed. We must never omit to show our chil-
dren anything we believe to be within the
reach of their intelligence , even if it is not
in the regular curriculum. It is this kind
of liberty we can allow ourselves with our
abnormal pupils that can sometimes surprise
the experts of pedagogy.

We generally give our projections after
the afternoon recreation interval, often
between 3 and 4 p.m., on Wednesday and
Saturday. We have often thought that the
motion picture has a notable efficacy in
arousing pupils from the nervousness and
apathy which falls upon them towards the
end of a scholastic day. This, however, is
true of all pupils and all classes, with the
result that the projection hall is generally
much in request at the same hour and the
same day by various teachers. Whence comes
the utility of being able to project in one's
own class-room.

There arises the question of the concord-
ance that should exist or the partial con-
cordance to be aimed at between the class-
ic texts and teaching films dealing with the
same subjects. This is an educational con-
cept which is inapplicable to abnormal
children.

It is perfecdy possible to produce films
which have a close analogy with the official
text-book and practically reproduce them,
especially when the film tells the story of
children's adventures. The necessary psycho-
logical conditions for the children's enjoy-

ment of the picture are present. « Two
Children Around France» seems to us the
type film of this kind. It pleases all the
pupils, but its length makes it difficult to
project in the class room.

d) Subjects Suitable Instead of enumerating
for Cinema Treat- j. q£ such bj

ment. >

and topics, it seems

to me more profitable to outline the proced-
ure. When the work of « preparation » has
been completed, there still remains the most
important thing to be done: that is to see
that the images seen penetrate deeply into
the children's minds and to rectify, when
necessary, the errors of impression and in-
terpretation received.

We begin our work of preparing the
children by helping them with all the doc-
uments and objects necessary which we
keep close to hand. For geography lessons,
paper, enlargements, etc., for object lessons,
the objects we are treating of and the papers
and documents referring to them. Similarly
for the study of animals. The scholastic
museum becomes a necessity in this case.

First series of exercises: observation, fol-
lowed by applied drawings. We repeat these
exercises so as to increase the children's in-
terest in the subject. The motion picture
projection comes later. The next day is a
holiday, so that I do not make a short sum-
mary of the subject until the following Mon-
day at 1 p.m. Contrary to what one might
expect, the average memory of the pupils
shows equally good results as with examina-
tions made immediately after the lesson or
demonstration. There are often requests for
explanations, and it not easy to make short
replies, although all illustrations possible
have been given the children, for the actual
work is a drawing which the child has re-
tained of his impressions. We ask the child
to explain on the back of his drawing . — if he
can — what he has drawn. If he can make
a brief report or note it, so much the better.
When one comes to look at the drawings,
one will often receive a surprise in seeing
that, despite all explanation and all precau-

756

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

tions, errors of interpretation have disturbed
the pupil's perception of the subject. We
must then ask the pupil to « tell » us his
drawing and correct his mistakes before it is
too late. This also makes an excellent elocu-
tion exercise, accompanied by dictionary
work. Whenever it is possible, it is a good
thing to note the individual words of the nar-
ration made by the pupil, which helps us
with the teaching of French.

We have come to the conclusion that
the oral account of the drawing which we
always demand helps to fix the memory of
the subject in a durable fashion.

The motion picture is thus engaged, on
the one hand, in exercises of observation,
language, words, narrative and on the
other, (that is in geography and natural
history lessons) in the application of objects
with the idea of furnishing material for
drawings and written exercises.

What value has the motion picture in
history lessons? In a general way, as the
result of experience, I am doubtful of the
value of films for teaching history. Certainly
any war scenes in them are not suitable for
our abnormal children, and we never intend
to project anything of that kind for them.
Our kind of teaching is based on the history
of civilization. In some cases, in order to
illustrate the differences in the way of liv-
ing of men, we have used films made in
regions inhabited by so called primitive
people, where there are cave and lake dwell-
ings of a rudimentary type. This kind
of history shows children the beginnings of
social existence, and is necessary for them.

It is sometimes possible after a cinema
vision to give the pupils some exercises in
calculation and arithmetic, but one must
take care not to exaggerate.

There are other exercises which one can
frequently repeat.

Those of an imitative character can help
in an interesting kind of physical education
connected not only with films on games
and sport, but on trades, arts and crafts, the
life of animals, etc.

These are intelligence tests or exercises

of great interest for our abnormal classes,
and they would certainly prove useful for
classes of ordinary children. They consist
in concreting in a single drawing or plan
the various ideas observed and appreciated
in a film, or in other ways, through draw-
ings, photographs, plans, slides, etc. and
all dealing with the same thing or idea.
Thus if we show a film of a steamer and
some slides of a port, we can ask the pupils
to make us drawings of a steamer in a port.

It is possible in the same way to arrange
exercises of transposition for the pupils. We
show them an old film with horse-drawn
carriages and omnibuses, and then ask the
children to draw for us the same road or
street filled with automobiles and motor-
buses. It may be that the experiment smacks
a little of the artificial, but the exercise will
prove fruitful and advantageous and interest-
ing.

It may be argued that we are asking ab-
normal children to do what normal children
could hardly accomplish. But experience has
shown that, with a good training and prep-
aration, our abnormal scholars can do these
things. It has often happened before that
adults, when visiting schools for abnormal
children, have witnessed apparently paradox-
ical facts and incidents.

We now come to the moral and hy-
gienic education of children, which is a sub-
ject that must not be neglected.

There are, as a matter of fact, not many
moral pictures made on children's lives. The
worst is that such films have been made
from time to time, but one cannot find
them nowadays. The few commercial films
which we have seen along these lines during
the last year were not suitable for the school.
This shortage is deplorable because such
pictures could with considerable advantage
take the place of the so-called recreational
pictures which are, as a rule, the very ne-
gation of moral education.

Films on animals provide us with a pre-
cious form of morality for the education of
our abnormal children, especially pictures
illustrating the love and care of animals for

UTILIZING CINEMA FOR TEACHING ABNORMAL CHILDREN 757

their young. I have given up using so-called
anti-alcoholic films or films warning against
the dangers of tuberculosis, which often
give results quite contrary to those expected
and for which they were originally pro-
duced. I believe that our classes provide
a perfect stage for experimenting with such
films which, as a matter of fact, produce
similar results on classes of normal pupils.
Hygiene films are very rarely interesting.
Some are too long, and do not interest the
children in post-scholastic projection. The
showing of a film on « lice » was only partly
successful in making the children more
careful about the cleanliness of their heads.
The pupils did not at once believe their own
eyes. They did not identify the louse on
the screen with the insect of which they
had an unfortunate experience. To make
the object lesson clear, I had to begin the
projection all over again with a demonstra-
tion of a live louse which I placed under a
special lens. Then all went well, and the
lesson was understood and proved valuable.

e) The Cinema as The cinema can prove

Instrument of €Xtremely valuable as

Scientific Re- /

search. an aid in research, al-

lowing us to register
the actions and reactions of abnormal child-
ren.

It is especially useful for making studies
on muscular motor reactions of children.

Since October 1933, when a new child is
brought to us, we have him or her — when
the experiment is possible ■ — make some
drawings for us from a special model we
use, round, square, oblong and various-
shaped figures. The pupil then makes a
drawing of some figure out of his own head,
and we film the lot. Next year we renew
the experiment to see what progress our
pupil has made.

It is some time since we began to register
scientifically, with the use of photography,
the gestures and habits of children during
the hours of recreation. The process has
not proved entirely to our satisfaction,
however. The determined action is re-

gistered in a complex series of movements.
We are therefore not certain of obtaining
comparative indications in space, and we
have no indications whatever in time. Only
the motion picture, which does not register
only one moment of an action or movement,
but the complete movement can give us
really valuable indications and lessons.
Thanks to the film, a comparison of pic-
tures registered in films in two different
stages allows us to see with certainty and
precision how a gesture or movement has
been modified.

Registration is made with extreme rapid-
ity. By simply counting the number of the
images or photograms we can deduce with
guaranteed precision the time required by
or occupied in a given action or reaction.

Shots made in the playground do not
offer any special technical difficulties, but
we must take care not to attract the at-
tention of the pupils to the camera or pre-
vent any modification in their behaviour or
movements. This has not proved difficult
for us, for we had already had the exper-
ience of having taken several photographs
on these lines. When it comes to making
pictures inside a class-room, of the children
engaged in their work or ordinary avo-
cations it is different. The insufficient ra-
pidity of the film and the impossibility of
having recourse to artificial light have add-
ed complications to our labour. We have
found it possible to do this work only by
daylight.

It would not be possible for us to enume-
rate here all the films made in these circum-
stances. The experiments took different forms,
and sometimes unforeseen incidents interfer-
ed. For instance, when a pencil broke during
the making of a drawing by a pupil. One
wondered what his reaction would be.

Generally speaking, the use of the motion
picture for studying the movements and
reactions of abnormal children has enabled
us to gather precise data on the time factor
in movements, on the duration of reactions
due to various stimuli, by means of com-
parative study on the difference, that is by

758

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

two films made at various times. Some of
our observations have proved most valuable.
These studies unfortunately are impeded by
difficulties of a material and financial order.
Were this not the case, we should have a
vast quantity of most interesting material
to produce.

f) Special Qualities It is our opinion that
Required of the ideaj WQuld be
Teaching Class-
room Projectors. have a number of

3 mm projectors of dif-
ferent types in every school. One could be
used for class projections; another for special
hall projections and post-scholastic shows.

The first machine, as we have conceived
it, is not actually on the market at present,
but it could easily be made. Indeed, it would
not cost very much. Its purpose would be
to project on a screen a metre in width
normal 35mm films in the ordinary class-
room, without any special curtains. The
apparatus ought to be able to be stopped for
any desired length of time and be suitable
for the occasional use of fixed films as well
as motion pictures. Such a machine ought
to be fitted with a reversible lever to run
the film back. The projector ought to be
enclosed in a steel box and be capable of
being put into an ordinary cupboard. The
lamp ought to work directly, and not be
higher power than 250 Watts. It should be
fixed on a grid and water-basin or parallel
mirrors or glasses to prevent the deteriora-
tion of the film when stopped. A simple
reverse mechanism for rewinding the film
from one bobbin to another, would suffice.
No motor is required. Scholastic films should
be short, and no motor is necessary. Our
own experience over four years with a sim-
ple projector of this kind, which can be
placed on a ordinary camera tripod, has
shown that it is most successful. Teachers
in ten different classes have handled it with
good results.

There is no necessity to modify the elec-
tric installation for a projector of this kind.
The current can be taken off any ordinary
connection as the power required is small.

The machine which is fairly robust can be
taken into the class-room where it is needed.
I do not think that special dark curtains
and screens are required at the present time.
The apparatus I have in mind requires very
little installation. This method has also the
advantage of showing something of the
cinema to abnormal children. The spectacle
is given in the class-room, without darkness,
so that the reactions due to the darkness are
avoided. If later on, one takes the children
to the special darkened hall, they will not
manifest the usual darkness reactions so os-
tensibly.

The second apparatus for use in specially
prepared and equipped halls for post-schol-
astic visions of pictures may very well be
of the type chosen by the Ministry of the
Public Instruction. There will be no need
to have a bobbin-arrester. This type of ma-
chine must be much more powerful, and
will require a special illumination equipment.

I believe that in ordinary circumstances
a machine for projecting fixed films capable
of showing living animals and transparent
objects of small dimensions will be prefer-
able to a machine which can be stopped at
each or any photogram or which can pro-
ject opaque bodies. There are to be found
numerous films of views and the Pedagog-
ic Museum makes free loans of them.
These views are more modern than plates,
arid a collection can be purchased at a rea-
sonable price, and will be always available.
The machine for projecting opaque bodies
requires so strong a current for the illumin-
ation that it is practically out of the question
for ordinary classes which are not specially
equipped with proper plant. The restricted
number of pupils in our classes permits us
to go in for direct observations on postcards,
prints, drawings and illustrations of various
kinds, without any need of enlargement. I
always show the children the films I have
made on them at their work and the studies
of their movements. This is necessary if one
wants to obtain a natural reaction. It is
only a continuous collaboration which allows
one to get genuine results. The children are

UTILIZING CINEMA FOR TEACHING ABNORMAL CHILDREN 759

delighted to see themselves on the screen
pictured naturally and without pose or at-
titudinizing on their part.

Seeing themselves on the screen has en-
abled some of the pupils to correct their
defects.

The special hall ought only to be used
for motion picture projections, and should
always be ready. It should be able to be
placed in total darkness by blinds and cur-
tains. The walls should be tinted violet as
should also the ceiling, if possible, in order
to avoid the light reflected from the screen.
Black should not be used for fear of poss-
ible reactions on the abnormal children.
Violet lit up by yellow lights gives an im-
pression of a neutral grey tone. The back
wall should be in white stucco or distemper,
without any ornament of relief so that it
can be used as a screen when the whole
stretch of it is required for this purpose.
This can be covered in the ordinary way
by a violet cloth bringing the dimensions
of the screen from 2.50 to 3 metres. The
screen is lit with diffused light attached
to a special bracket. On the right there will
be a gadget to free the wall for use as a
screen.

The illumination of the hall during the
projection is effected with yellow light bulbs
in coloured glass shades fixed to the ceiling
in such as way as not to cast any light on
the walls or the screen. This lighting will
avoid refraction, and allow of the taking
of notes with an illumination that will be
a weak white light. There will not be any
trouble from light reflected from sheets of
white paper which would take place if the
light were pure white. A rheostat under
the command of the operator will allow him
to regulate the intensity of the light. In
the hall we have equipped for ourselves
this special light is obtained with three 50
Watt lamps; the central placed in a large
paper cone opened at an angle of 90 de-
grees; the other two lamps placed laterally
in half cones on transverse axes with a strip
of paper eight centimetres long to prevent
the light striking the walls directly. The

ordinary illumination used for the time
when there are no projections is supplied
by two 100 Watt lamps placed in light
diffusers somewhat modified by ourselves.

We have gone into all these small points
most carefully with the special case of our
abnormal children always in view.

g) Perception and An inquiry we made
Retention of Facts
and Ideas.

showed us with a cer-
tain definiteness and
precision the poverty of knowledge of an
abnormal child in the matter of facts of
common knowledge and happenings. The
motion picture allows him to grasp many
things which it would otherwise be difficult
to instil into his mind. The abnormal child
is almost always a « visual » case. Words
and phrases pass over him without making
any impression, because he does not under-
stand their meaning, while the cinema, owing
to its movement, and in spite of this, as
we have had occasion to point out already,
brings the child multiple means of acquir-
ing cognitions. We have engaged in an
extensive symposium along these lines, col-
lecting a vast number of reports and
drawings. We have sometimes been pain-
fully surprised at the large number of not
altogether desirable cognitions which motion
pictures have furnished for abnormal chil-
dren. Our inquiry has convinced us that
in the present conditions of school and fam-
ily life the cinema is responsible for many
consequences which we are only now be-
ginning to perceive, while there are other
results we do not even now appreciate.

Development of the Spirit of Observation.
— If it is judiciously employed, the schol-
astic cinema can exercise a very consider-
able development on the spirit of observa-
tion. The experiment with the « Forest of
Fontainbleau » and the numerous documents
which we have collected show with what
exactitude the children observe special parts
of the action and commit them to memory,
or, at any rate, retain them so as to be
able to repeat them. This destroys the
theory supported by some people even now

760

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

— though without any valid proof — that
children do not see the particulars because
they (( pass over the whole picture too rap-
idly ». Experience shows that it is on ac-
count of this movement that the sense of
observation becomes strengthened, both from
seeing scholastic films and objectionable
pictures in the ordinary cinemas out of
school hours. We have plenty of proof of
these facts.

Development of the Memory. — I do
not know if it is true that the cinema is
in itself especially helpful for the memory.
It assists the visual memory in the case of
silent films, and the aural memory in the
case of talking pictures. This, taken with
other proofs, would go to show that the
talking films have a stronger effect on the
memory than silent pictures, provided no
third agent comes into action in either case.
In reality this is not the case. With aid from
the teacher, and as a result of special exer-
cises to follow, the silent film and its
effects remain longer in the memory.

In the case of scholastic films, we have
often noticed that the children are able to
reconstruct the chief theme even after a
lapse of three or four years. This is worthy
of note if we think of the changes that
take place in an abnormal child between the
age of eight and twelve.

Development of the Creative Faculties.
— ■ The cinema encourages the creative fac-
ulty with abnormal children to an extent
that may surprise us with the results obtain-
ed. Films seen outside the school develop
this faculty also, but not always in a desir-
able fashion. Class films always have bene-
ficent results.

Projection and Fatigue (Eye Strain and
Brain Fatigue). — The motion picture
produces two kinds of fatigue or strain:
visual and intellectual. If the mental tension
required of the child is too high and pro-
longed, the film will fail of its pedagogic
effect. Eye strain causes brain fatigue with
many abnormal children. This fatigue is
due in part to the continuity of action, and

is much less noticeable if the film is stopped
for explanations.

In this case, we do not get both eye strain
and brain fatigue. There are certain signs
by which one may recognize the presence
of fatigue or strain with the abnormal chil-
dren, a shaking, or moving about of the
head, and the bringing up of the hand to
the eyes, (occasionally or regularly).

Due account must be taken of these signs
if the best results are to be obtained. Long
films should never be shown, for these mere-
ly fatigue the children and leave no trace
on their minds. The results of projecting
such pictures can never be good, and will
only exhaust the pupils.

We have children in our classes whose
sight is very weak. One has only one eye,
and another child sees but very little with
one eye. They place themselves at the distance
from the screen which they know to be
best, and their reactions are just like those
of the other children.

h) Teachers and the A) Many haphazard
Cinema Technical statements have been
or Pedagogic In-
struction. Collab- made on this subject,
oration in the for pedagogy is still
Production of Di- *\ 8/7 . ,

dactic Films. encumbered with pre-

judices. The term
« cinematographic pedagogy » has been used.
It would be necessary to deal with the
question in an exhaustive manner, and I
fear that a brief summary might not give
due expression to my ideas. At the same
time, it may be alleged that the technical
and pedagogic instruction of teachers will
depend on the individual concept which
each of them has of the motion picture
and its uses. The form of preparation and
instruction will differ according as a teacher
considers the cinema as a means for teaching
the children the subjects in an official curric-
ulum, or according as the object aimed
at is to develop the children' s faculties
without any other purpose but their wel-
fare and social future.

This last point of view is chiefly that of
the teacher of normal children.

UTILIZING CINEMA FOR TEACHING ABNORMAL CHILDREN 761

Once we have recognized the importance
of the motion picture in the instruction and
education of weak mentalities, it follows
that a specialized professor holding a degree
must not be ignorant of the way to maintain
and run a projector, nor of the general
technique of motion picture work.

He should begin his studies of these
subjects in the normal school, and gain
practical experience with apparatus there
and elsewhere.

B) Collaboration in the Production of
Scholastic Films. — By this we mean the
collaboration between teacher and cinema
expert or cameraman.

It would seem that films have been made
and labelled « educational », but it has not
been borne in mind that such films were
meant for the education of children.

The first consideration of the producer
of teaching films should be to try them out

and experiment with them before printing
a large number of copies. I have made
experiments along these lines with my own
pupils in my own classes, though I cannot
go into particulars here. The observation
exercises have gradually developed the ab-
normal children' s faculties, and the lessons
given in this way can be extremely useful
for the preparation of teaching films intend-
ed for normal children.

If the teacher is to take his part in the
preparation of a film, the task of the cinema-
man is of the first importance too. It is
only occasionally that one meets teachers
who are also cinema experts. The solution
of the problem lies in a cordial collabor-
ation between the two men, and it lies
also in knowing what it is desired to pro-
duce, thinking especially of the child and
the results on him. This should be the real
and sole aim of our efforts.

THE AGRICULTURAL CINEMA IN FRANCE

BY

M. Masse

PRESIDENT OF THE PERMANENT COMMISSION OF AGRICULTURAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

Premise. Cinematography is a

magnificent method of
general education and technical preparation.
Its superiority over other methods is due
to the facility with which it can be used,
to the thoroughness and preciseness of its
instruction and especially to its capacity for
showing minute and microscopic objects
enlarged thousands of times, thus rendering
possible the study of hitherto ignored but
very important objects.

The motion picture, when applied to
teaching and spreading a knowledge of agri-
culture, becomes an incomparable interpre-
ter of nature and science, a precious source
of information which teaches pupils how
the land is to be cultivated and live stock
raised.

The cinema can show us modern farm
planning, the construction of rural habita-
tions and big schemes like electrifications,
drinking water installations, irrigation plants
and land reclamation projects and practice.

Veterinary science can be taught by its
aid, and how pests are to be fought, what
is the best way to preserve agricultural prod-
ucts, and the various trading and com-
mercial systems in use. Packing, freight,
and selling methods can also be illustrated
by means of the film, while it can be usefully
employed to summarize agrarian inquiries.
The motion picture develops the powers of
observation and research in the young, and
stimulates their initiative and enterprise.

The agricultural cinema, moreover, allows

us to undertake, within reasonable time lim
its, an extremely efficacious intensive cam
paign of propaganda for the most urgent
land and live stock questions of the day.

The agricultural cinema has become to-
day an indispensable aid to the country
teacher, the lecturer, the engineer, the rural
propaganda agent. It does away with a lot
of useless effort, and reduces to a min-
imum the lengthy preparations of lessons
and scientific experiments. « Instruct and
amuse ». The purpose of the cinema can be
summarized in this brief formula. The im-
plication of instruct is obvious owing to
common experience, while it is now gener-
ally recognized that it is also necessary to
amuse and entertain. Everybody, whether
townsman or countryman, has need of some-
thing to distract him from the monotony
of his daily existence, and the motion pic-
ture fills the want admirably. Well chosen
pictures can instruct and educate while en-
tertaining.

The Agricultural As far back as 1923,
Cinema as a State the French govern-
Institution. ment, realizing the

usefulness of the film as a teaching and
propaganda method, created the institution
known as ((Agricultural Cinematography)).
A special legislation of a definite character
was prepared in order to adapt the motion
picture to the requirements of agriculture.
A special fund, obtained from a percentage
taken on the government returns from taxes

THE AGRICULTURAL CINEMA IN FRANCE

763

on games of hazard was placed at the dispo-
sal of the Ministry of Agriculture for organ-
izing and developing the agricultural cin-
ema. A special commission was instituted
in the ministry, to which was given the
name of « Permanent Commission for the
Agricultural Cinema ».

The tasks of this commission, which was
composed of 50 members chosen from among
parliamentary deputies, personalities of the
world of agriculture, science, cinematography
and the university were as follows.

A careful examination of all the questions
connected with the granting of subsidies for
the production, purchase or loan of films;
and for the installation and working of cine-
matographic apparatus in rural communes
and country schools with the object of
encouraging in every way the spread of
knowledge likely to be useful in agriculture.

The commission should when required
give its opinion on all points connected with
educational and technical applications of the
motion picture.

The Ministry of Ag- The ministry will
riculrure. exercise its functions :

1) in granting subsidies for the pur-
chase of cinema apparatus;

2) in producing agricultural films;

3) in the free loan of films.

Cinematographic In order to be able
Material. to receive ministerial

subsidies, the apparatus for which the sub-
ventions are requested must prove satisfac-
tory to the state commission formed for this
purpose. All apparatus is to be subjected to
the examination of this commission which
is composed of experts and persons versed
in motion picture technique. The following
qualities are expected of a first class ma-
chine : solidity of construction, simplicity of
use and handling, it should be easily trans-
ported from one place to another, not take

up too much space, not damage films, throw
a clear image on the screen, with plainly
defined borders. For some years now, manu-
facturers have gone in for the construc-
tion of portable machines which can be car-
ried in a suit-case with great ease. Their
assembly is also quite simple, since they can
be placed on tripods like ordinary cameras.
Machines of this type are very useful for
professors of agriculture and lecturers who
are obliged to organize meetings in the
various communes.

The Ministry of Agriculture grants im-
portant subsidies for the purchase of appar-
atus. These subsidies vary according to the
nature of the bodies or communities requir-
ing them. In any case, it is settled that only
rural communes, departmental agricultural
organizations, schools of agriculture and
bodies especially constituted for agricultural
ends can benefit from these subventions.

Subsidies for about 3000 apparatuses have
been granted up to now, and the Ministry
of Agriculture has spent 4 million francs in
subventions of this kind.

It may be pointed out that the only for-
mat in use is the normal 35 mm. The utility
of sub-standard film can be appreciated
when it is a case of definite teaching for the
requirements of the schools. The case is
different, however, when it comes to or-
ganizing publics gatherings of recreational
rural cinematography. It would be impos-
sible to run programmes made up solely of
technical films if we hope keep the attention
of a rural public for a couple of hours or
so. The organizers must be allowed to secure
from the general market those theatrical
pictures which have enjoyed success in the
ordinary cinemas with which to complete
their programmes. Such films are only pro-
duced in normal size.

If one day we were to find ourselves
obliged, for reasons of economy, to adopt a
sub-standard size film, it would become

764

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

absolutely necessary to choose a size which

would win the approval of other nations.

The exchange of films between the various

nations depends essentially on this condition.

Films. The kind of film to use is a subject
which must be taken very seriously
because the popularizing force which derives
from a given picture depends closely on
the methods which have guided its pro-
duction.

In the year 1931, the Ministry of Agricul-
ture organized an extensive symposium with
the idea of showing the current views on
the cinema and its efficacy, for the purpose of
improving its own motion picture systems.
We shall make due reference to the data
which was collected from this inquiry, and
shall endeavour to define the qualities
which should be found in a good film from
the point of view of its conception, nature,
technique, length, etc.

In the case of the agricultural picture, it
is indispensable that the author possesses a
knowledge of a number of things. He must
be acquainted with science in the first place,
and the practice of agriculture, understand
the cultivation of the land, and raising of
live stock. He should also be a practical
farmer of experience, and have first hand
and intimate knowledge of all farm work
and agricultural organization. He should
know the customs, life and habits of the
peasant population .

At the same time, he ought to be an
able cinema-man, with an eye for effective
shots, and quick to seize upon any interest-
ing and important detail at the right mo-
ment. He should have something of the
theatre man's aptitudes, and be an expert in
handling the motion picture camera.

It can hardly be gainsaid that one does
not often find all these qualities and cap-
acities in one individual, whence we ar-

rive at the fact that films of this type usually
require two specialists.

It is regrettable to have to point out that
sometimes films which are perfect artistic
and cinematographic successes, contain the
gravest heresies and the most lamentable
errors from the agricultural and scientific
aspects.

Sometimes again, both scientific and tech-
nical reality are duly respected and coordin-
ated, but the scene sequence is without con-
nection and lacks cadence, rhythm, life, in
a word it is good, but it is not cinema.

Again, the purely commercial and spec-
ulative character of the film stands out too
obviously, and the spectator gathers the im-
pression that the last thing that was desired
by the producers was to do something really
useful and profitable in the department of
culture and education.

This latter is, in fact, one of the reasons
why the Agricultural Cinema Commission
is studying with the greatest attention all
schemes for the making of films which are
laid before it, which films it proposes to
control and direct through its own well
known specialists.

What kind of films will this method give
us, and what is to be their destination?
Without attempting to establish any rigid
kind of classification, it is necessary, for
purposes of convenience, to group them
under some more or less special denomina-
tions and categories.

In this way, we can define a kind of
didactic-scientific grouping corresponding to
the requirements of agriculture.

We are referring especially to films of
animal and vegetable physiology, microbiolo-
gy, physics, chemistry, etc.

It must be admitted that films of this
kind do not offer any special interest to
spectators in rural cinemas, as they are
generally somewhat above the intellectual
level of the audience. Pictures based on lab-

THE AGRICULTURAL CINEMA IN FRANCE

765

oratory work which are as a rule outside
the domain of ordinary agricultural exper-
ience, are not appreciated by agricultural
populations which consider them « too scien-
tific ».

On the other hand, directors of institutes
of agricultural instruction, rural teachers,
etc. use these scientific films with great
advantage in their lessons and lectures.

Films of this type must be very exact
and carefully made, without falling into
the defect of pedantry. They should be well
constructed and such as to arouse the spirit
of observation which is so useful in the
agricultural business. But even if scientific,
they should not be too theoretical, and should
have their practical side. The ideal thing
would be to have several pictures on the
same subject to be distributed and used ac-
cording to the age and intellectual level of
the pupils.

In the matter of propaganda films and
films intended to popularize agriculture,
films, for instance teaching methods of land
cultivation, plant grafting, raising of live-
stock, the building of peasant dwellings, de-
fence of plants against pests and disease, such
films as in fact constitute the larger part of
our collection, we are able to state that in
general the taste of the agricultural public
entirely approves of them.

We now come to a question of consider-
able importance which in our opinion de-
serves immediate consideration.

If agrarian science is based on well defined
principles and immutable laws, agricul-
tural practice which is based on these princi-
ples and laws varies according to countries,*
districts, soil and climate.

Agriculture is first and foremost a local
science. This is why a film meant to do prop-
aganda work for agriculture while it may
by an excellent film in general, will find
litde favour with peasants in a region where

the systems it illustrates are little used or
no*- suitable.

The subjects treated do not always permit
of our giving indications applicable to all
agricultural regions. If we attempt this, our
films will be much too general and vague
in character. It is therefore always better to
make regional pictures which take note of
local facts.

The film should also be made in its nat-
ural setting, thus faithfully reflecting the
surroundings and special costumes and hab-
its of the countryside. Trick photography
should be avoided absolutely. The chronology
of facts should be scrupulously observed and
should correspond faithfully with the sea-
sons. Films setting out to spread a know-
ledge of agriculture should be strictly objective
in character and should be based exclusively
on the technical part with which it is chiefly
concerned. Should the temptation to intro-
duce some sentimental plot into the picture
be resisted?

The subject is essentially a controversial
one.

Let us say at once that if the scenic action
requires some plot of this kind occasion-
ally, it should not be allowed to distract
the spectator's attention from the technical
part of the film. Its only purpose in films
of this kind should be to create a temporary
attraction and to keep the spectator's inter-
est alive.

Films of agricultural propaganda should
be short, or at any rate certainly not long.
400 metres may be considered a good length.
The programme in any projection should be
varied, and at least three films should be
used. These should consist of a 1) news-
reel picture or a documentary; 2) a technical
agricultural picture or a film of agricultural
propaganda; 3) a recreational picture, pre-
ferably a comic.

The sub-titles should be prepared with
the greatest care, and all expressions of a

766

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

too technical or pedantic nature should be
strictly avoided. Enough time for them to
be properly read should be allowed in the
projection.

One should work on the principle that
if the image on the screen is not sufficient
to explain the picture and its ideas, the
trouble cannot simply be remedied by long
subtitles.

We now come to an examination of the
possibilities of the sound film. So far, we
have only used silent films, but the cinemas
today, even in many of the smaller centres
are wired for sound. It is more than prob-
able that this tendency to use sound films
will increase rather than diminish, and there-
fore the Cinema Commission has examined
the question carefully. The matter is no light
one, for it will inevitably form one of the
bases of the commission's future policy, with
financial consequences that must be consid-
ered with extreme care and foresight.

About a year ago, a number of silent
agricultural films were synchronized for
sound as an experiment. The result among
the peasant population was, on the whole,
most gratifying. It does not therefore seem
hazardous to state that in future we shall
be obliged to adopt the sound and talking
film for our agricultural propaganda films.
In the matter of straight teaching pictures,
it does not seem, at any rate at present, that
the sound film's complete utility has been
proved.

Distribution and In order to demon-
Utilization of strate the great efforts
Fi,ms- made by the Ministry

of Agriculture in the field of animated
projection, the best thing to do is to quote
some statistics.

Our own film collection is composed of
460 pictures dealing with the teaching and
propaganda of agriculture, either in a re-
creational or documentary fashion. There are

at least five copies of every picture, and of
some films there are no less than 20 copies.
The reels in stock total 7000, which gives
a meterage of 2,000,000 metres worth about
seven million francs.

Out of the 460 films made, more than
150 were produced under the authority and
inspection of the Ministry of Agriculture
with the assistance of its own staff of agri-
cultural and cinema specialists.

It may be added that this collection, in
spite of its importance, has often proved in-
sufficient to meet the requirements of the
agricultural population, especially at certain
times of the year. This shows the growing
interest of the French rural population.

In order to secure the widest possible
publicity for the films in our repository, we
have had to organize a decentralizing system.

The distribution organization at present
comprises :

1) a central film repository of agricul-
tural pictures at Paris; 2) regional repositor-
ies for agricultural films, one for each large
district eight in all); 3) permanent repositor-
ies with private organizations such as region-
al bureaux, departmental offices of the edu-
cational cinema (25 of these have already been
formed).

In the course of the last season, the num-
ber of films loaned, both from the central
repository and the provincial archives,
reached a total of about 21,000 which means
some 35,000 reels.

Statistics show that out of 100 films loaned
and made under the direction of the Min-
istry of Agriculture :

30 were agricultural teaching or prop-
aganda films made under the management
and control of the ministry;

61 were general teaching and docu-
mentary pictures bought in the market;

9 were either recreational or news-reel
pictures.

It is worth while pointing out that if the

THE AGRICULTURAL CINEMA IN FRANCE

767

percentage of recreational films is 9 per cent
the number of requests for such films was
much higher. Generally speaking for each
projection a comic was asked for. It was not
possible to satisfy all these requirements
owing to lack of copies. There is also the
fact that the loan of these films is entirely
gratuitous as is also the sending by post of
such pictures. There are no expenses what-
ever for the borrowers to face.

The halls used for the projections are of
various kinds with only a few specially fitted
out for the purpose. The meetings are gen-
erally held in schools or in the municipal
buildings and sometimes even in cafes.

A certain improvement in this direction
is to be noticed, however, and a certain
number of halls have been specially fitted
out for the projection of films especially in
the more important communes. These halls,
known as halls for festivals and occasions,
though in no way luxurious, are properly
fitted out and suitable for the purpose.

All our films are made of « non-flam »
material, and can therefore be shown in any
hall without danger. It is, however, always
advisable to take all precautions and isolate

the projecting cabin.

We ought to remark that the majority of
the directors of the agricultural service have
portable projectors at their disposal. At the
same time, thanks to the close collaboration
between the Ministry of Agriculture and the
Public Health Service, campaigns for public
health and hygiene have been organized in
rural districts.

This form of propaganda is especially in-
teresting because it is carried out before the
same public and cleverly coordinated with
the agricultural pictures. It gives the mater-
ial shown the best possible chance to be
understood and it should be noted that
sound films are used for this hygiene service
which are much appreciated.

To conclude, the organization of the agri-
cultural cinema in France has so far given
the most encouraging results. There is no
doubt that this work is an eminently useful
and profitable one for the peasants, and it is
to be hoped that the system we have followed
may be copied in other nations perhaps
through an exchange of films which will
lead to a close and useful collaboration in
the interests of human progress.

THE CINEMA FOR THE IMPROVEMENT

OF RURAL LIFE

BY

P. de Vuyst

HONORARY DIRECTOR GENERAL OF AGRICULTURE, PERMANENT DELEGATE
AT THE ROME INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE.

It seems superfluous to repeat that agri-
culture is the chief economic factor in the
wealth of nations and the principal element
in their social stability.

If agriculture does not receive the atten-
tion it deserves, and proper measures are
not taken to allow the peasants to live in
satisfactory conditions, if the rural popula-
tion begins to abandon the countryside, the
national industry and trade will suffer, and
the social and economic situation will be
disturbed. Every effort should therefore be
made to keep agricultural conditions normal.

The Rural Film
Should Deal with
Social and Family
Problems.

The motion picture
here, as in other fields,
can render great ser-
vice. The already exist-
ing instructional films which aim at improv-
ing the peasants' technical knowledge, should
be supplemented with other pictures dealing
with social and family questions.

It is not only economic conditions which
operate in agricultural life, but social and
rural factors have their influence also. It
happens sometimes that a farmer who has
reached a certain standard of wealth wishes
to live in a city on account of the greater
degree of comfort there. The peasant in gen-
eral finds the life of the city attractive. This
is a reason for us to make country life more
appealing. We must consider how this is
to be done.

It has been argued that it is necessary for
man to have enough to live on (economic
satisfaction) before he can begin to philoso-
phize (social and moral satisfaction), but it
is my opinion that man can live and philos-

ophize contemporaneously, and the two
questions can ben examined and dealt with
at the same time. I see in this the possibility
of developing and improving the social and
family side of domestic life.

The farmer ought to make a better use
of his resources to render his surroundings
and home life more agreeable, while his
wife should interest herself in forming the
character of her children and making the
home more attractive. Mussolini has placed
the ruralization of Italy in the front of his
programme, and this includes the improve-
ment of country life which is so necessary.

The movement began in Belgium on the
occasion of the exhibition of the Model Farm
at Liege in 1905, and was seconded by the
exhibition of the Modern Village at Brussels
in 1910 and the exhibition of Ghent in 1913.
It was on this last occasion that the Belgian
Commission for the improvement of rural
life was constituted under the chairmanship
of F. Graftiau.

The Universal Agri
cultural Exhibi
Hon of 1935.

Similar problems have
led to the creation in
other countries of var-
ious organs which have since been united
in an international federation presided over
at present by Professor Klein.

This federation proposes to organize next
year in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
and Belgium a very important congress. All
the specialists engaged in the question of the
economic and social improvement of the con-
ditions of peasants will be present. The
congress will take place in the third week
of July at the beginning of the « Interna-

TWENTY YEARS' EXPERIENCE WITH AGRICULTURAL FILMS

769

tional Agricultural Fortnight » in connec-
tion with the universal exhibition of 1935
organized chiefly by Deputy Angelini, the
enthusiastic spirit behind the F.I.T.A. Italy's
participation has been assured, and the pre-
sence of numerous other nations is certain.

The agricultural section of this exhibition
will include a « model farm » organized by
the Belgian commission for the amelioration
of rural life. Visitors will be shown what
ought to be done to improve social condit-
ions in the countryside.

The main lines for improving rural ex-
istence have already been traced in the find-
ings of the international commission. These
findings or declarations were prepared at a
meeting presided over by the Marquis de
Vogue in Brussels in 1925. The commission
recognizing that agricultural progress de-
pends on the triple factors of technique, so-
cial and economic progress, proposes to take
special steps towards the improvement of the
general conditions of rural life.

It declared that we must endeavour to
render existence in the country more attrac-
tive, using all the means at our command
to keep the rural population on the land, and
especially the young generation of peasants.

The directors of the Rome International
Institute of Agriculture organized in 1918 a
section for the study of social-economic ques-
tions. This section is now in a position to
make a proper collection of all the material
and documents necessary for working out
a programme of rural life amelioration.

It seems to me that economists and sociol-
ogists do not give sufficient importance to
the position of women in rural life in their
articles and studies.

In the majority of countries, women takes
a 30 per cent share in agricultural work,
both in the fields and on the farm itself.
The women, moreovei, have to manage all
the domestic work of the farm-house, the
domestic accounts, and they must also look
after the education of the children — that is
the young people of the rural districts. Alto-
gether, women carry out about 85% of all
the necessary work on farms. In Belgium, the

National Commission of farmers' clubs, in
association with certain domestic economy
schools, has done a great deal to lighten
domestic labours.

Creating the Rural We now come to the

Mentality. fundamental point in

the amelioration of rural life: the formation
of the character of the young peasants.

It is all very well teaching the countrymen
agricultural technique by means of instruc-
tional films, showing them what plants to
cultivate, and how to grow them, but this
does little to improve their comfort or the
general standard of their homes. Until effi-
cacious general measures are taken for
forming an agricultural mentality, and for
improving the character of the rising
generation of peasants, we shall have done
nothing useful for rural life.

The characteristics of real civilization are
the elevation of the character, the control
over oneself, the dominion exercised over
one's instincts and the traditional defects de-
riving from preceding generations.

Great progress has been made in the field
of infantile hygiene, and the mothers have
been taught the errors they should avoid and
the proper rational systems to follow. In
some countries, subsidies for children and
food supplies are well organized, but in the
matter of moral education, we still in the
stage of empiricism.

The rural cinema ought everywhere to
suggest to families the best methods for rais-
ing the level of their civilization by improv-
ing the character of the new generation.

The reports and statements issued by the
fourth Belgian international congress for
family education form a basis of reference
for questions of family education, and the
institute will shortly be in a position to
supply inquirers with useful information on
these points.

Education and the formation of habits can
only result from a series of practical exer-
cises.

The motion picture can and must act as
a guide in these subjects, pointing out the

U - Ice Ingl.

770

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

lines to be followed. Educationists ought not
to be content with seeing animated examples
before their eyes. They should apply these
examples in their own homes.

Conclusion. The motion picture is

the most marvellous

instrument for popular education, but in or-

der that it may reach a maximum of effic-
iency and utility in the countryside, the or-
gans which make use of it should give due
weight in their projections to professional,
moral, family, social and recreational ques-
tions in order to stimulate the ameliora-
tion of rural life in the highest sense of
the term.

TWENTY YEARS' EXPERIENCE WITH AGRICULTURAL FILMS

BY

Raymond Evans

HpHE lamp of experience, that old and re-
-"- liable source of illumination so eloquently
adduced by Patrick Henry in his most-fre-
quently-quoted speech, doubtless throws rays
sadly lacking in actinic value. It would
never do for studio illumination. This old
lamp does have a certain power, however,
not possessed by our most modern studio
« inkies ». After its fashion it can illuminate
tomorrow, which is something that even a
fifty-kilowatt incandescent cannot do. So we
may with good reason use this lamp in try-
ing to chart the future of the educational
motion picture.

The experience of the United States De
partment of Agriculture in the use of official
motion pictures for educational work in agri-
culture doubtless covers a longer period than
does that other similar organisation. Be-
ginning with sporadic experimental pro-
duction in 191 1, the work expanded rapidly
during the period of the World War, and
by 1920 motion pictures had become a well-
established feature of the Department's edu-
cational work. The Office of Motion Pictures.

created July 1, 1923, is now a branch of the
Extension Service, serving primarily over
4000 country agricultural agents throughout
the country. This office circulates copies of
about 250 pictures, (silent, sound, 35 mm. and
16 mm.) ranging from one to six reels each,
an aggregate of about 3000 reels. Annual
shipments average about 4500. No rental is
charged for this service, the borrower paying
only the transportation charges.

While agricultural extension agents have
preference in booking, effort is made to serve
also, so far as possible, schools, especially
agricultural high schools, churches, civic
organisations of various kinds, and other
worthy agencies. Figure 1 shows the average
annual distribution of Department of Agri-
culture films to country agents. Figure 2
shows similarly the average total distribution
of these films.

From this relatively long and extensive
experience in the making and distributing
of educational films in a specific field, we
should be able to establish certain facts and
tendencies, the discussion of which may be

TWENTY YEARS' EXPERIENCE WITH AGRICULTURAL FILMS

771

helpful in orientating and promoting the
motion picture as a means of education in
other fields.

Briefly summarized, the conclusions we
have been able to reach in the light of this
experience are:

i) That the motion picture is the most
effective tool available for laying the ground-
work of an educational campaign among
adults;

2) That the motion picture has great
potential value in the field of elementary
education ;

3) That the use of sound is destined
greatly to enhance the value of educational
motion pictures in general;

4) That the sound picture is not destined
wholly to displace the silent picture in
educational work, and in elementary work,
perhaps only to a small degree;

5) That 16 mm. film, in spite of its
limitations, is destined to prevail in a major
sector of the educational field.

Of these conclusions, none is more firmly
fixed in the minds of those qualified to
speak than is the first. In the work of cattle
tick eradication, control of the cotton boll
weevil, prevention of forest fires, and eradic-
ation of bovine tuberculosis — to mention
a few of the projects in which the United
States Department of Agriculture has suc-
cessfully used the motion picture — this
medium has been found to be highly efficient
as a means of preliminary propaganda.

Take, for example, the case of one of
our Department's earliest propaganda films.
« Out of the Shadows », designed to aid in
the fight for the eradication of bovine tu-
berculosis. This film, realized in 1921, was
used in every local campaign waged by the
Department of Agriculture in this work for
more than ten years. Forty-two copies of
the film were worn out in this service. The
picture has been shown in every rural com-

munity in the United States where catde
are of great importance, (see figure 3) and
the fact that now more than half the coun-
ties in the United States are free from
bovine tuberculosis may be attributed in
considerable measure to the influence of this
film. Sixty-one copies of « Out of the Shad-
ows » have been purchased for use in
foreign countries.

Similarly, films have been used with
marked effect in the campaign for the erad-
ication of the cattle-fever tick, in cotton
boll weevil control work, and in the cam-
paign waged by the Forest Service against
forest fires caused by the carelessness or
ignorance of man.

Though not designed for use in element-
ary work in Schools, Department of Agric-
ulture films have been used to a consider-
able extent in school work throughout the
United States. The success reported by
teachers in using these films, designed prim-
arily for adults, tends to confirm the belief
that there is a great field for films prepared
solely for use in schools. In view of the ef-
fectiveness of motion pictures in our own
work, we feel that the importance of pro-
viding films made especially for the elemen-
tary field cannot be too strongly emphasized.

For educational work in general, it seems
clear that the talking picture, if the tech-
nique of presentation is good, is a more ef-
fective tool than the silent picture. With a
given footage, a much greater amount of
subject matter can be presented in a lecture
picture than in a silent picture with explan-
atory sub-titles. Evidence to justify the belief
that the talking picture, for any purpose,
is more acceptable to the general public
than the silent picture, is so overwhelming
as to leave little room for argument.

As to the value of talking pictures for
elementary work, we have no very conclus-
ive evidence. Our experience in this regard

4* - Ice Ingl.

772

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

is limited, since our films are not presented
before children to as great an extent as
before adults, but such reports as we receive
from teachers who use our films tend to in-
dicate that silent pictures in some respects
are better that « talkies » for work with
children of the lower grades.

Our conclusion with respect to the ultim-
ate prevalence of 16mm. film in most edu-
cational work is based on observation of the
actual trend of development rather that on
belief that the merits of narrow-width film
in all respects justifies the trend in that dir-
ection. It is our belief that for serious
educational work, outside of the small class-
room, standard film is far superior to 16mm.
films, especially for sound, and that the ad-
vantages of the 16mm. projector, as com-
pared with the 35mm. portable, are not so
great as is popularly believed. We know that
this contention runs counter to a very general
belief, but we feel that the facts fully justify
our position.

That producers and exhibitors of educa-
tional films should zealously strive to attain
the highest degree of excellence in quality,
both as to picture and sound, will scarcely
be denied by anyone who is genuinely inter-
ested in the success of educational cinema-
tography. It will generally be admitted too,
that the public is already exceedingly criti-
cal as to the quality of motion pictures, espec-
ially as to sound. Nor can it be denied
that 35mm. film is better than 16mm. film
for commercial presentation. Indeed, it may
be laid down as self-evident, that, everything
else being equal, 16mm. film can never be
as good, intrinsically, as 35mm. film, which
offers more than seven times as much area
for transmission of light and two and one-
half times as much room for the modulations
of the sound track, which, even in 35mm.
film, may run as high as several hundred
sine waves to the inch, and in 16mm. must

approximate 500 to the inch if fair quality
of sound is to be obtained. So I think it
may be assumed that, if no question of
cost, personal convenience or legal restriction
is involved, the educator who has any tech-
nical knowledge of the presentation of mo-
tion pictures will use 35mm. film if he uses
films at all.

Nevertheless, the fact remains that most
educators are laymen in the field of motion
pictures, with little knowledge of the tech-
nical question involved, hence it seems
likely that amateur rather than professional
opinion is to prevail in this regard, for the
time being at least, and that the 16mm.
film will presently be largely used in a
sector of the educational field where the
standard portable projector would be decided-
ly more efficient.

This is a situation comparable to that
which would obtain in military affairs if
civil opinion were to override professional
experience and decree that soldiers should
be armed with toy 22-caliber rifles, rather
than standard 30-caliber military rifles using
high-power ammunition. It could plausibly
be argued that 22-caliber ammunition is very
cheap and easy on the taxpayer, and that
the 22-caliber rifle is light and convenient
for soldiers to carry, but who can conceive
of such an argument prevailing in the matter
of national defence? Yet the same fallacious
kind of argument is quite generally ad-
vanced as to equipment for use in education,
and too frequently accepted as valid.

We strongly feel that those who have at
heart the development of educational cin-
ematography on a scale commensurate with
its importance should lose no opportunity
to point out that such argument is based
on assumptions that cannot be justified in
the light of knowledge of the serious tech-
nical problems involved. Surely the cause
of education is, in its way, as important as

TWENTY YEARS' EXPERIENCE WITH AGRICULTURAL FILMS

773

that of national defence. If this be true,
should not the professional educator be as
particular as to the quality of the tools he
uses for visual education as the professional
soldier is as to the range and trajectory of
his lethal weapons?

In this connection we would suggest some
concerted movement of educational agen-
cies against the legal restrictions as to fire
hazard that hamper users of standard film.
These restrictions are based, and quite prop-
erly, on the fact that most 35mm. film is
nitrate stock. But, since safety film has
now been developed till it compares quite
favorably with nitrate, why not outlaw all
nitrate film for projection purposes, and
thus free 35mm. film from the handicap
under which it now labours, as compared
with sub-standard film?
In conclusion :

We are confident that the time is ripe for
an era of great expansion in the use of the
motion picture as an educational tool. We
feel that the most important factor tending

to delay such expansion is the appalling
dearth of truly educational films, films intel-
ligendy designed for specific educational
purposes. Such films, we believe, will never
be produced successfully under the influence
of the commercial studio, or even under the
auspices of producers of so-called « indus-
trial » pictures. We are inclined to believe
that the truly educational film eventually
must come almost exclusively from agen-
cies devoted wholly to the public interested,
from various governmental sources, including
the State Universities, and from other im-
portant institutions of learning. We feel that
it is to the Universities that we must look
now for the development of the pedagogical
film. The pioneer work that has been done
in our country along this line by Yale Uni-
versity, Harvard University and recently by
the University of Chicago, may be cited as
exemplifying the type of production that
promises most toward furthering the motion
picture as a tool for teaching.

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, EdiSor and Responsible Manager
Societa Editrice di « Novissima » - Roma - Via Romanello da Forli, 9

774

Metro

Goldwyn

Mayer

775

Vm? own mooki

So easy; no previous knowledge required.
Just the Agfa Movex with Agfa Reversible Film and

you are ready for taking cine pictures. You don't need a stand,
nor even a cranking handle.

For showina the pictures at home, there is
the Agfa Movector, equally handy and easy to use by
connecting it to any electric supply.

776

If it is
a Paramount

picture

it's the best

show in town

777

THE CULTURAL
FILMS OF THE UFA

BETTER AND BETTER

Our latest scientific films form documents in every field
of science that are without precedent

BAYREUTH PREPARES
FOR ITS FESTIVAL

Authentic documentation of the musical preparation of
the celebrated artistes of the famous lyric theatre; of
the orchestra, which Is composed of 137 performers; of
the choruses of singers chosen from among the best
In every region of Germany. The film also shows the
machinery of the theatre and the organization of the
<miseenscene> of Incomparable spectacles. It was carried
out with the personal collaboration of M. Richard
Strauss, Mme. Winifred Wagner, M. Heinz Tientjen,
general director, and the celebrated corps of collabor-
ators consisting of the conductors Elmendorf and von
Hoesslln, Professors Karl Klttel and Hugo Riidel, the
scenographers Professors Praetorlus and Alfred Roller
and the technical director Paul Eberhard. The principal
roles are taken by the famous soloists of the operatic
performances at Bayreuth In 1934.

F. P. L. BECOMES A REALITY

Film on the Europe-South America alr-mall Itinerary,
On the organisation and role of the " Westfallen ,, air-
base situated In the mldle of the Atlantic.

CURRENTS AND EDDIES

The first really successful films on water currents made
visible by the cinema, and documentation of the re-
searches of which they are the subject. Their consequen-
ces In the construction of boats, the regulation of water
courses, the building of canals and the tracing of new
communication routes.

MARVELLOUS PALACES
OF OLD CHINA

Original, unique film of Pekln, Its environs and the
marvellous palaces found there. Panoramic views of
the famous " Wall of China ,, and the mysterious " For-
bidden City,,.

CAIRO

Cinematographic report on the capital of the new Egypt;
marvellous view of monuments of the ancient kingdom

of the Pharaohs and the luxurious edifices and mosques
of Islam; living pictures of the modern Egyptian life,
both public and popular, which animates the capital.

SIX-LEGGED BUILDERS

Original film on the life of ants In all Its aspects, views
taken by the most modern processes and with lenses
of new Invention.

IN THE OBEDESKA BARA

First sound film on the nesting and hatching of rare
aquatic birds, filmed direct from nature on the banks
of the Save.

WOODS AND GAME

Life of the fallow deer, red deer, elk and wild boar
filmed by the tele-lens: new film of biological Interest
abounding In original views.

FIELDS AND FORESTS

Film showing different kinds of wild roebuck, hare and
rabbit, heathcock, and pheasant. First shooting of origin-
al views of a rare species of bustard.

VITAL ENERGY OF PLANTS

Accelerated film formed of unpublished views of the
marvellous vital energy of plants In germination and of
climbing plants.

PROTECTION AND
PASSAGE OF BIRDS

Illustration of the means to which man and nature has
recourse for the protection of migratory birds.

THE YOUTH OF THE THOR-
OUGHBREDS OF LIPIZZA

Film on the breaking In and training of these famous
thoroughbreds for the Spanish School of Horsemanship
of Vienna.

OUR MARVELLOUS COLOUR FILMS:
COLOURED CREATURES — AQUATIC REVELS AT THE ZOO

nOTSUAIvl; Study of the palace, the famous buildings and sites of the Park of Sans-Soucl.

Ask for our latest richly illustrated catalogue of cultural films; it gives some idea of
our film library of more than a thousand cultural films.

UNIVERSUM FILM AKTIENGESELLSCHAFT

BERLIN, S.W. 19 - Krausensfrasse, 38-59

778

The Mistery

Of

Warner Bros.
First National Film

Vax Museum

With1:

LIONEL ATWILL
FAY W R A Y
GLENDA FARRELL

Directed bY:

MICHAEL CURTIZ

Captured

With:

LESLIE HOWARD
MARGARET LINDSAY
DOUGLAS FAIRBANKS Jr.

Directed bY: ROY DEL RUTH

2 Classics - WARNER BROS FIRST NATIONAL - 1934-35

779

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780

In January 1935 the Re-
view of the International
Institute of Educational

Cinematography

will appear in a new form which will mark a step
forward in its general appearance and subject matter.
The Review will be published in a larger format, and will
contain a number of typographical improvements. It will
also include a number of handsome illustrations.

The scope of the Review will, moreover, be widened,
and questions of all kinds, technical, economic, spiritual,
artistic, social, etc., brought to the front by the cinema and
having as their object the raising of the moral and
intellectual level of the masses, the refinement of taste
and spiritual and material progress generally, will be
dealt with in its columns.

The 1935 volume of our Review has secured contrib-
utions from the best known figures in the international
cinema world. The formation of correspondence bureaux
in the chief centres of the world will enable the Re-
view to publish an extensive service of information that
will be both direct and strictly reliable.

The Review in 1935 will certainly please all
those who are interested in the cinema/ from
an elevated# that is to say/ educational
point of view.

Annual Subscription:

80 Italian lires, or the equivalent in foreign
money at the current rate of exchange on
the day of talcing out the subscription

MM!i:riiiM;MH>]&TJi4YM*]

DUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

MONTHLY PUBLICATION
OF THE INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY (L. OF N.)

ROME - I-a, VIA LAZZARO SPALLANZANI - ROME

YEAR VI. - N. 12.

DECEMBER 1934.

CONTENTS

J. BRENIER ....

C. TOMMASI CRUDELI

A. CAVAILLON . .

L. VIBOREL ....

Z. MATALONI . . .

F. CIAMPITTI . . .
I. DE WLASSICS . .

V. VOJTECH ....

* * *

D. WALEY ....

The Cinema and Popular Education . . . 783

The Utility of the Cinema in the Prevention
and Prophylactics of Disease 785

The Cinema and the Campaign against the
Danger of Venereal Diseases 789

The Cinema, Hygiene and Prevention of Di-
sease 796

Social Sanitary work of the Italian Red Cross
and the Cinema 808

Sport, and the Cinema 812

The Origines and Development of the Edu-
cational Cinema in Hungary 816

Educational and Scholastic Cinematography
in Czechoslovakia 822

The Educational Cinema in China .... 827

How a State Institute may guide Educationists
in their choice of Apparatus .... 829

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING BODY

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of State, Professor of Law at the Univer-
sity of Rome, President.

LUMIfLRE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.

BROWN J. W., Director of the British Film Institute.

CARTON DE WIART Count Henry, Minister of State, Member of the Child Welfare
Committee of the League of Nations.

FOCILLON Henri, Professor at the University of Paris, Member of the Permanent
Committee of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.

GANGULEE Nagendra Nath, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor of Agriculture and Rural
Economy at the University of Calcutta.

KOZMA Nicolas de, Ministerial Councillor, President Director of the Hungarian Tel-
egraph Agency.

LLOPIS Rodolfo, Deputy in the Cortes, ex General Director of Primary Education at
Madrid.

MISTRAL Gabrielle, Authoress, Ex-Directress of the Lycee for young girls at Santiago.

OPRESCU Georges, Professor at the University of Bucharest, Member of the Perma-
nent Commitee of Letters and Arts of the League of Nations.

ORDYNSKI Ryszard, President of the Polish Film Producers' Association.

REYNOLD Gonzago de, Professor at the University of Fribourg, Member of the
Commission for Intellectual Cooperation.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,

The President of the International Agricultural Institute,

The Director of the International Labour Bureau and

The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the I.C.I.C, Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW
Dr. Luciano de FEO, Editor.

P. Berne de Chavannes, Ernest Holzer,

Giuseppe de Feo, Edward Storer.

Jose Maria Gimeno,

Maria Elena Apollonio, Secretary.

THE CINEMA AND POPULAR EDUCATION

BY

J. Brenier

COMMISSIONER GENERAL OF TBE FRENCH BUREAUX OF THE LAY EDUCATIONAL CINEMA

Itake great pleasure in writing my report
under this heading. I should like to put
it on record that the French Secretary of
the Rome International Congress in his
report « C.I. R.A.I. » of January 15th, 1934,
pointed out that I had agreed to make a
report on « The Cinema and Post-Scholastic
Teaching)). This was not exact. At the
meeting of the organizing committee of the
Rome Congress of January 5 last, I agreed
to speak on « Cinema and Popular Educa-
tion ». This subject is logically connected
with the programme of the Second Section,
while « The Cinema and Post-scholastic
Teaching » comes under the work of the
First Section.

The Educational
Value of the Cin-
ema.

There is no use in
opening up a fresh
discussion on this
point, in my opinion. As things stand now,
no one denies that the motion picture is the
most efficacious means for popular education
of which we can dispose today. This is why
all those who are interested in popular edu-
cation are following the work of the cinema
in this field.

How It Is to Be Before an indisputable
Utilized. £actj ±e Rome In.

ternational Congress
must be satisfied with simply registering the
efforts made in the various countries and
the results obtained. It should seek inspir-
ation to develop common ideas and meth-
ods, as well as technical advances, whereby
accords and conventions on broad lines could
be made likely to prove extremely useful
for the future of the motion picture.

Difficult and delicate as these problems
and their solution appear when set forth in
this way, it is my belief that this coordinat-
ing, collaborative effort is a necessity, for
not only does it contain practical possibilities
for the progress of the educational film,
but also the hope of a drawing together,
of a loyal and friendly cooperation be-
tween men of diverse intellectual formation
and nationality, all united in a common in-
tent to use the cinema for educational ends,
excluding everything likely to create hatred
or accentuate antagonisms of race, religion
or ideas so to provoke conflicts of interests
and the risk of war.

International Films. Having thus freed this
field of action, there
still remains for the educational cinema
some magnificent work to do along cultural
and documentary lines in general.

For instance, the film can defend the
race against the perils of alcoholism, disease,
overcrowding, etc. It can teach man how
to use machinery, and illustrate for him the
contradictions and paradoxes of a badly reg-
ulated economy. It can show us how to
help support suffering, and how to derive
great advantages from our efforts. It can
teach us how to free ourselves from ego-
istic demands, and point the way towards
coordinating production and consumption.

To teach mankind a knowledge of the
far off places of the world in which types
of men quite different from ourselves dwell,
to picture for us the troubles and difficulties
of their existence, and show how they
overcome them, and all the progress that is
made throughout the world, means building

784

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

up a fraternal spirit and a sense of human
solidarity in the struggle for existence,
which is the fate the large majority of
mankind has to face.

To illustrate for the vast public with
motion picture the marvellous places, the
enchanting sites of the earth, the deserts, the
seas, the villages, the busy life of the metrop-
oli with their giant skyscrapers means teach-
ing the beauty of nature and winning ad-
miration for it, means showing the patient
efforts of the citizens of the modern world
towards the creation of a new and better
civilization and the creation of means to
enjoy it.

To give children and adults a knowledge
of life and of the strange and multiform
denizens of the earth means helping them
to understand the mysterious laws of the
instincts which guide created beings in their
incessant labour of procreation, being born,
living and dying. It should also teach us
that man's intellectual superiority imposes
on him the obligation of being good towards
those who suffer.

The recreational picture which can raise
a laugh and create that mirth which is so
necessary for both children and grown-ups
signifies rounding out and completing that
universal educational work which comes
within the scope and capacity of the motion
picture.

Towards an Ideal. Shall we realize our

ideal one day? We
must not doubt it, and it is our duty to
consecrate all our efforts to that end.

There are doubtless many obstacles in the
way, which must be overcome. Among such
obstacles, we may mention the position
taken up already by the different nations

and the various groups which use the cin-
ema.

It goes without saying that it is not the
case to lay down rules and regulations which
are likely to limit and restrict — in the
national scheme — the liberty, independ-
ence, and autonomy of the various national
groups. Everyone should remain free within
his own organization, method, propaganda
and activity in general.

Results. Our united efforts

would prove much
more efficacious in the international sphere,
if we were able to come to an agreement
on these points:

a) establishment of a universal format
for films;

b) films of world-wide utility worth
producing;

c) what organs should be created to
preserve negatives, see to the making of
copies, their transport, etc.;

d) what measures should be taken to
ensure rapid distribution and circulation of
films.

On the international plane of the edu-
cational cinema, the best results would be
obtained if an accord were come to on the
foregoing points.

• Each country, each group will no doubt
continue its activity along the path it has
already chosen, even though the special con-
ditions made for each, both from the moral
and the material points of view, make it im-
possible, at least for the present, to lay down
international regulations.

It will suffice for the moment merely to
examine these points.

THE UTILITY OF THE CINEMA IN THE PREVENTION
AND PROPHYLACTICS OF DISEASE

BY

Dr. Corrado Tommasi-Crudeli

INSPECTOR-GENERAL DIRECTION OF PUBLIC HEALTH

The conquests of the cinema in the de-
partments of teaching, propaganda and
popular education are becoming every day
wider and better appreciated. The contin-
uous progress made by medical science
and hygiene and the practical applications
thereof which are all turned to the advant-
age of our daily existence are easily and
efficiently demonstrated by the motion pic-
ture which possesses the immense advantage
of fixing the ideas projected firmly in the
mind, at the same arousing an active process
of association of ideas on the part of the
listener.

The cinema is a most valuable means of
great practical utility which we must use
with the greatest fervour. Every civilization
must have its popularizers, those who bring
the laws and mysteries of science within the
reach of all. The discoveries and inventions
made in solitude and in the silence and
quiet of laboratories must be divulged pop-
ularized, assimilated and rendered access-
ible to the great mass of the public so that
everyone can know and appreciate them.

To divulge and render popular the works
of science is a difficult and delicate task,
just as it is difficult to bring within the
reach of all the technical laboratory discov-
ery or the abstruse theory couched in
scientific language.

Our task must be to provide a simple and
pleasant form for presenting theoretical and
scientific notions in such a way that even
children can understand them, while, at the
same time, we must not go beyond the lim-
its of strict scientific reality.

These educational hygiene pictures should

be clearly set forth and the sequences care-
fully arranged. Sub-titles should be simple
and short, and all written in a homely style
and in such a way as to meet the unex-
pressed but Teal desire of the spectators to
learn without effort under the guidance of
a person of intelligence and good sense.

Projections ought to be connected with
the illustrious names of the scientific discov-
erers of the various problem treated, so that
the public may know and understand the
characteristics of modern civilization, and
appreciate how much all comforts and so-
cial benefits, all inventions and conquests of
science have cost in abnegation, study and
tenacious work. These are all so many
striking examples of good will and worth
which are of help in the moral education
of young men and certainly form one of the
chief virtues of the cinema.

In the department of defence against dis-
ease, it is obviously of great utility to ins-
truct the public, following the criteria here
indicated, on the etiology of infectious and
parasitic diseases, the harm they are capable
of causing to the population and the knowl-
edge acquired through sciendfic research
on the possibilities of defence against infec-
tious germs and parasites. A defence of this
kind is rendered possible by the adoption
of adequate measures of prevention and
prophylaxis.

It is the highly important task of hygiene
to fix the prophylactic measures to be used.
They should be divided into general and
particular measures. The first have a great
practical value since they must always be
taken into account and applied as the

786

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

base o£ any prophylactic action. Infectious
diseases of the ordinary type can generally
be traced to a large number of circumstan-
tial factors and the influence of surround-
ings which favour the development of in-
dividual cases of such diseases. It is clear
that in the prophylaxis of infectious and
parasitic diseases we must distinguish be-
tween certain measures of a general charac-
ter that should be followed in the case of
any infectious or contagious disease and
other steps of a quite different character
which should be adopted only in the event
of the incidence of specific illnesses. Such
measures depend on determined conditions
connected with the biology of the individual
infectious micro-organisms.

These special and particular measures,
which it is a matter of the greatest import-
ance to divulge and popularize, are in contra-
distinction to the general measures, in-
dividual and different for each disease. The
rules of individual self-defence against dis-
ease are of the highest importance for the
purpose of preventing another class of illnes-
ses, that is the so called vocational diseases,
for which, just as for infectious and para-
sitic diseases, science is every day providing
new means of defence and prophylaxis.

This then is the lofty task of cinematog-
raphy placed at the service of the great
cause of hygiene. It must spread knowledge,
popularize scientific conceptions, bring theor-
etical notions within the sphere of practical
application. It must teach the rules and reg-
ulations which can preserve human life
from the dangers and contagions and the
insidious perils which cause such misery
and suffering among the masses of the
people.

We should remember in this connection
what one of our most distinguished hy-
gienists Dr Vallisi has said : « Hygiene must
come down to real hard facts if it wants to
be efficacious ». Another learned exponent of
hygiene principles, Dr Rubner has also de-
clared : « Hygiene is a subject matter in
which theory and practice cannot be separ-

ated, and it is only of utility in so far as
it is capable of effecting its purpose ».

In the field of educational cinematog-
raphy, the greatest share of attention should
be given to illustrating the pathogenetic and
defensive mechanisms of individual infec-
tious, parasitic and vocational diseases, ac-
cording to the most recent discoveries of
science.

These cinematographic illustrations ought
to be explained to the people in the simplest,
clearest and most comprehensible fashion
possible so that everyone may know how
useful it is to be in a position to defend
oneself or one's family against the threats
of a hidden danger. The simplest form of
technique which can very well be used in
all cinematographic manifestations of this
kind should be followed. It should consist
in taking examples from every day, ordinary
existence, for this is the most simple and
most convincing form of demonstration. In
other words, the projection ought to show
the incidents and contingencies of real life
with man in the centre, hygienic man as a
model to be followed. In this way alone,
can such illustrations become truthful and
instructive.

To go into details, it should be noted
that parasitic and vocational diseases also
offer an important field for cinema propa-
ganda.

In fact, various diseases produced by ex-
ternal parasites, are, as Prof. Abba has so
well pointed out, the consequence of care-
lessness and self-neglect, when indeed such
diseases cannot be laid to the door of bad
upbringing and parental neglect.

In times past, the ignorance of the people
used to include pediculosis among scholastic
diseases since it was found to be very com-
mon at the school age. In reality, individual
hygiene has shown us that the trouble can
easily be avoided by simple personal clean-
liness of the body and especially the head,
as well as of course, of the clothes.

Other diseases caused by internal parasites
such as ascarides, taenia to mention a
few of the commonest, are illnesses which

IN THE PREVENTION AND PROPHYLACTICS OF DISEASE

787

can safely be avoided by the exercise of an
education in the principles of hygiene, since
if we know the origin and the mechanism
of their incidence in men, it is easy to avoid
the risk of infection.

In the case of vocational diseases, it is
only too often the case that the inception of
the malady depends on the workers' ignor-
ance, excessive confidence, or carelessness
of danger which prevents them from taking
the proper precautionary measures of defence.
An example will illustrate what we mean.
In the case of vocational saturnism or lead
poisoning, we have a magnificent opportun-
ity for instructing the mass of workers en-
gaged in this dangerous trade on the perils
of lead poisoning. Cinema lessons could
show them the proper way to carry out their
various operations, the precautions that
should be taken, typical cases of lead poi-
soning, with an exposition of the symptoms,
the cures and all the methods and systems
for avoiding risk. Attendance at such lessons
should be made obligatory for lead workers
and all those who through their vocational
exercises run the risk of getting lead poi-
soning.

As regards infectious diseases, the motion
picture should be widely used, not only in
elementary and secondary schools, but also
in universities, to explain mechanical ideas
and processes in their practical applications.

There is no need here to go into the
matter of the various characteristics of edu-
cational cinematography as practised for var-
ious classes and ages and the best means
of carrying out motion picture lessons. It
may be said in general that a well ordered,
clear, truthful and fundamental exposition
based on examples from life should be the
type of projection aimed at in lessons given
for instructing persons in prophylactic meas-
ures against infectious and vocational dis-
eases and disorders. It will always be best
in projecting pictures of this kind to follow
a logical and invariable system of distribu-
tion of the material, a kind of fixed plan or
plot to carry the various points and scenes
of the exposition and demonstration. This

is not difficult since the special prophylaxis
of infectious diseases is based on a constant
sequence of facts common for all cases and
persons.

In view of the fact that infectious diseases
are transmitted from the sick to the healthy
person directly or through the medium of
materials objects or vectors, the successive
problems are constantly the following ones:
in what manner does the sick person, or the
disease-carrier prove dangerous to the healthy
individual, what ways and vectors of ap-
proach are open for facilitating the incre-
ment of disease? It is on a framework of
similar inquiries that the whole mechanism
of the most dangerous infectious diseases
can be examined from the prophylactic point
of view and the necessary precautions and
remedies excogitated.

A good example of the treatment and
precautions that can be used for avoiding
infectious maladies by the public is the
treatment and prophylaxis of typhoid fever,
which still claims far too many victims.

If we are to overthrow this disease and
complete the attacks that have been made
on it in medical and hygienic quarters,
there must be a great campaign of propa-
ganda among the public. This propaganda
should chiefly be undertaken, or, at any rate,
should have its central foci in the ele-
mentary and secondary schools, in workmen's
spare time and leisure associations and
clubs, and in women's organization of var-
ious kinds. The motion picture should be
the means used for explanation, illustration
and demonstration. It is a surer and better
means than lectures, and can reach lower
classes of society, since it is more immed-
iately attractive in its appeal and easily
grasped. The public should be taught how
the germ of typhoid is developed and spread,
how it penetrates into the healthy human
organism, how man can be defended from
it both individually and socially. The great
benefits deriving from cleanliness of the
hands, from boiling milk, from washing
vegetables, from a careful choice of food-
stuffs, from keeping flies away from eat-

788

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

ables and from personal and home cleanliness
should be duly illustrated and stressed.

What has been said of typhoid is true of
other infectious diseases, in which the trans-
mission of the infection, apart from direct
contact, can come through materials and
objects and other avenues of approach.
These vectors or avenues of approach should
be carefully explained and the methods for
blocking them illustrated. Thus there is the
question of the domestic washing and of
one's clothes in certain infections, household
utensils, glasses, cups, knives spoons and
forks and other objects of table use in cases
of tuberculosis, scarlet fever, diphtheria and
typhoid. Then there are also children's toys
and workmen's tools to be considered as
disease-carriers and also surgical instruments
in diphtheria, syphilis, sepsis, books in the
case of scarlet fever and tuberculosis; the
rooms occupied by the patient in scarlet
fever, erysipelas, small-pox, consumption;
food, drinking water, fruit, vegetables, shell
fish, etc. in intestinal disorders. In addition,
there are avenues of infection like flies in
cholera, epidemics and typhoid fever mos-
quitoes in malaria infections, lice in typhus
and fleas in the dissemination of plague.

The foregoing considerations lead us to
conclude that the motion picture should
form part of the normal outfit of every
school, whether elementary, secondary or
university.

Motion picture propaganda should also be
effectuated at workmen's spare time institu-
tions, in women's organizations, in clubs
factories, workshops, large business houses
and municipalities generally.

The material for such propagands should
be chosen by proper centres of coordination
and distribution, whether governmental or
semi-governmental. Social providence and
thrift can also be taught under these con-
ditions.

The workings of such centres can, in
Italy, be rendered easy and immediately
profitable through the activity of a magnif-
icent existing organ which is perfectly and
admirably equipped for the task. This is
the LUCE Institute, which already posses-
ses a well stocked repository of cinema ma-
terial for propaganda purposes.

This centre to which we have referred
could also very well undertake the exchange
of hygiene propaganda films with other
countries, taking advantage of the customs
exemptions granted to the International
Institute of Educational Cinematography of
the League of Nations, at the same time
keeping an up to date catalogue of the
pictures issued by the various nations on
hygiene and health and social providence.
Such a catalogue would be most valuable
for future developments of this sector of ac-
tivity which is such an important part of
educational cinematography.

THE CINEMA AND THE CAMPAIGN
AGAINST THE DANGER OF VENEREAL DISEASES

BY

Dr. Andre Cavaillon

CHIEF OF THE CENTRAL SERVICE OF PROPHYLACTICS OF THE MINISTRY OF PUBLIC HYGIENE -
DELEGATE OF THE FRENCH NATIONAL LEAGUE AGAINST THE DANGER OF VENEREAL DISEASES.

It is no longer necessary to point out the
importance of the cinematograph in edu-
cational propaganda, nor do we intend to
dwell on this point. But is it possible to
make use of the cinema in the educational
propaganda against the danger of venereal
diseases? This it a problem of quite another
order, because in this field many are of the
opinion that it is a very delicate task to
deal publicity with questions which are only
too frequently both unpleasing and equiv-
ocal.

Yes, these excellent advisers say, you can
carry on public education by means of the
cinema in all the other branches of social
hygiene, but you cannot when it is a quest-
ion of syphilis. The public, they assert, is
not prepared for such thing; you will arouse
suspicion, attract attention, cause scandal or
at the very least you will certainly talk in
vain.

It is undoubtedly a very delicate affair
to speak of syphilis, and everything de-
pends on the way we do it. We have often
had to suffer from the effects of certain
lectures in the course of which some zeal-
ous propagandists had spoken of venereal
diseases in terms that were ill suited to the
audience present. But as a matter of fact,
we soon realize that when these excellent
counsellors declare that the public is not
yet prepared to see syphilis treated by the
cinema, it is they themselves who are not
ready to hear it spoken of, only they fear
to confess the fact. They generously attrib-
ute to the general public an opinion which
it does not hold and which they themselves
blush to acknowledge.

In any case, in this as in every other
question, it is experience alone that can
guide us. Any opinion is permissible until
experiment has shown, definitively and
without possibility of mistake that the opin-
ion is wrong; in which case there is noth-
ing to do but accept the fact, whatever
it may be. At one time, in France, it was
forbidden to speak of venereal diseases
through the cinema and the censor was
against any presentation of documentary or
dramatic films which treated of syphilis,
no matter how this was done.

To overcome this conspiracy of silence, it
was necessary to have recourse to extreme
measures. One day, the President of the
Republic having inaugurated the new
premises of the Prophylactic Institute, the
ceremony was shot for the news-reel and
was afterwards projected without arousing
the slightest protest, the sub-titles having
been prepared with great care.

Later on, for months and months, the
propaganda service arranged for the filming
of news-reels of the numerous inaugurations
of anti-venereal prophylactic institutions
which began to be formed in all parts of
France. Not a single protest was raised; the
public was quite willing to be kept in-
formed of the prophylactic effort that was
being made, in the same way that it was
kept informed about any other form of
social activity.

Let us return, however, to the beginning
of the anti-venereal education propaganda
by means of the cinema. It is obvious that
the main reason why we were at last able to
succeed in this was the fact that the ban of

790

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

silence had been lifted all over the country.

Even up to a few years ago, the hygien-
ist found himself, in many cases, facing not
only negligence or red tape but also a
determined opposition to any kind of or-
ganized and systematic teaching.

In fact, both in educated and in other
circles, we were faced by a kind of insur-
mountable wall whenever we tried to deal
with the subject of venereal diseases. In prac-
tically every family, parents and teach-
ers maintained absolute silence on this sub-
ject.

Family reviews dealing with hygiene,
which published information and articles
on every other problem in this province,
refused to accept contributions referring,
even with the greatest prudence, to the sub-
ject of venereal diseases.

Fortunately, that state of things has come
to an end. Those who have not yet made up
their minds on this subject are at least
ready to consider it, and those who still
refuse to allow the problem of venereal
diseases to be dealt with under the same
conditions as other problems of social hy-
giene are at least willing that young men
and girls should be initiated in regard to its
difficulties.

The greater number of parents, how-
ever, although accepting the principle and
insisting that they alone are qualified to
instruct their children, are apt to wait for
a suitable occasion for doing so, and to put
off the subject from day to day in their
embarrassment in dealing with such a sub-
ject, so that in the end they do nothing.

How are we to reconcile this need of
a warning with the respect due to one of
the finest feelings of infancy and youth, the
pure faith that lifts fathers and mothers
learned and respected teachers above all
physiological matters ?

A few years ago we wrote in the Inter-
national Review of the Educational Cinema
that a suitable film is undoubtedly the most
delicate means for educating a youthful
mind. By its means we can avoid putting
either parents and masters on the one hand

or children on the other into an embarras-
sing situation. The cinema presents nothing
but pictures which show life to a young
man, who will first retain the impression
received and will afterwards be gradually
influenced by the long and necessary work
of mental penetration and adaptation.

It is life which will teach him this les-
son and not he whom, in his faith, he
places above all human weakness.

How are we to make the films which
are to illustrate the danger of venereal dis-
eases to the public?

We do not hesitate to answer the ques-
tion by asserting that there can be neither
standard films nor films of a single type.

There must be, indeed, as many kinds
of film as there are different publics, which
cannot all be warned in the same fashion.
The sailors of a ship sailing for a stay of
months or years in the Far East, the young
recruit entering barracks, the young woman
undergoing her training as a teacher, the
young lad just leaving college, the nurse
training for work in social assistance and
the great mass of the public formed of old
and young, parents and children, all need
their special kind of film.

The film, like the lecture, must be suit-
ed to its audience; we must have a complete
scale of films.

An attempt to educate all in the same
way is the greatest mistake that could be
made.

Let us consider, first of all, what sort of
film should be prepared for what we may
call the « great public ».

It is obvious that such a film should
make evident the possible risk of a simple
kiss, the serious danger of making sus-
picious acquaintances, the harm that a neg-
lected attack of syphilis may cause, the ter-
rible law which afflicts the descendants of
a subject suffering from neglected syphilis
or one who has been imperfectly cured,
and also the resources of modern therapeu-
tics and the certainty that a perfect cure will
result from immediate and able treatment
and the proper care of a good dootor, pro-

CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE DANGER OF VENEREAL DISEASES

791

vided the patient does not neglect his own
part of the treatment, but continues it for
the necessary time.

The film must have human interest
and must not contain any scenes that are
liable to make a painful impression. The
scenes must be of a kind that can be shown
to young men and girls, or mothers, and
that could not in any case be discouraging
to a possible sufferer from the disease who
might be among the audience, but should
put him on his guard and instruct him.
Other conditions may be fulfilled according
as the film is a documentary or dramatic
picture.

The film presented by the Propaganda
Commission of the National Office of
Social Hygiene, which illustrates a lecture
given by Dr. Rabut for the French National
League against the danger of venereal dis-
eases, seems to us a typical documentary
film.

But it is not the documentary film only
that must instruct the general public.

It is infinitely better, nine times out of
ten, to instruct the latter without giving
it the impression that it is receiving a lesson,
and it is much more effective to have thou-
sands of persons flocking to see a film in
the ordinary way and paying for their seats,
quite unconscious of the fact that they are
looking at an educational film, than it is
to get a few hundreds of persons together,
with difficulty, to see a film which is ad-
mittedly a purely propaganda film.

On the other hand, although dramatic
films of this kind are not easy to make,
they can be made, as experience has shown.

From the very beginning, excellent work
has been done in France in this field by
Dr. Devraigne, head physician of the
Lariboisiere Maternity Hospital, the film
being prepared for the screen by M. Benoit-
Levy.

All those who have seen the film, and
they number some hundreds of thousands,
know that it is called « The Three Friends »,
and everyone is agreed that it has all the
qualities required in an educational film.

I have already laid stress on the fact that
this film illustrates in a surprising way the
possibility of making known everything, of
saying and indicating everything on the
screen while preserving the utmost delicacy
in every scene.

It deals mainly with hereditary syphilis.
The idea which the film endeavours to
impress on all, and which, if understood and
followed, vould save the lives of thousands
of children in France every year, is this:
if you are affected with syphilis, even
though you had it long ago, if you have
not been properly cured, if your parents
suffered from it and were not cured com-
pletely, you will certainly bring into the
world stillborn children, cripples, diseased
children, perhaps even monsters.

There is one thing only that can prevent
this disaster: have yourself examined and
if necessary undergo treatment in a
hospital or social hygiene dispensary, or
even under your own doctor. This should
be done when there is the slighest doubt,
or better, even though you have no suspic-
ion of there being anything wrong, because
one can never be sure of one's ancestry. I
do not think it would be possible to carry
out cinematographically this hygienic ad-
vice, which would save some thousands of
youthful lives, in a more feeling, subtle
or profitable way than has been done in
this film, « The Three Friends ». The
consultation at the hospital for the young
mothers and their babies is a masterpiece
of feeling and truth.

Nor must we forget the representation
of the nutritive and microbic exchanges
between mother and child before birth,
which has been given in M. Mourlan's an-
imated cartoons.

The music is stopped; in solemn silence
the audience follows in outline on the
screen the contagion that passes along the
veins and arteries to the foetus, when the
mother is diseased, by the work of trepo-
nemes.

It is with a genuine feeling of relief
that we see the effects, still sketched in out-

792

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

line, of the treatment which first neutral-
ized and then destroys the dangerous mi-
crobes. The hall resounds with deserved ap-
plause.

This film was produced at the request
of the Ministry of Hygiene for protection
during the educational propaganda cam-
paign organized in France on a regular and
permanent basis by the National Office of
Social Hygiene, the Prophylactic Service
for Venereal Diseases and the French Nat-
ional League against Venereal Danger. It
was to be projected before the general pub-
lic, at meetings, to sailors and students, fac-
tory girls, the young women attending
women's clubs, etc.

From the moment of its recent presenta-
tion at the Sorbonne by Professor Couvelaire
before M. A. Fallieres, Minister of Hygiene,
it had the greatest success, because this was
the first time that a social study on heredit-
ary syphilis was made in the vivid form of
living history and not according to the dry
formulae of a documentary film.

But our idea was to present the film at
lectures, that is to say, to much smaller aud-
iences than are to be found in the ordinary
cinema; and this is where our story begins.

This being our idea, it was with a certain
astonishment and even some with some
scepticism that we heard, some days ago,
that the manager of a Boulevard cinema who
had seen the film by chance had considered
it likely to interest his usual audience.

But our scepticism had to give way when
we saw in the daily paper the announce-
ment of the programme containing « The
Three Friends », just in the same way as
such programmes contain the announce-
ment of a comic American film or a « yellow
film », followed in this case by the flatter-
ing comment, « very special and interesting
film ». What we wanted to know was to
what extent the public frequented this cin-
ema while the film was on and what were
its reactions and judgment.

The best way of finding out these facts
was to go there ourselves. As soon as we
reached the entrance to the cinema, where

a poster clearly stated the title of the film,
with the slight alteration « There Were
Once Three... Syphilitic Friends », we saw
that an enormous crowd was entering, and
shortly afterwards the projection began in
a theatre packed with an audience that
followed the film religiously for an hour by
the clock, without laughing or weeping or
yawning, without giving sign of the least
boredom, but indeed, manifesting the live-
liest interest. All this, too, for a film
they had paid to see, although we would
willingly have paid them to come provided
they were in sufficient number and attentive.

What kind of audience was this, which
understood and was moved by the film?

It was the usual cinema audience, from
the poorest to the most elegant in the boxes,
young men and women, fathers of families,
old people.

There was not a single protest, not a
snigger; it was just the sort of audience
that one would like to have always.

What is the reason of this success, which
will end in « The Three Friends » being
projected in every cinema?

First of all, it is due to its impeccable
conception and production, to the fact that
Devraigne and Benoit-Levy, in their at-
tempt to show the danger of syphilis and
the way to protect and cure oneself, have
been clever enough to show and say every-
thing that it is necessary to say and show
in order to convince, but not to exceed
that.

Secondly, it is due to the fact that the
French public is passionately interested in
the cinema (as in the theatre) not only
when its object is to amuse or stir the
emotions, but also when it appeals to the
judgment and intelligence, speaking in the
language that this public loves, that is to
say, plainly and frankly but without vulgarity
or brutality.

A film conceived by Dr. Tartarin Mala-
kowki deals with another side of the prob-
lem, namely the danger run by our young
seamen when they land in far-off ports
and, forgetting for the moment their young

CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE DANGER OF VENEREAL DISEASES

793

wives or sweethearts, in spite of the love
they feel and the promises they have given,
put themselves in the way of the many
dangers that lie in wait for them in the
equivocal resorts and dance halls of those
ports.

The picture of the young sailor's wife
with her baby in her arms, or the sweet-
heart, watching the horizon for the sail or
plume of smoke that announce the return
of the loved one, are too familiar to every-
one for there to be any doubt as the emo-
tion that would be aroused by a film deal-
ing with this subject.

The courage of young women in suffer-
ing, their power of love and forgiveness
offer so many emotional themes, and the
finest frame for such themes is the motion
of the sea and the waves dashing against
the rocky coast.

But there are other films beside the
French. We have seen excellent films pro-
jected with success, such as « The Enemy
of the Blood », a film which has been
shown in nearly every cinema in France
and has made the danger of venereal dis-
eases, the need of combatting them and
the possibility of protection known to hun-
dreds of thousands of spectators.

So far we have spoken of films that
have been produced to be seen by every-
one.

We must now speak of those intended
for special environments. The questions
that can and must be dealt with cover a
vast field. A whole film library can be
formed of them by degrees.

Let us take for instance, the education
of young soldiers. There is no longer any
reason to keep silence or to conceal any-
thing, and especially we must no longer
keep hidden the image of the sexual or-
gans or, more correctly, the image of their
lesions. It is no longer necessary to show
simply the lip chancre, we may also show
a genital chancre. In the same way, we can
show gonorrhea more completely and also
its chief symptom.

There is also another branch of hu-

manity for which it is absolutely indispens-
able to have special films, namely, indig-
enous populations, which have not yet
aquired the town mentality and whose in-
terest must be aroused by talking in their
own language, instead of just putting sub-
titles which they do not understand.

In an entertaining film conceived by
Benoit-Levy and carried out in animated
cartoon form by Mourlan, a Mohammed,
strong as a lion in the beginning, agile as
a panther and as a gazelle, distresses the
audience as the film proceeds by a series
of mishaps, which appear, at the end of the
film, to be due to a neglected syphilis. Mo-
hammed learns that he has only to submit
to treatment to become cured, and shortly
afterwards we see him again as agile as a
panther and strong as a lion, marching with
the best dromedaries and tiring them out.

It must not be imagined, however, that
this film produced for the natives of North
Africa could be projected in all Mussulman
countries. We ourselves found that although
it was excellent in Algiers and Tunis it
was not suited to Cairo, the Mussulman
inhabitants of which town have a difficulty
in understanding the Arabic spoken in Al-
giers and also need films of a different
type.

As we said above, therefore, what is
wanted is a entire film library which must
be formed by degrees and developed from
day to day.

The silent film has served its turn; the
public wants the talking film now. We
must organize ourselves to supply it, just
as we were organized to supply the silent
film.

On the other hand, the problem of ve-
nereal diseases cannot be dealt with in one
single film, not even in one of the great
superfilms. Some of them will deal with
certain developments and sides of the prob-
lem, others will endeavour to illustrate
points that have up to now been kept dark.
The range of subjects to be treated is very
vast.

It is also necessary to do over again the

794

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

same idea under different aspects. We
must not give up the idea of making another
film on hereditary syphilis because there is
already a perfect one in existence. It re-
quires several blows of the hammer to drive
in a nail, and we must insist on the need
for all prospective parents to be cured and
healthy before beginning to produce chil-
dren.

Many films can be made, without fear
of their being superfluous, with the object
of putting our young seamen on guard
against the hospitable and often infamous
houses to be found in every region and port.

In how many other circles also the film
could carry out its work of propaganda!

There is one very delicate point on which
we feel bound today to take up a clear
stand.

It is a point of pure doctrine, but a cap-
ital one on account of its practical conse-
quences, namely, the problem of educating
the public in everything connected with
venereal diseases, which subject is very close-
ly allied with sexual education. In fact,
numerous educators tend to join their efforts
for sexual education and anti-venereal edu-
cation together. But if they are right in
theory, I do not hesitate to say that in
practice they are wrong, seriously wrong.

If we may say that the battle is won as
far as the anti-venereal education of the
public is concerned it must not be supposed
that there is no possibility of a change of
ideas.

There are still many who feel at bottom
that the projection in public of problems
which they themselves dare not face openly
is an offence. They submit, because so far
the films presented leave no branch open
to justifiable criticism. But if the chance
should offer, these persons would not hes-
itate to assert that anti-venereal education
is useless and even perhaps scandalous.
Such a chance might be given to them by
sexual education.

We can say this with an easy mind
because, as far as the writer personally is

concerned, he is in favour of sexual edu-
cation. He is not at all of the opinion of
those who want silence kept on this subject,
but thinks that it would be well to speak
clearly and freely to young people of both
sexes, not only of their puberty, but also,
and even more necessarily of sexual prob-
lems.

« They teach us how to live when life
is ended », said Montaigne.

The personal opinion of the writer of
this article has nothing to do, as regards this
particular point, with the way of acting of
those whose duty is to carry on the anti-
venereal campaign.

We ask ourselves whether or no anti-
venereal education should be incorporated
with sexual education.

It is obvious that there should be no
delay in the latter case, but that every means
should be used to convince those opposed to
sexual education; it will not be easy, for
many reasons, to win this battle but in any
case we must engage in it. In the former
case, on the contrary, we may limit ourselves
to arousing interest in the anti-venereal
campaign; there is no need to teach young
people genital anatomy and physiology to
make them aware of the Celtic diseases.

Now, our opinion and conviction on this
point, formed already for some years past,
is just this. Why knock our heads, then,
against those very tendencies which, al-
though accepting the idea of venereal edu-
cation, are absolutely and definitely hostile
to any kind of sexual education?

Why insist on joining the two problems
together?

By doing this, we are almost certain of
making it impossible to continue our work
of anti-venereal education. We are not
speaking lightly, and we know by exper-
ience that some lectures officially intended
for future educators were permitted as long
as what was aimed at was to put the future
educators on guard against the venereal
danger, but they were at once prohibited
when the organizers of the lectures, prof-
iting by the authorization granted, tried

CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE DANGER OF VENEREAL DISEASES

795

to combine an anti-venereal lecture with one
on sexual anatomy and physiology.

If the problem appears under this aspect
from the general point of view, it will
be the same from the cinematograph point
of view.

We do not in the least see the advantage,
for the anti-venereal campaign, of showing
the anatomy and physiology of sexual
organs at the cinema, even schematically.

It could be done, certainly, in spite of
the difficulties in the way, which in our
opinion are not insurmountable; and we
have seen some films, especially foreign
ones, presented with great refinement,
which we consider could be shown to boys
and girls, from the age of puberty, with-
out the slightest inconvenience. But since
this is not the general opinion and since it
is not indispensable to anti-venereal edu-

cation, why run the risk of having any at-
tempt at such education forbidden by in-
sisting, for purely doctrinal reasons, on
giving the sexual education at the same
time as the anti-venereal?

In our opinion, the mere posing of the
question provides the answer to it.

But whatever may be thought on this
particular point, we shall never tire of assert-
ing that the cinema represents one of the
best means at hand for anti-venereal edu-
cation; a much better means than the lec-
ture and easier to use than the radio; and its
value cannot but increase through the infin-
itely greater possibilities offered by the
dramatized talking film.

We must recognize that from now on
the cinema is the best means to use for
popular education against the danger of ven-
ereal diseases.

THE CINEMA, HYGIENE AND PREVENTION

OF DISEASE

BY

Lucien Viborel

SECRETARY GENERAL OF THE PROPAGANDA BUREAU OP THE SOCIAL HYGIENE SERVICE
OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH MINISTRY

Propaganda by the The propaganda work
Educational Cin- j d Qn fa ^ Ed

ema for Hygiene '_

and Prevention of cational Cinema in
Social Diseases. the interests of hy-

giene and the preven-
tion of social disease increases year by year.
We propose to offer here some incontest-
able proofs of this fact, at the same
time expressing all the faith and trust we
have in this powerful means for spreading
a knowledge of general information.

Whether we desire to render scholastic
teaching more concrete and to allow the
elementary and rural schools to profit by
the discoveries made with the use of the
microscope in scientific laboratories, or
whether we are anxious to place before our
children's eyes those portions of the globe
it will never be their fate to see, or whether
we wish to furnish workers with that min-
imum of culture to which Madame Diehl
so eloquently referred at the Rome Inter-
national Cinema Congress and the Internat-
ional Women's Council or whether we seek
to help mankind to avoid the perils and
scourges which menace them or to improve
their future, it is in every case to the motion
pictures that we must have recourse.

As far as we ourselves are concerned,
we employ the cinema in a quite limited
and definite manner, that is, for spread-
ing a knowledge of hygiene and social dis-
ease prevention.

Teaching and Edu-
cational Film.

There is no need to
insist on the value of
the teaching film that accompanies and
completes the teacher's lesson, but we hold

it to be useful until the student becomes
a grown man when we must use the educa-
tional film to spread notions of hygiene and
prophylaxis among the masses.

The educational film, we have had oc-
casion to notice, has been used by the lec-
turers of the General Commission of Social
Hygiene, at the meetings in villages in pro-
jections planned by various agricultural
societies, in the workshop and factory, in
the barracks and on board ships of the
navy, where it is advisable to teach the men
how to defend their health from dangers
and take advantage of common experience.

We had the honour three years ago to
discuss the matter of teaching hygiene in
the schools by means of the motion pic-
ture. We repeated what Professor Leon
Bernard stated with all the authority at
his command : « it is a manifest truth that
hygiene cannot become a regular thing in
a people's habits unless it has first become
implanted in their spirits, incorporated, so
to speak, in their psychology. Nothing can
be hoped from coercive measures in this
direction, nor from too theoretical teaching.
What we must do is to show the disad-
vantages which derives from a lack of hy-
giene and the individual and general ben-
efits which hygiene brings in its train ».

No other medium can prove so effective
for this kind of instruction as the cinema,
which, by means of its documentary films,
can render notions which have hitherto
remained obscure and difficult luminous
and within the reach of all, at the same time
making hygiene seem an attractive subject
by romance and anecdotical pictures.

THE CINEMA, HYGIENE AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE

797

« That will be a fine day when the stu-
dent will be able to see the fields and mead-
ows with their flowers and fruits pass before
his eyes and pass so slowly that he will
be able to have full enjoyment of them »,
wrote Lucien Descaves. This and many
other things, useful and beautiful, have been
brought by science within the reach of
students since then.

Our Symposium. The replies to the

extensive symposium
which we organized among the teachers
of France and Algiers to learn their views
on the value of the educational cinema in
the matter of the teaching of hygiene have
allowed us to state, it may be remembered,
that the corps of teachers in France has been
quite won over to the educational cinema.

« The universal language of the cinema »,
wrote the Inspector of the Accademy for the
Ardennes, « has imposed itself on the world
of education. The motion picture strikes
men's mind, and ends by convincing even
the most incredulous.

« The attention and the intelligence are
awakened by the motion picture and the
memory is enriched. The film is one of the
most powerful means at our disposal for af-
fecting the imagination of young people and
adults ».

This and similar remarks have been ad-
dressed to us from all the departments of
France and Algiers.

The National Con- In the month of Sep-

gress of the Edu- tember ^ wag

cational Cinema .

in Paris. organized at the Paris

Repository a national
Congress of the Educational Cinema hav-
ing for its programme the development of
the teaching film and a study of methods
of education.

A detailed and carefully elaborated ques-
tionnaire was issued to all users of the film
repository through the agency of the region-
al repositories and bureaux regarding the
employment of the teaching film. The in-
quiry made under these conditions corrob-

orated the results which had already been
obtained. Optimistic replies followed in
rapid succession, assuring us that « the film
makes a lesson profitable », « develops vis-
ual observation », « fixes the attention »,
etc., etc.

We will not go further into the matter
of the study which we have had the pleas-
ure of presenting you, and will confine
ourselves, in the matter of the teaching film,
to that limited experience we have of it
as employed by the General Propaganda
Commission of the Bureau of Social Hy-
giene and the Propaganda Commission of
the National Committee of Defence against
Tuberculosis.

Educational Cinema The agents of the
and the School. Genend propaganda

Commission of the National Defence
Committee against Tuberculosis are the
delegates and lecturers who travel through
France in a vast crusade of hygiene and
health propaganda in which, in our opin-
ion, the greatest efforts should be made to
interest children. We should like to see
our scholars adepts and experts in matters
of hygiene.

In 1933, one thousand nine hundred and
seventy-two lectures and talks were given
in the schools on the subject of hygiene
with suitable accompanying films by our
lecturers and delegates.

The lectures were given not only in the
elementary schools but also in normal
institutions, lycees and colleges for young
boys and girls.

Sometimes, we have been asked to make
a special effort on particular lines. Thus
last year, 13 lectures with motion pictures
and tables and statistics on child upbring-
ing and culture were held in the elementary
schools for girls in the department of Alpes
Maritimes, according to requests specially
made by the department in question.

For three months in the year, an auto-
mobile group with motion picture equipment
is placed at the disposal of the Alsace and
Lorraine Association by the General Prop-

2 - Ice Ingl.

798

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

aganda Commission for the purpose of
carrying out a vast department campaign
in Haut Rhin, Bus Rhin and the Moselle.
In agreement with the Alsace Association,
lectures have been organized in all towns
or villages with not less than iooo inhabit-
ants, and the scholars have been instructed
by means of the cinema and the work of
the lecturers in such subjects as the fight
against tuberculosis, general hygiene and
child rearing.

Educational Schol- What kind of pictures
astic Films. haye our lecturers pro.

vided for the scholars? There is no need
to enumerate at length the films projected.
We will confine ourselves to remark-
ing that the Film Repository of the Nation-
al Bureau of Social Hygiene and the Nat-
ional Defence Committee against Tuber-
culosis possess 50 films dealing with general
hygiene, as many again on tuberculosis, a
dozen pictures on rearing children, three
fine sound films on infancy and the struggle
against tuberculosis. We have also 210 slides
for fixed projections on general hygiene sub-
jects, 107 anti-tuberculosis slides, seven on
child-rearing and three illustrating the per-
ils of alcoholism. We may be asked if the
results of our efforts are visible. One of
our delegate lecturers writes us as follows :

« Our lectures and projections have clar-
ified many ideas learnt in the class-room
but not properly assimilated by the pupils.
Many of our teachers have assured us that
their pupils have opened astonished eyes
in grasping such facts as the existence of
life in microbes, the circulation of the blood
in the human body, the composition of the
blood, the functions of the lungs, conta-
gion through microbes, the pollution of
water.

It was also observed and remarked upon
that in rural districts visited on more than
one occasion by our lecturers the children,
on the later visits of our delegates, pre-
sented themselves at the projections much
better dressed and with much more attention
given to their persons. In many places the

young folk turned up in their Sunday best;
hygiene is not therefore an empty word
for them. It comes to mean: cleanliness,
fresh water, sun, pure air, physical exer-
cise, repose, etc. ».

This is an expression of the truth. Nei-
ther in the village nor in the town does the
scholar now sit down to table without
washing his hands. He insists on having a
tooth brush and washes and soaps himself
thoroughly from head to foot.

This is a great advance which must cer-
tainly be attributed in large part to these
lecture tours helped out with film projec-
tions which bring an air of holiday to the
schools and teach the pupils a useful les-
son through a vehicle of novelty and enter-
tainment.

« I have the honour to inform you »,
writes the Academic Inspector for the
Alpes-Maritimes department, « that the dele-
gate lecturer of the General Propaganda
Commission of the National Bureau for
Social Hygiene carried out from January
10 to January 31 a lecture tour in the var-
ious scholastic establishments of the De-
partment of the Alpes Maritimes.

« His lectures, which were accompanied
by cinema projections of a documentary
character, were followed with interest by
all the pupils who derived useful inform-
ation and valuable advice from them.

« The reception was everywhere excellent
and sometimes even enthusiastic.

« Lectures of this type perform a work
of a high moral and social nature, and
merit every possible encouragement ».

We could multiply this kind of evidence,
and the admirable and much improved
health of the pupils is one of our lecturers'
reward for their labours.

Teaching of Social
Hygiene by the
Educational Cin-

We have already said
that our field of activ-
ity in using the edu-
cational film for social

hygiene goes far beyond the school.

It is a necessary thing that both peasant

and townsman, factory worker and clerks

THE CINEMA, HYGIENE AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE

799

should be prepared to enter the cam-
paign against social diseases and be ready
and able to use all the proper precaution
against them.

This is why in all social milieux and
sometimes even by request of corporative
associations, bodies of teachers, etc. we have
pursued our educational lectures with the
agreement and often under the direct pat-
ronage of the various administrative edu-
cation authorities of the medical faculty of
the departments.

We have in this way been able to intro-
duce the educational cinema into the cam-
paign against :

i) the following social diseases:

Tuberculosis (in association with the
National Committee of Defence against
Tuberculosis — 12 films of which two sound
films);

Infantile mortality and mortality of
children in childbirth (in association with
the National Infancy Committee — 15 films
of which one sound film);

Syphilis (we will give details of this
campaign later) 15 films of which three
sound films;

Cancer in connection with the French
National League against Cancer (one very
fine picture);

Alcoholism in connection with the
National anti-Alcoholism League (eight
films and one animated drawing);

2) in the campaign against contagious
diseases: typhoid fever, diphtheria (one very
successful film on this subject) small-pox
(one film);

In addition to this, we have organized
each year campaigns against slum dwelling
and against rats (20 fixed slides) harmful
insects (5 films);

in favour of good drinking water and
city water brought in conduits from reser-
voirs, and, indirecdy, against the risk of ty-
phoid fever (three long important films);

in favour of good dental hygiene (one
film);

in favour of pure and Pasteurized milk

and healthy milk diets in courses for so-
cial hygiene and agricultural questions (4
films);

against malaria and mosquitoes (one
film;

in aid of birth increase (one film) in
association with the National Alliance for
the increase of the French population.

The Motor Croups of If you happen to travel

the General Prep- b Fr wijj be

aganda Commis- '

sion of the Nat- hkely enough to en-

ional Social Hy- counter in your motor

giene Bureau. • _, , ,

rides a truck bearing

these initials: O. N. H. S. It will belong
to the auto-group of the General Propa-
ganda Commission of the National Bureau
and Committee of Defence against Tuber-
culosis and Social Hygiene, which is car-
rying on its crusade for better social health
throughout the length and breadth of the
country.

Eight of these auto-groups travelled
through France and French North Africa
with a carefully prepared and executed
programme.

As we have already said, the delegate
lecturers of the Propaganda Service make it
their work to throw all possible light on
the principles of hygiene and the best means
of applying them for combadng the major
scourges whioh afflict humanity, such as tu-
berculosis, infant mortality, cancer, venereal
diseases, slum dwelling, etc.

The lectures are given before mothers of
families and young people. The school is
used every day for lectures of this kind, and
the instruction and information is adapted
to the audiences.

The motor-trucks of the Propaganda
carry, besides the lecturer, everything neces-
sary for giving cinema shows under all con-
ditions, even in the open air when the
weather permits.

Since 1932, the National Bureau, always
anxious to keep up to date, provided the
Propaganda Service with portable sound and
talking film equipment. The plant comprises
the following:

800

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

one projector with amplifier and loud
speaker;

one gramophone for accompanying a
silent film with music;

one microscope allowing the lecturer to
use the loud speaker for his comments to a
silent film or for outdoor projections in
summer.

In other words, the equipment contains
three distinct apparatuses: sound and talk-
ing projector; gramophone and loud speaker.

The Talking Film. We should like to

make a few remarks
on a form of propaganda which is still in
its infancy.

The use of the sound and talking film
confers an undoubted superiority on all ef-
forts at popular education. Films of this
type are successes for the very reason that
they are talking films, that is, they teach
the audience, without tiring it, everything
it wants to know. A talking picture works
out its theme to the end and with an au-
thentic rendering that it is impossible to
deny. When the cognitions to be imparted
come direct from those who are responsible
for them an atmosphere of veracity is set
up, and a current of sympathy is established
between the spectator and the unseen but
heard actors.

(What a tremendous repercussion Past-
eur's theories would have had if the il-
lustrious savant had been able to make a
personal exposition of them himself to the
public by means of the talking film.

In France this innovation of the sound
and talking pictures has chiefly found its
openings in the country where it has yield-
ed surprising results for it is still something
of a rarity in the villages.

In certain regions where a few years ago
the lectures only gathered a restricted num-
ber of listeners, the present day halls prove
too small for the crowds that seek to find
admission to the show, in this way realizing
or surpassing the most optimistic hopes.

Before the organization of the automo-
bile groups, the French countryside had

hardly been touched by the Social Hygiene
Propaganda Service. Some of the larger
centres occasionally received a visit from one
of our lecturers. With the automobile-groups
which are fitted out with everything re-
quired for giving a cinema show, we are
now able to reach the most distant mountain
villages or the furthest off hamlets of the
plains. We may be said to have dug deep
into our territory.

People of all ages attend our lectures.
The rural population, among which a higher
degree of comfort and ease is beginning
to spread, generally keeps itself up to date
with many novelties through the agency
of the wireless. But for country people, hy-
giene is still a novelty. This is why, at-
tracted by the talking film which is still
something new in the villages the peasants
crowd our lectures and projections in grati-
fying numbers.

Everything connected with vaccines, and
preliminary symptoms of illnesses arouses
their attention. « We have observed »,
« wrote one of our lecturers », that films on
the B. C. G. vaccine, on diphtheria, cancer
and syphilis were all received with the
liveliest interest ».

The anti-venereal disease campaign which
some years ago created such difficulties in
the countryside (many small town mayors
opposed it entirely) continues to enjoy the
approval of the public.

The lecture on social hygiene and, where
we have been able to introduce it, the lec-
ture of a mixed character on hygiene and
agricultural subjects, has become one of our
customs and programme items which we
should be reluctant to abandon. We contin-
ue to receive requests for a intensification
of our work and an increase in the number
of lectures and projections.

Laudatory testimony from prefects or
inspectors of Hygiene have convinced us
that our long and difficult work has not
been in vain.

If nowadays our peasants appreciate the
notions of hygiene and preventive work
against disease and social maladies, if they

THE CINEMA, HYGIENE AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE

801

insist on a proper supply of drinkable water,
if they take for granted the treating of
cows with tuberculin, and are accustomed
to using the dispensary in case of need, we
must congratulate the lecturers on social hy-
giene who, in their turn, will be ready to
admit that a large share of the success is
due to the use of the cinema and especially
to the sound and talking film.

The Beginnings of Let us see the distance
Hie Educational we h come< Wg can
Cinema in France.

place the beginning of

the use of the cinema for educational pur-
poses to the period of the Great war. It was
in the early part of 1918 that the National
Committee of Defence against Tuberculo-
sis, powerfully seconded by the Rockfeller
Commission, had the merit of perceiving in
a set of circumstances where a certain small
amount of educational film was being used
that the motion picture was capable of
playing a most important role and could
make hygiene an interesting and agreeable
subject for everybody.

As a result of this and subsequent con-
siderations the automobile groups toured
France for five years, carrying picture pro-
jections. An unexpected and prodigious
result of these tours was a powerful move-
ment of public opinion in favour of pub-
lic health movements.

We have seen that these educational cam-
paigns continue throughout France and
North Africa, thanks to the auto groups of
the Propaganda Service of the National Bur-
eau of Social Hygiene. While during and
immediately after the war, educational films
were very rare, this state of things has for-
tunately altered for the better.

The first groups of auto-cinemas carried
films lent by the American Service, provi-
ded either by the Rockfeller Foundation or
the American Red Cross. Then we obtained
some scientific films from Dr. Coman-
don with enlargements of microbes and de-
tails of the human organs. At the present
time, our film repository contains more than
500 educational pictures. On the subject of

tuberculosis alone, we have nearly 120 films.
Some of these pictures illustrate our sana-
toria, prevention centres and dispensaries
and all form our anti-tuberculosis arma-
ment. Others show the prophylaxis, the
causes of tuberculosis and the lesions in
the lungs; others again deal with the rules
and systems by following which the disease
may be avoided. We have also some admir-
able films of child-rearing (puericulture)
which arouse the interest of all mothers,
while there are in the repository a number
of films dealing with venereal peril, slum
dwellings, cancer, diminishing birth rate,
contagious diseases; malaria, diphtheria, etc.
There are further pictures on general hy-
giene, mil\ hygiene and propaganda on the
benefits of water.

We have had the satisfaction of seeing
projections in the cinemas of Paris and the
large provincial centres of admirable films
calculated to wage a stout fight against the
venereal danger. We may mention among
them « There were once Three Friends »,
« The Kiss that Kills », « The Enemy of
the Blood », and a film which has been
shown in North Africa in an Arab text and
version : « The Story of the Thousand and
Second Night ». Then there is the « Le
Voile sacre » (The Sacred Veil) which is
intended to illustrate the nurse's noble
mission. We have again « Ames de Tau-
dis », « Slum Souls » to use in the struggle
against slum dwellings. « Maternity » is
another picture with a moral beauty similar
to those poetic paintings in the country which
delight the people.

The educational film « The Future Moth-
er » by Dr. Devraigne, a romantic story
on the care of children and the essential
principles of child rearing did not only
enjoy a great success with the children,
but manifested its happy influence with
great benefit in workmen's quarters of the
city where it was very well received.

M. Pierre Malo reporting the projection of
the film wrote : « The Future Mother » was
shown at Lille before 2000 women of the

802

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

linen manufacturing business and enjoyed a
great triumph ».

« Out of 2000 work girls, 1600 replied
correctly to the 19 questions which were put
to them after the projection. All manifested
a desire to see the film again and one of them
wrote : « I love my child, though I have been
doing things that might have killed him up
to today ».

The Educational Cin- We should like to
ema for the Cam- draw attendon t0 ±c
paign against Ve-
nereal Disease. campaign against ven-
ereal diseases which
we have been directing in collaboration with
the Central Service of Prophylaxis for Ve-
nereal Diseases attached to the Ministry of
Public Health (Chief of Service is Dr. Ca-
vaillon) and in connection with the Com-
mittee of Feminine Education, the Society
for Sanitary Prophylaxis and the French Nat-
ional League against Venereal Diseases (Dr.
Queyrat).

One of our specialized lecturers gives in
military and naval and air circles through-
out all the regions of France propaganda
lectures of an anti-venereal character followed
by projections. During the year in course,
there were 273 of such lectures before
audiences of over 113.000 persons.

We also work in close connection with
the Prophylactic Commission for Venereal
Diseases in the Army. A similar form of
collaboration has been established between
the General Propaganda Commission and
the Direction of Health Service of the Min-
istry of Marine. Our lectures and films
have attracted large numbers of soldiers and
sailors called together according to a plan
in the cinema halls of the military or on
board ship.

The sailors of the mercantile marine have
also been given the same type of lecture at
Lorient and Le Havre in particular. Some-
times the directors of the big commercial
steamship lines have asked us to allow their
ships' doctor to comment the films for
the crews.

Dr. Cavaillon, Chief of Central Prophy-

laxis Service for Venereal Diseases at the
Ministry of Public Health has illustrated
elsewhere the question of the educational
cinema in anti-venereal disease propaganda.

The Educational Cin- While pointing out
ema used by Every- h .^ characteris.

one in France for r

Propaganda Purpo- tics and the particu-

ses# lar way in which the

General Propaganda
Commission has used the educational cin-
ema which it was also the first to adopt
in public health and hygiene work, we are
not going to pretend that we are the only
people to make use of it.

Our country possesses at the present time
departmental bureaux of Social Hygiene
which undertake a campaign of lectures ac-
companied by educational films. Regional
and departmental cinematographic bureaux
are engaged in regulating for the purposes
of educational propaganda the beneficent
action of the motion picture.

We should like to put forward two typ-
ical examples: the results of a campaign
for hygiene and against the spread of con-
tagious diseases carried out according to
our system in the departments of the Upper
Rhine, Lower Rhine and the Moselle, and,
secondly, the remarkable method established
by 'the Nancy Regional Bureau of Cinema
Teaching.

Note on Hygiene «The Cinema can be a

Propaganda by marvenous educational
the Educational

Cinema in the agent to be utilized

Departments of wjth advantage in all

the Upper and T

Lower Rhine and sections. Its import-

the Moselle. ance in propaganda

places it in the front
rank in all programmes having as their
object the popularization of notion of de-
fence against disease. Thanks to the motion
picture, the dryness of the subject disappears,
the interest is aroused, the images cast on
the screen define in detail the matter treat-
ed by the lectures, implanting ideas in the
visual memory and a clear notion of what it
is intended to teach.

THE CINEMA, HYGIENE AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE

803

« The Propaganda Committee of Social
Hygiene for the Upper and Lower Rhine
and the Moselle which contain a population
of 1,800,000 souls, has made large use of
film propaganda.

« All the lectures organized are illustrated
by films. Slides are only used in illustrating
lectures of the Venereal Danger for masculine
audiences. Such slides generally show the
lesions referred to by the lecturer.

« In the course of the last five years in
the three departments of Upper and Lower
Rhine and the Moselle, 28,872 films on hy-
giene subjects have been projected.

« The activity of the last year in Lower
Rhine and Moselle shows 5595 films project-
ed on hygiene and 187 recreational pictures.
The importance of these figures depends on
the fact of the collaboration of the Alsace
and Lorraine rural cinema which has 320
cinemas halls spread over three depart-
ments. During the six weeks of the sale of
the Anti-tuberculosis stamp, a short propa-
ganda film edited by the Committee was
shown.

(( We must not fail to note that the re-
creational as well as the strictly social hygiene
film has helped in the work against the dis-
ease. The recreational film has its own value
when used with educational pictures.

<cWe have had wide recourse to the re-
creational film in this region where we or-
ganize every year, in collaboration with the
National Bureau of Social Hygiene, the Tu-
berculosis Defence Committee and the Ped-
agogic Museum of Strasburg as well as
some other associations, a series of tours. The
programme of these tours contains a short
talk dealing with the various subjects con-
nected with the preventive treatment of dis-
ease the lecture of talk being followed by
an illustrative film.

A second item in the programme consists
of a comic and documentary film.

« This is a formula the worth of which
has been proved for its effect on the big
public, especially in country districts.

« During the course of the last tour which
took place from November 3, 1933 to Feb-

ruary 10, 1934, 3 hygiene soirees were or-
ganized in the departments of the Lower
Rhine and the Moselle, and the audiences
totalled 6859 persons. This figure is all the
more satisfactory since it is in respect of
rural localities of from 1000 to 2000 inhab-
itants. The lectures given on the same day
in the schools were attended by a total of

9935 PuPils-

« The coming of the talking film has very
considerably extended the possibilities of ac-
tion of the educational cinema. Thanks to
it the teachers who are best equipped to
talk on their special subjects can address the
public in the furthest off corners of our land,
placing their knowledge and experience of
hygiene at the disposal of a great many
people.

« The use of this method, of course, means
that sound and talking film apparatuses must
be purchased, and these are costly. But, at
the same time, there is a corresponding dim-
inution in the expenses owing to the pos-
sibility of reducing the list of lecturers and
their fees.

« Whether we are going to use a silent
or talking film apparatus, it ought, in any
case, to be of the best quality. It is only
if it is a first class apparatus that it will
be in a position to neutralize the dryness of
the ordinary subjects dealt with, and arouse
the interest of the spectators who must give
an effort of their attention to subjects which
they cannot immediately understand.

« The financial resources and the technical
means at the disposal of the departmental
and inter-departmental organizations do not
allow of their producing films on their own
account. This work should belong in all
countries to a central organization having
powerful means and support behind it, and
also all necessary technical equipment. The
country's film repositories should be furnished
in this way, and constantly kept up to
date with all kinds of pictures dealing with
local and regional interests.

« The matter however, is by no means an
easy one, for the hygiene film is somewhat
difficult to produce, requiring, as it does, a

804

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

very close collaboration between the scien-
tists, the men responsible for the propaganda
or popularization side of the picture, and the
cameramen.

« I should like to urge here the importance
of intensifying the hygiene propaganda in
rural districts by multiplying the number of
villages or towns furnished with sub-standard
projectors of the Pathe-Rural type. These
machines are not at all costly, and can give
excellent projections of sub-standard film.

« Doubtless the creation of a great number
of rural districts fitted out with small ma-
chines for talking film projections would be
a costly enterprise, though the individual
cost of each machine is not high, but once
the cinema halls had been prepared and fitt-
ed out, they could be used for other types
of documentary and recreational projection.
Moreover, the cost of transport of plant and
material would be obviated in this way. An
amortization fund would, of course, be
created.

« No doubt there should be film repositories
for the sub-standard films on hygiene sub-
jects, but at the present moment such repos-
itories are practically non-existent. The cost,
however, of reducing standard size films to
sub-standard is not excessive.

« The whole question wants going into, for
its solution would be of immense advantage
to the future of the eductional film».

The Secretary General
Dr. Rodolphe Strauss.

Hygiene Propaganda The Regional Bureau
by Film in the q£ cinema Teaching
East of France. . °

at Nancy has, from its

initiation, taken a special interest in social
hygiene.

« A special section of film propaganda
of hygiene has been formed in the Bureau.
The committee concerned includes Drs.
Spillmann, Dean of the Faculty of Medi-
cine, Jacques Parisot, President of the De-
partmental Bureau of Hygiene, Benech,
Director of sanitary services of the city of
Nancy, Merklen, Director of the Regional

Bureau of Physical Education, Godfrien,
chemist.

« This hygiene section has planned a three
grade form of teaching by lectures and
films.

« First Grade : elementary courses of hy-
giene in the elementary schools in conform-
ity with the official curricula. Instruction
in washing hands, cleaning the teeth, not
to spit on the floor, lessons in breathing
and exercises therein.

« Second Grade : Talk on notions of hy-
giene of a rather more advanced nature
addressed to the adults of a village or a
town. Maternal education, infantile hy-
giene, tuberculosis, alcoholism.

« Reports by doctors on the talk.

« Third Grade : Additional propaganda of
a fuller and more advanced type addressed
to the big public of cities dealing with
the chief diseases: campaign against tuber-
culosis, infant mortality, veneral diseases,
etc. These lectures should be given in the
beginning by experts of the Hygiene Com-
mission of the Bureau or by competent
persons chosen by them.

« The work of the Regional Bureau of
Nancy was inspired by the foregoing pro-
cedure in the question of hygiene.

« We began at once to look for films
answering our needs, and such were gen-
erally to be found in the official repositor-
ies of the National Hygiene Bureau.

« It would be going too far to say that
these films are all perfect or exist in suffic-
ient quantities. At the same time, they
render an admirable service.

« We have conceived the idea, in agree-
ment with the Departmental Bureau of Hy-
giene for the Department of Meurthe and
Moselle to produce a film of practical prop-
aganda for the purpose of making known
to the big public the establishments creat-
ed in the Eastern region for combating
contagious diseases, tuberculosis, cancer,
venereal diseases. It is proposed to project
this picture in the large halls of the region
and to insert the film in programmes of a
general spectacular nature.

THE CINEMA, HYGIENE AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE

805

« This projection will be offered gratuit-
ously.

<( Up to now, it has been the First Grade
films which have been most called upon.
The second grade films are only used in
courses for adults. With regard to the third
grade pictures, they form the subject every
year of a score of lectures by doctors for
students, groups or associations of employes,
workshops and factories. Also for the army.

« In couclusion, we will point out a special
use of the motion picture from the medical
point of view; that is films made in various
asylums and hospices for weak-minded and
insane people of our region. These pic-
tures are not intended to educate the pa-
tients, but to amuse and entertain them.

« The programme of the film given
at these meetings has nothing to do with
hygiene. The pictures shown are docu-
mentaries or amusing recreational pictures,
though nothing too exciting or sensational
is projected. The asylums of Fains (Meuse),
Corze et Lorquin (Moselle) use these films,
and get excellent results from them.

« To conclude this exposition, we hope
it may be possible for the Bureaux of the
Educational Cinema to get some hygiene
films at once and films of good quality and
variety.

« Choice should be made among the in-
ternational collections.

« We also hope that motions and resolu-
tions will be passed at the Rome Congress
requesting the nations to grant free circu-
lation for films of an educational character
with the obvious precautions to avoid abuse
of the concession ».

(Nancy Regional Bureau of Cinema
Teaching).

Luis Colin
Director of the Nancy Bureau.

The educational Cin- The General Propa-
ema For Social
Thrift.

ganda Commission is
far from being inact-
ive in advocating the benefits of social
providence and thrift. Its delegate lec-
turers set forth some admirable ideas on the

value of thrift when they commented the
fine film produced by the General Confer-
ence of Savings' Banks. This picture was
called « The Angel of the Hearth ». If we
do not yet possess any films demonstrat-
ing the advantages of social insurance, we
are of opinion that we are working to
establish the best form of social providence
and foresight by teaching men how to safe-
guard and preserve their health. Strikes,
days in hospital, all the necessities required
by serious illness or premature death
all have one thing in common, that is, they
require the expenditure of large sums of
money. The most essential form of instruc-
tion in social providence seems to us there-
fore to lie in teaching the principles of
hygiene, for if a person maintains his health,
he diminished the risk of assurance in gen-
eral, at the same time increasing his out-
put of work. This is why we must make
it our duty to spread as fully as possible,
and with all the means in our power, no-
tions of hygiene and prophylaxis. We re-
peat, we take pride in having been the
first to make a systematic use of the motion
picture in the department of sanitary edu-
cation.

The educational cinema as an aid and
illustration of social providence has inspired
in our country a number of successful
efforts.

The educational film plays its role: in
prophylaxis, road and streets accidents; in
teaching the elements of first aid.

The Educational Cin- After an examination

ema for Preventing of this question with
Road and Traffic . . ■ r i

Accidents. the authorities of the

Touring Club, the
Automobile Club, the National Union of
Touring Association, the Cinema Service
of the Army and the big French film pro-
ducing companies we are able to set forth
the following data.

The Touring Club of France having ob-
served that « nothing has been done so far
to put the public on its guard against traf-

806

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

fie and road accidents, we have ourselves
made a film on these lines in collaboration
with the Army Cinema Service ».

This film, entitled « Code of the Road »,
has quite recently been released.

It is composed in the spirit suitable for
all films intended for a vast public. It makes
a large use of animated drawings, charts
and graphs. The part dealing with traffic
signals is in colours.

« The indications regarding circulation
and signals are clearly explained, and the
accidents shown on the screen indicate in
the plainest way how it is possible to avoid
them ».

In a series of short clear films known as
« The Three Minute Films » (Etienne Lal-
lier) by the Atlantic Film Co, the scenario
Danger illustrates the dangers of road
traffic.

Pictures of beautiful highways along
which huge cars race at breakneck speed
illustrate the continual presence of danger.

The very distinct idea which is revealed
by these three minute pictures is that, con-
trary to the general opinion, a motor ve-
hicle, does not stop suddenly, even when it
is desired to stop it quickly. The greater,
the velocity, the longer time is required to
bring the car to rest. The film shows
us 20 cars travelling at different speeds,
and we see the distance covered by each
before it comes to rest after the brakes have
been applied. The greater the speed, the
greater the distance required for making
a stop, increasing in case of accident the
risk from shock and collision.

If you tell a young inexperienced chauf-
feur this, he will probably listen to you
with an indifferent air or he will forget
what you say. If, on the other hand, you
show him a film and figures and charts
with proper carefully made deductions that
illustrate the risks of excessive speed, the
latter will remain fixed in his memory and
will at the right moment bring out the
instant wise reflection that may avoid an
accident.

The Educational Cin- French industrial hous-
ema for Preventing „„ i „ i j j

Workmen's Accid- CS have aIready made
ents. some attempts to use

the propaganda film

for the avoidance of workmen's accidents.

We will quote two of the replies which big

firms and syndical chambres have adressed

us on the matter.

The Syndicalist Chamber of Acetyline
Producers and the Oxy-acetylene Lamp trade
for welding operations have sent us re-
ports which we summarize as follows:

« In 1928, at the request of M. Frois,
Technical Adviser to the Ministry of La-
bour, we issued a film on the prevention
of workmen's accidents in the oxy-acetylene
lamp business for welding, etc.

The film in question was first shown by
M. Frois at the General Meeting for the
Prevention of Accidents of the B. I. T. of
Geneva in the May of 1928.

« Since then we have shown the film
on many occasions, and have lent it free
to a large number of trade schools and
workshops.

« We have authorized the Miner's and
Metallurgical Union to make a positive of
our negative, which positive has been
shown in a great number of French work-
shops and plants.

« A copy of our film was also purchased
by the Welding Associations of the United
States, and we lent the negative to the
German trade to make copies of certain
parts and include them in their own prop-
aganda films for the prevention of acci-
dents.

(( Our film was also shown to the Tech-
nical Congress of the Association of French
Business-men in 1929.

« We have been able to observe that this
film has proved itself of the greatest value
for preventing accidents, and has allowed
us to obtain some most interesting results ».

The Union of Metallurgical and Mine
Industries and the Mechanical and Electric-
al Construction Industries has reported
to us:

« We have translated and adapted for

THE CINEMA, HYGIENE AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE

807

French taste two accident prevention films
« Albert the Boaster » (an English picture)
and « Why? ». The first picture has a ro-
mantic plot, the second is pure documentary.

« When we placed these pictures at the
disposal of our industrial establishments,
they were at once accepted, and the pic-
tures were shown before about 50,000 work-
ers and foremen, accompanied by their
families. Both films enjoyed a remarkable
success.

« I should like to give it as my opinion
that a film with something of a romantic
or sentimental plot on which the accident
prevention instruction is hung has more
interest for the working class public than
the purely technical film ».

The International Association of Prophy-
laxis for Blindness is at present engaged
in preparing a film a part of which deals
with workmen's accidents.

The Association of French Business-men
against Workmen's Accidents has joined
forces with the Masters' Syndicates Union,
Technical Teaching and Insurance Syndi-
cates for the purpose of producing in part-
nership a very fine film.

In addition, we have news of a film on
hooking up wagons and carriages by means
of a special instrument. This picture is
issued by the French Northern Railway
Co. There is also a report on a film illus-
trating the dangers of fire and the best
way to fight it. This is issued by the Paris
Metro Railway, which is also preparing
another picture on accidents deriving from
engines and boilers using wood.

The Educational Film
and First Aid.

The doctor in chief of
the Health Service of
the Paris Firemen and Sappers has informed

us that a film intendend for educating
the firemen on first aid treatment for asphyx-
ia has had a great success.

The picture is shown two or three times
every week in Paris, and the provinces
have begun to send us requests for it.

« This films appears to show in a much
abbreviated form the technique required of
first aid men in asphyxia. It has been much
appreciated by Red Cross societies and sec-
tions and associations concerned with the
so called « Passive Defence ».

The National Bureau of Researches and
Inventions has issued a film on artificial res-
piration by means of the Schaefer method.

These then are some of the results ob-
tained through our propaganda effort and
the Educational Cinema for the advance-
ment of hygiene and Social Accident Pre-
vention.

It can be deduced from our experience
that the notions of general hygiene and
prophylaxis against social diseases and con-
tagious illnesses are spread especially by
means of working on the minds of the
young people. For these young folk, hy-
giene is not merely a habit, it creates needs
and wants which, when satisfied, help large-
ly towards the physical development of
youth.

Thanks to the efforts of our administra-
tions and our big firms, social prevention
is no longer a mere empty word. It is an
organized reality, and the time is coming
near when the world of workers will be
perfectly equipped for safeguarding itself
from accidents and the contraction of
disease.

SOCIAL SANITARY WORK OF THE ITALIAN
RED CROSS AND THE CINEMA

BY

Dr. Zeno Mataloni

HEAD INSPECTOR OF THE ITALIAN RED CROSS

he Italian Red Cross, created for the
purpose of giving medical aid for sol-
diers in war-time and permanently mobil-
ized for bringing aid to the inhabitants of
places afflicted by sudden calamity, has for
some time past been included in the work
of the State in the vast field of social wel-
fare. This complicated and powerful or-
ganization could not remain idle, even in
times of peace, in face of the necessary
work to be done in preserving and utiliz-
ing the magnificent energies of our race;
and it has undertaken numberless tasks in
the fight against malaria, the organization
of services for the welfare and assistance
of the worker, the prophylaxis and treat-
ment of tuberculosis, and infant hygiene.
But it would not have been able to in-
crease its beneficent activities to this extent
without the consent and aid of the Fascist
Government; no other Government has
shown an example of such profound un-
derstanding of the problems connected with
the health and well-being of the peoples as
the Fascist Government. It was the sup-
port and help given by the Government
that made it possible for the Society's en-
terprises and activities, which had frequent-
ly remained in their initial state of isolated
attempts at aid organization, to the co-ordin-
ated, developed and grafted on to the great
scheme of social-sanitary problems laid down
by the Duce for the redemption of our
people from century-old scourges, for the
raising of their standard of life and their
association in the grand undertaking of
developing a greater and more prosperous
Italy.

During the development of this compli-
cated work, the importance of the cinema
as a means of instruction and education
was not neglected, and the immense utility
it might have in spreading the necessary
rules and regulations among the people
and so forming their sense of hygiene, was
perfectly understood. For a long time past,
therefore, the Italian Red Cross has en-
deavoured to utilize this means for the
benefit of its multiple aims : the education
of the young members of the Young Peo-
ple's Red Cross Society, the preparation of
a nursing staff, the spread of hygienic rules,
especially in the prophylaxis of infec-
tious and social diseases, the recreation and
at the same time education of the many
inmates of its sanitary institutions, the pro-
paganda of the Society's activities, etc.

Suitable material was prepared and every
effort was made to use that already pro-
duced and still being produced by other
organizations. We may mention, in this
connection, a film entitled « The Roses of
Martyrdom », which aims at making the
glorious work of the Society known and
appreciated; another, produced by the
I. R. C. Committee of Trieste, on tubercu-
losis; the films conceived and produced by
the Fascist Federation for the fight against
tuberculosis : « Life in a Sanatorium », « It
is the Human Flower that has Most Need
of Light and Air », « Support the Build-
ing of Sanatoriums », «A Peal of Bells »,
« The Danger af Spitting)); the films pro-
duced by the General Direction of Public
Health on tuberculosis, malaria, aid for
suckling-infants, open-air schools, etc. An

THE ITALIAN RED CROSS AND THE CINEMA

809

agreement was made with the League of
Red Cross Societies, which had got to-
gether an important film library with an
abundance of material dealing with the
protection of children, the work of nursing,
tuberculosis, epidemic diseases, personal
hygiene and preventive medicine. All of
these films were either documentaries or
based on a story or episode, and were of a
character that it seemed might be usefully
employed for educational and instructional
purposes.

Meanwile H. E. the General President
of the Society, Senator Cremonesi, added
one more to the numberless innovations and
improvements made in every branch of the
I. R. C. organization, namely, that of en-
dowing all the more important Sanitary
Institutes of the Society including the of-
fice of the Central Committee, with mod-
ern cinematographic sound apparatus. The
network of Committees, Sub-committees
and Delegations, in accord with the Nation-
al L. U. C. E. Institute, formed the means
of diffusion and propaganda.

The results obtained so far are not equal
to expectation, the reasons being various,
deficiency of film material, lack of pro-
duction that would ensure a continual
supply of films, the difficulty of procuring
films, especially foreign ones, and of dis-
tributing them, on account of their high
price and the cost of Customs and tran-
sport. We mention these difficulties, but
do not intend to enter into a discussion of
the means of overcoming them. This forms
the basis of the task undertaken by the In-
ternational Institute of the Educational Cin-
ema, whose symposium, through its own
investigations and the contributions of com-
petent persons, will certainly result in a
collection of valuable arguments on which
useful and efficacious measures may be
based and instruction laid down.

The President of the I. R. C. desired, for
the moment, merely to contribute to the
collection of some data which might be
useful as a guide to the line that should
be followed in the production of hygienic-

instructional sanitary propaganda and in-
structional films and, in order to discover
the opinions and obtain suggestions from
the Directors of the more important sani-
tary services, he asked them to conduct an
inquiry from three points of view: cine-
matograph production intended for the gen-
eral public, production intended for the
inmates of sanatoriums and production in-
tended for teaching.

The replies are unanimous in regard to
the indisputable educational, instructional
and didactic efficiency of the cinema, wheth-
er intendend for the general public, for the
sick, or for young and old.

1 ) Cinematographic In answer to the. en-
Production In- i ,

tended for the W as t0 what Crl'

Public. teria ought to be used

in controlling the exe-
cution of a film intended for making
known the rules and regulations of hy-
giene and prophylaxis, the answer has been
given that, generally speaking, such films
ought not to be arid, didactical expositions
of themes and theses, but rather a sequence
of incidents linked together by some plot
or scheme in such a way as to give the
spectators the illusion that they are watch-
ing a recreational picture.

« The fuller and better developed in
connection with all other factors is the
treatment of a hygiene subject, the better
success it is likely to enjoy. For the vast
majority of spectators, of a cultural level,
that is, rather below the average, the more
the thesis to be illustrated and developed
is embodied in some commonplace story
of every day life the better will it be
grasped (Prof. Mazzetti, Cuasso al Monte
Sanatorium).

Again, « for the public which crowds the
ordinary cinemas, in my opinion, it is best
to develop the theme with the aid of a
sentimental or love story plot which is more
certain to hold the attention of the specta-
tors. This is certainly a method which
creates difficulties because the acting and
production has to satisfy two standards, an

810

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

educational and a recreational one » (Dr.
Matteucci-Pozzuoli, Prevention Centre).

« A subject should be treated in a real-
istic fashion, but within the limits imposed
by art. It should never exhibit pictures
which are repugnant, or go beyond the
ordinary bounds ». (Prof. Mendes G., Bat-
tisti Sanatorium).

« The better a film lays bare the damage
that can result from a disease in respect
to our common social life, the greater will
be its possibilities of beneficent influence on
the spectators ». (Prof. C. Mazzetti, Cuasso
al Monte Sanatorium).

« If the photographic representation hap-
pens to exceed somewhat the limits of con-
ventional good sense, it can effectively and
advantageously be corrected and improved
by the literal truth of words, that is through
spoken comment, or through sub-titles clev-
erly interposed between the shots ». (Prof.
Mezzari, Hospital of Marino di Oltra).

What kind of hygiene pictures are likely
to make the greatest impression on the
public? It is the opinion of the majority
of experts that the best results are to be
obtained with pictures that bring out into
strong relief the evil consequences of dis-
ease in families and their descendants.

All the doctors questioned considered the
collaboration of the hygienist with the lit-
erary man as quite indispensable.

With regard to the question if account
should be taken in the production of films
of the temperament and customs of the
peoples for whom they are intended, or if
a type film of this kind is equally good for
all countries, the general concordant reply
was that a well made film is good for show-
ing anywhere. Account should be duly ta-
ken of « the development of certain special
subjects (malaria, pellagra, etc.) in which
cases the uses and customs and tempera-
ment of the local populations should be
taken into consideration » (Dr. Matteuccj).
Again, « It should be noted that there
are progressive countries in which the ob-
servance of hygienic laws is now regular
and customary, so that propaganda on cer-

tain lines would prove superfluous. In the
same way, there do exist certain localized
pernicious customs and habits which can be
admirably combated by means of the mo-
tion picture » (Prof. Mendes).

Questions 7 and 8 asked whether it was
advisable to project systematically short films
in the public cinemas for the purpose of
keeping public interest alive in the matter
of hygiene and prophlaxis and if so, what
character these films should have.

The proposal was generally considered
to be an excellent one. According to Prof.
Verdina, Director of the Climatic Institute
of Eremo di Lanzo : « In view of the men-
tality of the public of the ordinary cinemas,
the projections ought to be occasional, and
not over frequent ». Dr. Matteucci, Director
of the Pozzuoli Preventive Centre was of
opinion that « the projections should be
completed with illustrations of works effect-
ed by the Fascist Regime and by bodies
whose task is to look after the preservation
and increase of the race ». According to
Prof. Mezzari, Director of the Elena Duch-
ess of Aosta Marine Hospital, « films of
a seasonal character should be used, illus-
trating the danger and means of prevent-
ing various diseases which are especially
common in certain periods of the year ».
We think these replies very interesting, and
especially sensible those of Dr. Matteucci
and Professor Mezzari.

2) Cinematographic We must point out

Production In- that the remarks 0f
tended for Pa- ... r ,

tients. me directors of the

Sanitary Institutes of

the Italian Red Cross were made on two

types of patients; adult sick people or nearly

all adult sick people undergoing cures and

treatment in sanatorium^ and clinics, and

delicate or predisposed children, guests of

illness prevention institutes.

With regard to the questions regarding

the influence of the motion picture on the

general physical and moral conditions of

the patients, the replies were unanimous

in answering that the recreational film has

THE ITALIAN RED CROSS AND THE CINEMA

811

always given good results if such pictures
are not too exiciting or sensational and espec-
ially if they do not deal with tragic incid-
ents or matters connected with illness in
general and the particular illnesses of the
patients who are spectators of the pictures.
Such films, moreover, should be shown to
adults and old out-of-date pictures should
not be projected as the patients are apt to
take this as a kind of contemptuous charity
toward them » (Professor Mendes).

In the case of children, the motion picture
always arouses a lively interest and forms
the most desirable form of entertainment.
« The picture show is always followed with-
out any fatigue, even when the same film
is shown twice ». (Dr. Matteucci).

The cinematographic projection is also to
be considered a useful aid in the hygienic
education of the patient. According to the
opinions of some, « it is of a great assist-
ance to the doctor's work » (Matteucci). Ac-
cording to others, it is useful « provided the
projections are not over frequent and are
interspersed with other pleasant subjects »
(Prof. Mendes). According to prof. Mez-
zari, « the motion picture ought to be an
instrument of delight and recreation, even
in the department of educational hygiene.
Animated drawings should be used, in the
case of children ».

3) Cinematographic In this group also,

Production In- the replies to the ques-
tended tor Teach- r n

ing Purposes. tions on the utility of

the cinema as an aid

to didactic teaching are unanimously in the

affirmative.

Prof. Mezzari, of the Marine Hospital

of Oltra says in this connection. « There are
persons who think that the rapidity of the
projections, the changeful character of the
images on the screen, the lack of any re-
petition of the subject or of parts of it that
are not properly understood limit the di-
dactic possibilities which were dreamed of
when this powerful means of spreading
ideas first appeared on the horizon.

« I am of the contrary opinion, especially
when the film is employed as a supplement
or complement to a course of lessons. The
projection of a film lends something for
didactic ends which neither words nor books
can give. The future task of the film should
be to complete, in a systematic way, these
two methods of didactics. A lesson, espec-
ially if it is given by a person of limited
powers of communication, tires and does
not hold the audience. The motion picture,
on the other hand, securely holds every
body's attention. The choice of photographs
and animated drawings seems to me a mere
matter of detail to be decided according to
each particular case, subject and moment
for projecting a given idea ».

Other medical men who were questioned
proposed the use of photographic film
and animated drawings together or in con-
nection; some doctors favoured the slow
motion projector.

These are the summarized results of the
symposium conducted by the Italian Red
Cross. Owing to the importance and corn-
ed as forming a notable contribution to the
questionnaires, the replies must be consider-
ed as forming a notable contribution to the
First International Congress of the Teach-
ing and Educational Cinema.

SPORT AND THE CINEMA

BY

Dr. Franco Ciampitti

HpHE cinematograph and sport, which are

I

undoubtedly two of the most striking

phenomena of our epoch, have so far met in
collaboration but rarely, although it would
seem only natural that they should have come
to an agreement with a plan for their mutual
and much to be desired benefit.

The problem we present is many sided.
Some of its aspects have already been studied
by experts, many others barely visualised,
while some are as yet completely ignored.

Let us consider, for instance, the cinema
applied to sport as a means of propaganda
among those who do not go in for sport. This
is a branch that has never yet received suffic-
ient attention. Do not suggest that films in
which the sporting episode is interpreted by a
champion and exaggerated by the camera-
man's art serve any propaganda ends. If a
person who does not go in for sport is to
be brought to that point, he must be shown
the methods of beginners and the easiest
aspect of an exercise and not merely the
technical ability of a champion, for in the
latter case he will be convinced only of the
impossibility of reaching the end present-
ed before him.

Since the utility of a sporting education
is universally acknowledged, that insuper-
able means of propaganda, the cinema,
ought to be used to encourage the practice
of sport, not merely to arouse admiration of
champions. It must be admitted that at
present, for every young man who competes
there are thousands who only look on. The

disproportion, in fact, between followers of
sport and spectators is enormous.

The screen should be used to persuade
the latter to join the ranks of the former,
and the sporting film must therefore no long-
er show us only the world of champions,
for by doing this it merely repeats the
spectacle in a sporting ground, to see which
the public flocks in crowds.

We do not mean, of course, that the film
should be restricted to demonstrations of
technique. That is another task for the film
with which we will deal further on. In our
opinion, the sporting film should be entertain-
ing like other films, but its main object should
be to influence people to go in for sport,
to be courageous and to develop their mus-
cles and sense of dignity. It should, in fact,
show the utility and beauty of a sporting
education. In this connection, we may quote
the words of Pierre de Coubertin, Director
of the International Office of Sporting Ped-
agogy, who wrote on this subject in 1930:

« ...If it could be shown on the screen that
the man who goes in for sport has an ad-
vantage in the struggle for life, in other
words, that he has greater probabilities of
success and that sport prepares him to meet
those changes of place and occupation, of
situation and habits and ideas which are
the inevitable consequence of the constant
instability of modern society, athleticism
would be increasingly developed and im-
proved.

« It is to the interest of every young man,

SPORT AND THE FILM

813

ignorant of what the constant instability of
society may reserve for him, to know how
to drive a car, ride a horse, navigate a
boat, defend himself with his fists, free
himself with a cord, a jump, any move-
ment of his body, from a difficult and
dangerous situation; to say nothing of the
fact that he may at the same time liberate
others also from the same situation and that
the collectivity to which he belongs inevit-
ably benefits by his increased productive
value ».

The cinema applied to sport as a means
of teaching and improvement for those who
already practice it: that is a form of cine-
matographic-sporting collaboration which is
already carried out on a large scale, but it
should form the second step of the pro-
gramme that is to be desired. When a man
has been drawn to an interest in sport, he
must then be taught. But it is a stupidity to
show a film of wrestling or running in which
all the rules of technique are closely analysed
to persons who have not the slighest inten-
tion of going in for either wrestling or run-
ning. That is why we agree with Tilden
when he advises tennis players to study
technique and style in films projected by
the slow motion process, but assert that
such films merely arouse a smile or a yawn
in those who do not play tennis. The first
thing to do, therefore, is to arouse interest
in sport by showing its utility and beauty,
and then to instruct. In any case, we note :

a) that Lawrence Baker has produced
a slow motion film on football for the pur-
pose of improving the technique of football
players;

b) that Bobby Jones has signed a con-
tract with Warner Bros, for 12 films in which
he will show how golf should be played;

c) that in Massachussetts the Sportolo-
gy Corporation has formed a film library
for teaching baseball and basket-ball;

d) that in France, the Under Secreta-

ryship of State for P. E. has had some teach-
ing films produced by the Gaumont on les-
sons in physical education for children of
from 6 to 13 years;

e) that in Switzerland, under the aus-
pices of the International School of Physical
Education of the J. J. Rousseau Institute
and the Sporting Society of the University
of Geneva, the Swedish, Danish and Amer-
ican methods of physical education have
been projected, with comments, in the hall
of the university.

The cinema applied to sport as a system of
control in eventual questions that may arise,
and therefore as a decisive medium of judg-
ment is no longer a novelty. It played this
part some years ago, when the French Box-
ing Federation had recourse to the film to
know the result of the G. Carpentier-J.
Jeannette fight. At the present day, there
are perfect installations on hippodromes, vel-
odromes and even on autodromes for shoot-
ing the phases of sporting events that may
be contested.

In this connection, we should remember
what M. Verhylle wrote in Cinaedia in
June, 1930 :

« It is indiscutable that the cinema is
called upon to render great service wherever
any question over an arbitrage may be
raised. The most impartial, clear-sighted and
calmest referee in the world loses one of the
advantages of the detached spectator by the
very fact of being in the midst of the strug-
gle and in contact with the competitors,
namely, a clear view of the whole and ex-
act appreciation of details. The cinema alone
can fully assume the role of the real arbiter.
It does not think nor judge, neither discuss-
es nor becomes impassioned, but simply
registers and reconstructs.

The cinema applied to sport as a means
of study for the phenomena it registers:
this is a scientific application which is com-

3 - Ice Ingl.

814

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

ing into use everywhere and proving its
enormous importance.

The report of the sporting Dr. V. Gott-
heimer, who took cinematograph shots of
the heart of Nurmi in repose and during fa-
tigue, is no longer a novelty. In Italy, the
organization of sporting medical men has
brought, among other benefits, a widespread
use of these scientific systems, which have
a powerful ally in the cinema.

What interests us is to bring to light the
educational value which would result from
an intelligent co-operation between cinemat-
ograph and sport.

Sport and cinema have been accorded all
the honours in the temple of the school
for long past, but they have reached this
goal by different roads, and it seems that
they mutually continue to ignore each other.

The unquestioned and unquestionable di-
dactic value of a collaboration between sport
and cinema should not be confined to school-
rooms where children and young people con-
gregate. It should, on the contrary, enter
into the conviction of those who direct the
cinematograph industry and inspire its
programmes and determine its enterprises.

The moment has come when we must
recognise that the cinema has not done so
much for sport as it has received from it.

Since the first attempt to draw them
together (P. White, 1917) sport has done
nothing but lend itself to every kind of
cinematographic exploitation, and thus we
have had, on the screen all over the world,
views of sport which serve as background or
colour, movement and tone to films of every
kind and quality. They have been mere
episodes, for it is rare that an important
function is reserved to sport on the screen;
and in those few cases where this has been
done everyone has been dissatisfied.

We give below a list of sporting films
which are the best of their kind that have
so far been produced.

We could give here a long list of films
on sporting subjects (fencing, boxing, foot-
ball, motor-boating, swimming, riding, etc.)
but it cannot be said that these films are real
sporting films. There is not one among them
which is a work of art and which above all
serves as propaganda for the sport among
those who do not follow it, bringing to light
its utility and beauty.

The films we are referring to contain plots
that are quite unoriginal; the end can be
guessed from the very beginning. They are
works that do not show the nobility of the
sport in all its beauty, but almost invariably
leave it under a cloud and present situa-
tions in which love and money are favourites
in the competition against sport.

But that is not all. Very often we are
shown dark and dishonest manoeuvres,
which bear heavily on the sporting environ-
ment which is being presented. The per-
sonages are conceived on lines of violence
or ingenuousness; a violence which is brutal
and animal and an ingenuousness which is
stupid and pathological.

We will not concern ourselves with the
sport that is made use of as a kind of drug
inducing improbabilities, like the magic
wand of the impossible. The sporting part
is frequently played by an unsuitable per-
son, who also does not know how to act.
Thus we see pygmies overthrowing giants,
drunken men winning motor car races,
jockeys holding back their horses on the
winning post, skiers who descend declivities
for so many hours that they could do the
journey from Mount Everest to the Dead
Sea in less time, wrestlers who kick their
adversaries, Rugby football players who
sell themselves, tennis matches which out-
rage every rule of technique and play,
boxers who fight for ten rounds with their
heads twisted back to look at some woman,
matches that end in criminal assaults. And
lasdy, we even see the sport used as a

SPORT AND THE FILM

815

means for committing murder with impun-
ity, as in the polo match in the film « In-
toxication ».

Oh, how far all this is from the soul
and mentality of those sound, healthy men
who really deserve the name of sportmen!
They flock to the cinema when they see the
announcement of a sporting film, for the
powerful attraction of sport for the crowd
is by now well recognized; but they leave
the theatre with faces that express disap-
pointment and sometimes even disgust.

The real sporting film, that is to say, the
film which shows us the soundest of pas-
sions in its pure state, which reveals the
most universal idealism in its finest light,
has not yet been made.

Sport, which drew men together for a
beautiful rite 776 years before the advent
of Christ, still continues, after thousands of
years, to gather men together, overleaping
barriers and frontiers and annulling differ-
ences of race and of faith.

Why, after recognizing that the sporting
actor is a necessity, after realizing that suc-
cess is assured to sporting films, does not
the cinematograph industry deal more
worthily with sport?

The interests of the screen will not be
betrayed by dedicating it to sport, but the
screen will be able to accomplish the mis-
sion of spreading the conception of collect-
ive idealism, the power of brotherhood and
of wholesome beauty.

The subject is a difficult one. Recogniz-
ing this difficulty, in fact, we say that the
cinema can realize situations which are not
conventional and can gather together from
the immense world of sport those self-
evident characteristics which deserve to be
propagated.

Psychological, physiological, biological and
chivalrous motives lend themselves excel-
lently to this purpose, while the application
of the radio enables us to reproduce the
atmosphere of sporting environments also in
the matter of sound.

If this goal were reached, a vast field
would be opened to the educational cinema;
and Italy could say a decisive word on this
subject. In our nation, sport, laid down on
lines of admirable discipline, has made real
and significant progress, and educational
cinematography, based on a Fascist con-
ception, has found here a worthy seat and
an ideal environment.

THE ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT OF
THE EDUCATIONAL CINEMA IN HUNGARY

BY

Baron Jules de Wlassics

UNDER-SECRETARY FOR STATE IN THE HUNGARIAN MINISTRY OP CULTS AND PUBLIC INSTRUCTION

1 should like first of all to express my
profound gratitude to the organizers of
the Congress for having given me the op-
portunity of expressing before so disting-
uished a gathering my views on the origins
and development of the educational cinema
in Hungary. My country, which has never
failed to take an active and often a pioneer
share in works of modern civilization and
culture, has not neglected to introduce into
its schools a system of teaching by means
of animated pictures. Indeed Hungary was
perhaps the first nation to make this system
obligatory.

Taking advantage of the brief period of
prosperity which followed the signing of
the peace treaties, and allowed us to get
together, at any rate in part, the financial
means necessary for developing our educa-
tional and instructional institutions, the
competent Hungarian educational authorities
concentrated their efforts on rendering the
culture of our mutilated Hungary sufficient-
ly superior to give it a special distinction,
taking well into consideration the pres-
tige that belongs to it from its historic past
and is thousand year old tradition in Eur-
ope for protecting and developing intellect-
ual values useful for the education of the
young.

With this premise, our first duty was
undoubtedly to form a plan of study and
undertake the publication of new scholastic
books that should take due account of the
changes worked by scientific progress in
scholastic curricula and the variations in

methods made necesary by obligatory cin-
ema teaching.

A decree of the Ministry of Cults and
Public Instruction for the scholastic year
1924-25 made cinematographic teaching
obligatory for seven years, that is until
1931-32, so that the young scholars have
been regularly able to attend projections of
instructive films. Since, however, the major-
ity of the schools have not projectors, the
performances were given in ordinary cinema
halls where the pupils were taken by their
teachers. Those scholastic institutes which
possessed projectors gave their shows in their
own halls.

By this decree Hungary placed itself at
the head of the educational cinematographic
movement, making a regular and systematic
use of the motion picture in its schools. The
principal decree, N.37335 of 1924 on obli-
gatory pedagogic cinematography insisted,
in a provisory way, on the obligation to
project scholastic pictures in elementary,
secondary and superior schools throughout
the country when such schools are under
the direct immediate control of the Min-
istry of Public Instruction. Period of obli-
gation : three years.

A short while after this, in 1925, the be-
fore mentioned decree was extended to
primary elementary schools and agricultural
schools when the same were under the im-
mediate control of the ministry.

At the same time, the decree was recom-
mended for adoption by the churches and
municipalities for such schools as might be

THE EDUCATIONAL CINEMA IN HUNGARY

817

under their control. The ecclesiastical schools,
like those attached to the municipalities
including those of Budapest gradually adopt-
ed this system of cinema teaching so that
it may be stated that film teaching is now
general throughout Hungary.

After the termination of the three years
of trial in 1927, the minister prolonged the
initial decree by another one for the period
of five years making instruction by means
of educational films obligatory for this
length of time. A company known as the
Hungarian-Dutch Cultural Company was
charged with the task of carrying out the
technical execution of the plan in its details.
The company was specially formed for this
purpose with adequate capital. Thus the
company is able to proceed in its work along
lines already traced for it by the ministry.
The organization in question, according to
the instructions it has received, has had the
task of organizing the schools from the
educational cinematographic point of view
and of giving each of them from six to
eight representations or projections every
year. The company was also under the
obligation of supplying the apparatuses
and the staff necessay for the projections.
The ministry authorized the company
to receive a compensation or fee from
the elementary schools at the reduced
rate of 24 fillers, with 28 fillers for the
secondary schools for every projection on
condition, in respect of the poor children,
that 25% of the pupils of the elementary
schools and 15 per cent of those of the sec-
ondary schools should be entitled to attend
the performances free. Finally, the Ministry
of Public Instruction, in collaboration with
the Ministry of the Interior, obliged all
exhibitors and owners of cinema establish-
ments to lend their premises once a week
in the morning for the use of the schools
in order that pedagogic films should be
shown. The only charges to be made were
those for the actual consumption of light
and the use of the staff. The duration of
the projections was fixed by ministerial
decree at one hour, to be deducted from

the total of the teaching hours. This means
that films cannot be of a greater lenght than
1500 metres. Every show is preceded by a
short explanatory comment, while leaflets
authorized by the ministry are distributed
free to the children.

As far as regards the essential content
of the teaching films, the ministry has
reserved to itself all rights as to the peda-
gogic control and direction and the prepar-
ation of the curricula. In the same way,
the ministry alone has the right of issuing
regulations concerning the production of
new pictures. In a word, the Ministry of
Public Instruction has taken over the task
of organizing, controlling and seeing to the
working of cinematographic teaching. In
the early days, these tasks were carried out
by the homogeographic section of the Hun-
garian Demographic Society, then by the
committee for pedagogic films, and then
finally by the Council for Instructional Cin-
ematography.

These latter bodies were specially creat-
ed for the purpose.

These organs receive the annual produc-
tion plans which are prepared by Professor
Louis Geszti, pedagogic reporter of the so-
ciety entrusted with the technical execution
of the pictures. Professor Geszti was among
the first persons in Hungary to urge on the
ministry the advisability of intensifying the
production of scholastic films. He is a par-
ticularly competent person, and deserves to
be mentioned when discussion turns round
the policy which has guided so far, year
by year, the production of scholastic films,
the more so since the films produced an-
nually ought not to be considered only by
themselves but also as forming part of a
uniform series which is being continually
enriched and completed.

According to Professor Geszti, instruc-
tional cinematography and its use depends
on one great essential which is that, in ped-
agogy, the motion picture can only be
used with success for those subject matters
which can be illustrated through movement
and the sense of reality given by the film.

818

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

« Granting this, it became necessary to
decide if films were to be considered as
simple illustrations of text-books; or if it
were possible to attribute a more important
function to them. In my view, those who
want only to consider the motion picture as
a means of illustrating text-books are mis-
taken as to the real effective value of the
film. In Hungary, the cinematography to be
introduced into the schools will have a much
more serious task before it.

« a) The film should present the various
subjects in the curriculum which the school
has been unable to set forth properly with
the means at its disposal such as the action
and movements effected by objects which
are separate in time and space, such as the
various manifestation in the life of a bird
and the activities of men in workshops,
factories, etc.

b) since our curricula constitute a
rigid programme of studies which does not
permit of following the almost daily develop-
ments and finds of science and technique,
without grave harm for the teaching, it be-
comes the task of the film to fill in this
want, acting, so to speak, as a pedagogic
handmaiden, especially as certain subjects
such as those relative to cosmographich and
radiological notions and the latest and most
important scientific and technical discover-
ies cannot be treated in school except in the
most superficial way.

« c) Finally, one of the most important
tasks of cinematography is to keep us in-
formed of the most important every day
events occurring in all parts of the world
Its educational and especially its pedagogic
importance in this field cannot be denied.
What other means could give us in a better
and simpler form news of ethnological expe-
ditions in the valley of the Amazon or in
the Himalayas, or of recent airplane flights?
« These are the three essential points
which have been behind the policy of
Hungarian-Dutch Cultural Economic Com-''
pany and its pedagogic « rapporteur » in |
preparing the annual programmes of then
scholastic films ».

It can be noted from the foregoing re-
marks and quotations that general pedagogic
considerations have been guiding policy in
the production of scholastic films. The peda-
gogic concept that the film should show ob-
jects that cannot otherwise be shown in schools
has been strictly adhered to. The utilization
of scholastic films ought not to be intended
only for supplying imperfect and partial
notions or to implant certain notions or
erudition, but should aim at widening the
spiritual horizon of the students and their
general knowledge, giving life and colour
to dry printed words in scholastic text-
books, making thought calmer and more
elevated and uplifting the minds of the
young.

Pedagogic films produced in Hungary
have dealt with the following subjects : his-
tory, geography, natural history, physics,
Hungarian literature, art, hygiene, physical
culture, sport, industry and commerce, biol-
ogy, chemistry, history of civilisation, etc.

For students of the lower classes in the
elementary schools, a number of short
amusing films have been made, little stories
the moral of which is that good should be
done and evil avoided. Hungary has ge-
nerally been made the subject of the
geographical films as also those countries
which are nearest to us. At the same time,
in accordance with the rules laid down for
the scholastic programmes, each secondary
school receives every year at least one film
dealing with a foreign country. Films have
been projected in our secondary schools on
Italy, Germany, Spain, Holland, the Dutch
Indies and Bulgaria. These pictures regard
the countries mentioned from the historical
and geographical points of view, with some-
times an examination of their economic
position.

The chief object of these pictures is to in-
culcate an appreciation and esteem of foreign
nations.

We have, moreover, shown other types
of films such as those of expeditions like that
jof Byrd, and others illustrating the shores
lof the Mediterranean, Alaska, the mysteries

THE EDUCATIONAL CINEMA IN HUNGARY

819

of virgin forests, etc. The widespread inter-
est that exists in physical culture has in-
duced us to give some projections on hygiene,
gymnastic exercises and sport. In the seven
years from 1924 to 1932, 122 pedagogic films
having a total length of 600,200 metres were
projected.

Our pedagogic and instructional films soon
obtained a rapid success in Hungary, and
the clearest proof of their popularity is that
every year continually increasing numbers of
towns and villages have expressed their de-
sire to take part in this innovation. It has
indeed often happened that the scholastic
authorities themselves who, to begin with,
refused for reasons of principle or other
motives to show our films in their schools,
have later come and begged us for them,
after having appreciated the advantages of
cinematographic instruction.

With regard to the circulation of instruc-
tional films, we are able to give the follow-
ing statistics: in the scholastic year 1924-25,
829 representations or projections were giv-
en in 58 communes before a public of
36,528 students, and in the seventh year
1930-31 projections totalled 6,315 in 215 com-
munes before 263,404 students. Despite the
economic crisis, in seven years the number
of the students who witnessed the projec-
tions increased by 277,876. These figures
show the advances made by cinematography
in the Hungarian schools and the esteem in
which the educational film in held.

We must not forget that the city of Bu-
dapest has enjoyed several advantages since,
with the approval of the Ministry of Public
Instruction, direct film production has been
engaged in for the local schools. The mu-
nicipality has produced its films in the
« Studios for the Production of Pedagogic
Film», which are its own property and
were established as far back as 1913 for the
manufacture of instructional films. Ever
since then scholastic film teaching has been
organized for the metropolitan schools on
a different plan from that used for the
state schools. Although the studios have
changed hands, and the policy governing

the production of pictures has been widened,
instructional and educational films continue
to be produced today under the manage-
ment of the Magyar Filmiroda (Hungarian
Cinematographic Bureau) which is grad-
ually becoming better and better equipped
for the purpose.

The production of pictures by the mu-
nicipality of Budapest follows the policy
here outlined. The Committee of Public
Education of the city invites the teachers
of the schools to take part in competitions
for scenarios of a pedagogic character. The
most suitable scenarios are accepted and
turned into films under the superintendence
of the author in the studios of the Hungar-
ian Cinema Bureau when the film is
finished, and before it is sent out to the
schools, it is examined and passed on by
the Committee of Education.

58 scholastic institutions are provided with
projectors and halls in which during the
last few years 104 films were shown for a
length of 50,000 metres.

The titles of some of the films most re-
cently produced will show the important and
valuable cultural work being done by the
Hungarian producers of pedagogic films.
Among others, we may mention, First Aid
(a medical film), Learn how Children Tal\
(film showing how to take care of child-
ren); Hydrography of Budapest, The Use
of White Coal, The Electric Plant of Bab-
hida, The Drains of Budapest, Life in the
Tisza, Spring Wor\ in Gardens, The Pro-
duction of Sil/{ Cocoons; The Life in a
Drop of Water, The Production of Iron and
Steel.

Despite the evidence of the effects of the
film as a method of visual teaching, the
system we have adopted has not obtained
the complete approval of our authorities
and pedagogic experts. While international
conferences have done a great deal to stress
the instructional and educational possibili-
ties of the motion picture, arriving at an
agreement regarding the exemption of edu-

820

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

cational films from customs dues, in Hun-
gary obligatory cinema teaching, which was
introduced perhaps too quickly and with-
out sufficient ponderation, is now in a dif-
ficult position owing to the interference of
monopolistic systems.

We have already remarked that the eight
annual shows of films take place in ordin-
ary cinema halls and always in the morn-
ings. During this time the ordinary schol-
astic teaching has been suspended because
all the students were at the picture. The
teachers observed, however, that the results
obtained with this system were not up to
expectations because the projections did not
fit in strictly with the curriculum and there-
fore did not properly serve the cause of
teaching. The fact that the projections pre-
ceded or followed, as the case may be, the
class lesson by one, two or even three years,
that the films were the same for all ages
and classes of pupils without any regard for
their intellectual level or their mental needs
condemned the whole system from the di-
dactic point of view. It was also observed
that the majority of the pupils whose ages
varied from 10 to 18 did not derive any ad-
vantage from the projections; the very young
pupils because they did not understand them
and the older students of the superior classes
because they were already in possession of
the knowledge which the film was sup-
posed to be giving them. Several cases of
lack of school discipline were attributed to
these causes.

There were, moreover, defects in the tech-
nical organization. Generally speaking, a
cinema hall is not the most suitable place for
teaching, and the excessive speed with which
some of the operators projected the pic-
tures — partly in order to give all the pro-
jections in the limited period of time allowed
— and also the fact that there was no
time to allow the hall to be properly aired
after each projection helped seriously to
damage the success of the project.

Pedagogues also objected to this kind of
teaching that the pupils were obliged to
attend the projections quite passively with-

out being able in any way to communicate
their impressions, make remarks, or, more
important still, ask questions. All these facts
and others decided our Council of Public
Education to request the Minister to sus-
pend cinema teaching in the public cinema
halls. The minister, after having taken due
account of the various opinions contrary to
film teaching along the before mentioned
lines, took the decision to reorganise the
whole matter thoroughly.

The fundamental principle behind the
reorganization has been to recognize that the
future of scholastic films required that they
should be adapted to the school curricula
and vary according to the type of school
or class both as regards the subject matter
to be treated and the manner of showing
the film. The necessity of providing a stock
of films or a film repository for the districts,
municipalities and eventually for the schools
themselves was also debated.

The economic crisis and the necessity of
reducing as far as possible imports into
Hungary of foreign goods placed insur-
mountable difficulties in the way of this
plan, which was criticized with the further
objection that to endow all the schools or mu-
nicipalities or districts with a stock of films
and a number of projectors would mean
furnishing them with stock and plant which
continued progress might soon render ob-
solete. There was also the question of the
lack of any international agreement on the
format of films to be used in all countries
which is a source of much trouble and dif-
ficulty.

Consequently, the decree on obligatory
teaching by films in the public cinema halls
was revoked, but for the motives indicated
here, the succeeding new system to take the
place of the old one shows signs of being
put slowly into effect. The general result
is a stagnation in cinematographic teaching
which began so brillantly in our country.
Today the motion picture is only used for
teaching purposes in some 70 or 80 schools
which are provided with their own projectors.

This must be interpreted as meaning a

THE EDUCATIONAL CINEMA IN HUNGARY

821

renunciation of the use o£ the most effica-
cious visual aid known in teaching. Indeed
the present temporary hold up may even-
tually prove to be a notable advantage and
allow us to make a better preparation for
the day when we decide once again to in-
troduce the new system of motion picture
teaching.

Since it has been recognized that the pro-
jection for teaching purposes of educational
films in public cinema halls does not meet
all the requirements of scholastic instruction,
it will not be difficult to pass — when
economic and technical conditions permit
it — • to the new system which will make
use of all the technical improvements and
follow the findings and results of inter-
national congresses.

In my opinion, one of the principal tasks
of our Congress will be that of coming to
an international accord on the question of
a uniform format for pedagogic films. This
may be considered an indispensable condition
for the economic organization of cinema
teaching, since once an obligatory uniform
size has been agreed upon it will be much
easier to settle the matter of exchanges of
pictures between different schools and dif-
ferent nations.

At the same time, it will be extremely
useful for all the nations in which Central

National Film Committees do not yet exist
to organize such for the purpose of enabling
them to see to the formation of cultural
repositories and the search for suitable cul-
tural films. The matter of distribution and
exchange would also naturally be part of
the task of such committees. The National
Centres of Pedagogic Films controlled by
the National Committees of the I.I.E.C.
ought to take due consideration of the pol-
icy which results from the Congress.

Evidently our National Centre of Ped-
agogic Films, as soon as it has been formed,
ought to take as a model — ■ as far as
is possible — the Italian LUCE Institute,
one of the clearest evidences of the creative
genius of the Italians. In our century which
is considered the century of the motion pic-
ture, the cooperation of the National Com-
mittees of the Rome Institute can assume
the greatest importance, but if we want to
obtain all the advantages possible we should
follow the ideas and policy of the LUCE
Institute. Then we shall have something
live and practical.

In this way, teaching enriching itself with
everything the film can give it will reach
its objectives, widen its horizon, gain in
the possibilities of knowledge penetration
and reciprocal understanding between
peoples.

EDUCATIONAL AND SCHOLASTIC CINEMATOGRAPHY

IN CZECHOSLOVAKIA

BY

Dr. V. Vojtech

State Intervention. Cultural and educa-
tional cinematography
in Czechoslovakia is under the control of
the State, and the ministry of Public Edu-
cation has issued some important decrees
on the subject. One of these draws the at-
tention of the central bureaux for educa-
tion to the powerful influence exercised by
films, and nominates inspectors who are
authorized to enter all cinemas freely for
the purpose of examining the educational
value of the pictures shown and reporting
thereon directly to the ministry.

The ministry has also issued recom-
mendations to the organizers of the po-
pular manifestations to do all in their
power to favour the showing of educational
films. Following these instructions, two
commissions were formed for choosing
films of this kind. One of these commis-
sions for the Czec-speaking population has
its offices in the Masaryk Institute for Po-
pular Education and the other for the
Germans in the building of the Prager
Urania. These commissions also look after
organizing educational and scholastic meet-
ings and projections.

Another recommendation made by the
ministry to the superior schools was to or-
ganize in a systematic fashion cultural shows
and to utilize the film as a normal means
of instruction.

The Ministry of Education has various
funds at its disposal for the spread of the
cultural film, and also takes advantage of
the work of the State Institute for slides
and fixed projections formed in 1920 by
Dr. Driml, author of several popular films

on hygiene who, unfortunately died pre-
maturely.

The Ministry of Agriculture too by
means of its Bureau for films and fixed pro-
jections utilizes pictures and fixed project-
ions for spreading principles of culture and
popular science.

The Ministry of National Defence, pro-
duces in its turn and uses its films for in-
struction, teaching drill, etc. This ministry,
moreover publishes a cinema review The
Military Messenger which, together with
short films is used as propaganda material
and circulated in the cinemas by institutes
of popular education and physical culture.

Finally, the Ministry for Foreign Affairs
utilizes the best current films as a means of
propaganda for Czechoslovakia.

Institutes and Cin- The Masary\ Institu-
te Culture As- f£ . popular Edu.
sociations. . f .

cation. - This associat-
ion constitutes a national centre of popular
education whose activity is directed to the
educational sphere. The Institute in quest-
ion is an indipendent body having an of-
ficial character and connected with the Min-
istry of Education and other ministries
which entrust it with various tasks from
time to time.

The Masaryk Institute forms part of the
censorship bureau. Its representatives inform
the persons interested of the decisions of
the censor with criticial notes on the films
examined, which notes are later published
in the popular educational review Ces\a
Osveta. The films are classified in this re-

THE CINEMATOGRAPHY IN CZECHOSLOVAKIA

823

view according to their artistic and cultural
value.

The Masaryk Institute also deals with the
technical instructions of those likely to be
called upon to organize educational and
scholastic cinematography by means of spe-
cial courses in collaboration with normal
school associations. It looks after the supply
of films either by purchasing new ones or
renting old pictures to be used in these
special courses.

The Institute loans out to those cultural
and scholastic bodies which make request
for them the films which it produces itself
as well as the pictures it keeps in its repo-
sitory. The latter amount to over 600 with
a total length of 250.000 metres. The Insti-
tute also issues once or twice a year a list
of cultural films, classified according to
subject and supplied with brief comments.

slides for use in schools and educational ins-
titutions. It is also charged, in association
with the Masaryk Institute with a loan ser-
vice of films and slides. It possesses more
than 900 series and a total of 71.000 slides
or fixed projections.

Agricultural Centre of Films and Slides.
— Attached to ministry of Agriculture; has
same objects as Statistical Institute. Posses-
ses 750 series of slides and a total of 140.000
metres of film.

Union of Agricultural Cooperatives. - —
Uses special films for instructing agricultu-
rists in new methods for propaganda and
new items on rural habitations.

Prager Urania. — An association having
the same objects as the Masaryk Institute
but intended to look after the German-
speaking population. Its loan service han-
dles 15.000 slides and 34.000 metres of film.

The Czechoslovakia This body has been re-
Society for Scien- rntrn:7pj „ fu_ rw
tific Cinematcg- cogmzea- as the Uze
raphy. choslovakian National

Committee of the In-
ternational Institute of Educational Cinemat-
ography. It does not only concern itself
with purely scientific cinema questions but,
as permitted by its constitution, it also en-
gages in matters dealing with scholastic and
educational cinematography.

The institution was founded in 1924, and
its objects are the advancement of the use
of the motion picture in the department of
science as a means of research and in the
schools as a means of instruction and edu-
cation. The Society, moreover, is interested
in purely scientific questions connected
with the various branches of cinematog-
raphy.

The Society collects all statistical and his-
torical material concerning the educational
and scholastic cinema in Czechoslovakia,
both from its own members and those of
other institutes and organs.

State Institute for Film and Fixed Pro-
jections. — This body, as executive organ
of Ministry of Education is entrusted with
collecting or producing series of films and

The Cinema Ama- This is a branch of
cinematography which
has grown greatly
during the last few years. All the most
important amateurs are now organized in
clubs and groups which total as many as
100 in the territory of the Czechoslovakian
Republic or in the Pathe Club of Prague
or in the Amateurs' Club of Brno.

Many cinema amateurs are teachers and
professors who produce special films for
their own personal use or utilize them for
class work and the benefit of their pupils.

Numerous schools and educational asso-
ciations employ, in addition, to their own
films, Pathe or Kodak collections of motion
pictures. Unfortunately, the variety of the
formats, the high cost of apparatus and the
diminished income of many schools and as-
sociations, besides the lack really good films,
are obstacles today to a wider populariza-
tion of sub-standard amateur cinematog-
raphy.

The Cinema in Hy- Thanks to Dr Driml,
giene and I Physi- who hag done admir.
cal Education.

able work for making

popular scientific principles, there were

824

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

produced between 1923 and 1926 a number
of pictures of a popular character dealing
with various hygienic subjects such as
Trachoma (an eye disease) and Sexual Edu-
cation. Following this initiative the Minis-
try for Hygiene and Physical Education
inaugurated the making of some « shorts »
with the idea of making the notions of or-
dinary hygiene popular.

The Czechoslovakian Red Cross has also
made some pictures, including some of a
propaganda nature to be distributed among
Red Cross colonies and young peoples'
camps.

The So\ol Federation has a stock of and
produces a number of documentary films on
gymnastics and physical education. It owns
today 25 films of a lenght of 15.000 metres.
These pictures are projected by the travel-
ling cinemas of the Red Cross or by the
Sokol cinemas which are to be found in
almost every centre.

Documentary Films. This is type of film
that is widely spread
in Czechoslovakia. The majority of these
pictures treat of the geography and ethnog-
raphy of the Republic and popular tradi-
tions and a large number have ben made
by various producers.

In the front rank, we should mention
the National Slova\ Association which
thanks to the initiative and a generous sub-
vention from the President of the Republic
T. Masaryk has been for a number of years
engaged in collecting photographs and
films of a geographical, ethnographical and
folklore documentary character on Czechos-
lovakia and Ruthenia. The author of these
films is Karl Plicka, an expert of the first
order and an admirable photographer; also
a member of the Society for Scientific Ci-
nematography. His recent picture « The
Land that Sings » is a sound film, and was
shown at the Venice Exposition of this year.

Another sound film of this type « The
Disappearing World » by Professor V.
Ulehla of the University of Brno shows

how folklore is disappearing under the drive
of modern civilization.

In the same period of time we have seen
the production through the energy of F.
Momarek, regional inspector of the Mora-
vian schools of a long film of 3200 metres
entided « The Humanitarian Work of J. A.
Commenius », illustrating the systems fol-
lowed by the great Czech philosopher and
educationist and how these systems have
been applied in the national schools.

A special repository of films of national
dances made by Dr. F. Pospisil is to be found
in the regional museum of Brno.

Another film archive is to be found in the
Liberty Museum at Prague. It is a collect-
ion of the historical films which refer to the
struggle for national liberation and the war
episodes of our legionaries in 1914-18.

The Agricultural and In the department of
Industrial Film. agriculture, as we

have already remarked, an extensive use is
made of the cinema both for schools and
special courses. Industry also takes advan-
tage of the motion picture very fully, both
for documentation and propaganda.

Juridical Questions. Educational and
scholastic films do not
enjoy any customs exemption.

The organization of cinematographic
representations is governed by a decree of
1912, which permits persons or bodies to
organize these shows when authorized the-
reto by the Zems\y urad (a regional politic-
al association). From 1922 onwards these
licences or permits have been garanted only
to associations but no longer to individuals,
even if the actual management of the cin-
ema is in the hands of professional cinema-
men. In this way the state has been able to
encourage the development of numerous
educational and humanitarian associations,
at the same time procuring a wider
circulation for cultural films.

Today there under consideration a new
law on the cinema which will look at the
matter from an upnto-date point of view

THE CINEMATOGRAPHY IN CZECHOSLOVAKIA

825

and do something to favour the spread of
cultural film.

All juridical questions concerning the
motion picture come under the control of
the Ministry of the Interior, which exercises
a censorship on films with the aid of cons-
ultant committees.

Cinema Censorship. The ministry for the
Interior possesses three
consultive bodies for the working of the
film censorship. There is, to begin with, a
body of five members presided over by an
official of the Ministry and composed of
representatives of the ministries of Public
Instruction and Justice a member of the
Masaryk Institute and a representative of
the Feminine Teaching body.

The other two consultative bodies are a
kind of appeal commission. The task of
the first body is to decide whether certain
films are to be projected before young people,
while the second commission adjudges on
« universal » films; and gives a certificate
corresponding to the British « U » certifi-
cate. The second commission is composed
of ii members and the representatives of
educational and cultural associations have
a right to be present and vote at meetings.

There is also a pre-view censorship which
judges them from the point of view of
the purity of language.

The censorship bureau indicates, on the
proposal of the Ministry of Public Edu-
cation, the film which have an educational
and cultural character and can enjoy ex-
emption from the various taxes levied on
cinema shows.

The projection of films not indicated by
the censors as « cultural » is permitted for
young folk who have passed the age of 16.
The projection of pictures classified as cult-
ural is allowed to young folk and children
except for projections taking place after
8 pm.

The projection of educational and schol-
astic films outside public cinemas is sub-
ject to the same regulations and safety ord-
ers against the risk of fire even if they are

made of « non-flam » film supports. There
is no exception here in favour of the schools.
If « non-flam » film is used in any format,
only those precautions of general safety are
required as are used in packed meetings
of people.

Film Repositories. There are no regular

film archives or rep-
ositories in Czechoslovakia. There, are, how-
ever, a number of special stocks of films as,
for instance at the:

a) Prague Polytechnic Museum where
there is a section « Film and Photographs »
which includes original pictures made since
1898 at Prague and a number of examples
of French and British films;

b) at the Liberty Museum where there
is a collection of historical films to which
we have already referred;

c) in the Masaryk Institute there is
an archive of films made by the Institute
itself and those made by the State Institute;

d) other repositories or small stocks of
films are at the Agricultural Centre, the
Prager Urania and the Ministry for National
Defence.

The Scholastic Cin
ema.

It is obvious that in
the native land of }. A.
Commenius all kinds of scholastic instruct-
ion ought to be based upon his works in
general. This explains why cinema shows
suitable for students have been organized
now for a matter of some 20 years. It was
only after the war that a full study of the
problems centering round the methodical
introduction of the motion into the schools
was attempted.

The development of scholastic cinema-
tography is strictly connected with the
practical possibilities it offers. Researches on
the theoretical utility refer to the influence
of the film from the pedagogic point of
view, its usefulness for the teachers, the
organization of special courses for teachers
and the practical use of the film in schol-
astic teaching.

Several of the courses referred to have

826

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

been organized under the patronage of the
Ministry of Public Education and National
Culture in collaboration with the Federation
of Czechoslovak teachers and the Masaryk
Institute. Other courses have been arranged
by the Urania and the Central Scholastic
Administration gave its consent as far back
as 1924 that cine-scholastic projections should
be arranged once a month during term time.

The films which are used for these pro-
jections are chosen by two scholastic com-
missions, one of which represents primary
teaching and the second for middle schools.
The commissions are composed of directors
of teaching institutes and representatives of
the central scholastic administration and the
Masaryk Institute. There is a special com-
mission in connection with the « Prager
Urania » Institute for the German language
schools.

These performances take place in the
school class-rooms or central halls if there
is an apparatus handy, and if not in the
ordinary cinemas from which on these oc-
casions, the public is excluded.

The performances preserve their ordinary
didactic character and are preceded by verbal
explanations which are rendered easier to
grasp owing to the fact that the scholars
receive in advance a resume of the titles

and sub-titles of the film. The entrance tick-
ets cost one crown per pupil, but between
20 to 30 per cent of the scholars who arc
not in fortunate economic conditions are
allowed free admission. Some communes
take on themselves all the expenses deriv-
ing from the shows.

In this way there were organized at
Prague for the primary and secondary
schools about 20 projections that are fre-
quented every year by from 90,000 to
150,000 students.

Outside Prague, the same projections are
organized by commissions composed of
pedagogues and representatives of the bo-
dies interested in public education.

The problems of scholastic cinematog-
raphy are, moreover, in course of being
examined by a commission of teachers
representing the normal schools. The pre-
sident of this Committee is Mr. Paurx.

The film has become a precious means
of education and research in laboratories
and has been largely used for this purpose
in Czechoslovakia. Unfortunately, the ec-
onomic crisis has reduced the endowments
and subsides granted to scientific institut-
ions to the point where they have become
to valueless.

THE EDUCATIONAL CINEMA IN CHINA

(REPORT OF THE CHINESE NATIONAL SOCIETY
FOR EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY)

The Chinese National Society for Educa-
ional Cinematography was founded in
1932 by a group of local personalities belong-
ing to the scientific, artistic and teaching
world as well to the film industry. Some
months after its creation, the society was
recognized officially by the Ministry of
Education and the Central section of the
Kuo Ming Tan. The society began its work
on June 8 of the same year.

On April 4, the society had in fact, received
from the education ministry instructions
to collaborate with the 1. 1. C. E. In less
than two years, it was able to organize a
vast movement in favour of the educational
film. The results of this work may be ap-
preciated through the following summary.

Organization of the Society. — The
Chinese National Society is a cultural in-
stitution. It comprises 21 execudve commis-
saries and seven substitutes who, together,
form the execudve committee that takes
charge of all the work. There are, in ad-
dition, other ordinary commissaries or con-
trollers for special tasks and occasions. The
whole organization is under the supreme
direction of the Kuo Ming Tan.

The committee is divided into three sec-
tions: one for general affairs, another for
publications, and the third for projections.

There are also sub-committees which are
expected to assist the principal committee.
Among them, we may note:

a) the sub-committee for questions rel-
ative to the film production, composed of
five members who take upon themselves the
responsibility of censoring and controlling
the production of the pictures;

b) a sub-committee for controlling
(censoring) national films;

c) a sub-committee for publishing the
annual review of Chinese films.

Choice of subjects for Educational
Films. — In view of the necessity of choos-
ing the subjects, the following criteria have
been adopted :

a) to develop the national spirit show-
ing the merits of Eastern culture, spreading
a knowledge of the ancient national glories
and of the revolutionary principles;

b) controlling the productive and con-
structive organizations by encouraging the
movement toward rural reconstruction and
the « back to the land » campaign; illustrat-
ing the work already done along these lines
and arousing the interest of the people for
national reconstruction;

c) spreading notions of a scientific char-
acter, by popularizing the most interesting
practical notions of every day life, showing
life and the universe through the motion
picture and encouraging the scientific spirit;

d) intensifying the revolutionary spirit,
preaching patience and perseverance, encour-
aging the spirit of sacrifice and struggle and
mutual aid;

e) laying down moral rules for life be-
tween peoples according to the present social
system and encouraging sacrifice for the sake
of the community.

The Society considers that though the
film is a form of entertainment, it also with-
out doubt possesses high educational qual-
ities and must be considered in this light.
For this reason, imported foreign films must

828

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

be examined with the greatest care, since
the present situation of China is often badly
understood and worse interpreted which can
cause painful clashes of opinion. In the inter-
est of the film industry itself, and in order
to eliminate as much as possible the draw-
backs referred to, it seems clear that the five
points laid down, which ought to be ac-
cepted by future producers, are such that
they ought to be recognized as fundamental
by all bodies concerned with the educational
cinema.

Open Letter to Western Producers. —
We are glad that recent European and Amer-
ican films have shown a notable improve-
ment in technique and subjects treated. This
is doubtless the reason for their success.

China has always been an excellent market
for European and American production,
and during the last ten years the influence
of these films on the social life of the Chi-
nese people has been notable. Though,
among these pictures, there are some that can
exercise a beneficent influence on our people,
the great majority deal with adultery and
theft. These are dangerous types of films for
the Chinese. They are to a very considerable
extent responsible for many of the evils
which have afflicted our country.

There were the assaults on trains at Lin-
cheng in Shantung in 1921, and the kid-
napping of travellers. Similar cases have oc-
curred recently at Shanghai, and they were
undoubtedly inspired by films. Films of this
kind have done more than cannon or
bombs to disorganize our moral and social
life.

The interest of Western producers should
be to consider the intrinsic worth of the
pictures they send us. They should also do
something to help on culture between

friendly nations. Films with this intention
should be sent to China.

The Chinese National Society for the
Educational Cinema was organized by a
group of intellectuals who have today all
possible authority for censoring and produc-
ing films. It is right then in placing its veto
on pictures which it considers objectionable.

After the great national revolution of 1926,
China suffered a great deal, and it has re-
quired a vast effort for it to take its place
with the other nations of the world. The
latter enjoy, in addition to their material
development and social stability, possibilities
for periods of repose which they can pleas-
antly occupy. We cannot do the same thing.
Our society cannot permit itself shows with
luxurious adulteries, crimes, and cruelties
which would prove highly demoralizing. The
import of pictures of this type should be re-
duced to a minimum in view of their ten-
dency to disturb the spirit of sacrifice of the
young and tempt them to vice.

China is at present following the prin-
ciples of the Three Peoples dictated by Dr.
Sun Yat-Sen for the reconstruction of national
life. Only pictures which are in accord with
these sentiments are entitled to be shown
among us.

In this period of reconstruction, which
forms our present attitude towards life, we
have a great need of aid and sympathy from
nations which are more advanced than our-
selves on the path of civilization. Recently
many foreign films have attempted to picture
Chinese life and the conditions of our
country, but they have been full of erroneous
interpretations and indications, and have
solely amused the public with imaginary
pictures and views, all to the detriment of
the real China.

HOW A STATE INSTITUTE MAY GUIDE EDUCATIONISTS
IN THEIR CHOICE OF APPARATUS

BY

H. D. Waley.

PRECIS

The British Film Institute seeks advice on
this problem : « How a State Institute
may guide educationists in their choice of
apparatus. » This is an acute necessity at
present owing to the bewildering variety
of apparatus on the British market.

The first step — to compile a list of
projectors. Early attempts in this direction
vitiated by lack of method and critical dis-
crimination.

The 1932 list — methodical and discrim-
inating, but limited in usefulness because no
testing was undertaken.

With the help of the British Kinemato-
graph Society the British Film Institute hopes
to issue a list free from this defect.

Even the best list is no substitute for de-
finite advice.

The difficulties of offering definite advice
— likely to arouse hostility among sellers.

Could this be overcome by establishing a
projection centre — a place where the edu-
cationist could see under one roof the var-
ious projectors actually functioning?

He would thus have a favourable chance
of making a good choice without the Insti-
tute risking unpopularity among sellers.

Compare building centre and radio centre
in London.

Possible use of a projection centre for
film-showing.

Would it be better to cover sub-standard
apparatus only or to include either transport-
able 35 mm machines or both these, and
theatre type 35 mm machines ?

I should like to begin by making it clear

that I am presenting this paper much more
with the idea of asking for advice than of
offering it.

The problem on which I want your advice
is, How a State Institute may guide educa-
tionists in their choice of apparatus?

The British Film Institute explicitly offers
this service in paragraph 3 of its « Aims and
Objects » — To advise educational institu-
tions and other organisation and persons
on films and apparatus.

The constant stream of enquiries which
the Institute receives is sufficient evidence
that the educationists welcome this offer.
Nor is it remarkable that they should. The
prospect which confronts an educational
purchaser of projectors in Great Britain at
the present time is a sufficiently perplexing
one. Our markets are stocked with a be-
wildering number of different types, suc-
cessive waves of progress have brought
to our shores the 8 mm film, the 95 mm,
the 16 mm, and the 17.5 mm, all on top
of the original 35 mm.

Accordingly our educationists feel them-
selves in especial need of guidance in their
purchases of projectors. And, when one
comes to consider it in detail the task of
giving such guidance proves to be a very
delicate and intricate one.

The first step towards nationalizing supply
and demand of educational projectors is
generally felt, rightly, I think, to be the
compiling of a list of all the projectors
available.

Even at this stage a number of difficult
problems arise. So far as I have been able
to trace, the first move towards making a

& - Ice Ingl.

830

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

list of this kind in Great Britain was un-
dertaken by a Committee working under
the Cinema Commission of Enquiry estab-
lished by the National Council of Public
Morals which published its report in 1925.

This committee followed what I may call
the line of least resistance and simply strung
together the various descriptions of apparatus
supplied to them by the salesmen without
any attempt at arrangement or criticism.
Unfortunately a list compiled in this way
is bound to suffer from many defects. In the
first place it is bound to be perplexing
through lack of arrangement in the inform-
ation supplied and in the second place it
is bound to be misleading through lack of
critical elimination of unsubstantiated claims
and untried apparatus.

Thus in this particular list useful items of
information are hidden away among useless
matter such as that the Oxford Portable
Projector is covered in leatherette of rich
Oxford blue!

Moreover, many of the projectors reported
on never actually got into commercial pro-
duction at all, and some of the claims
made for their performance contain inherent
impossibilities. For example, one projector
in this list claims to be able to project in
broad daylight just as effectively as in the
dark by means of what is described as a
« purely chemical screen ». I hope I am not
unduly sceptical about daylight screens, but
I have examined a great many and never
found one which lived up to the claims of
its sponsors.

That however is a digression. My point is
that an unarranged uncriticised compilation
of this kind may conceivably do more harm
than good. I think this was clearly realized
by the compilers of a list' which appeared
seven years later in 1932 under the auspices
of the Commission on Cultural and Educa-
tional films. This list was published as an
appendix to the Commission's report which
was issued under the title « The Film in
National Life! ». In this list the information
obtained was published in a chart under a
series of headings — name of projector,

whence obtainable, price, type of lamp used,
whether hand or motor-driven, would it
show stills and reverse, was rewinding done
on the machine or off. Further the list was
subdivided, into nationalities, which I think
was unnecessary and liable to be misleading,
since cases occur of machines consisting of
lenses made in one country and mechanical
parts made in another, the whole being
assembled in a third. And, of course, there
was further subdivision into the various
gauges of film and into silent and sound
machines.

In any event it was something to have
achieved a list containing some elements of
order and a high percentage of machines
which had come to stay.

But it will not have escaped your notice
that no mention is made of what is really
one of the most important points about a
sub-standard projector. Its light output in
lumens or, as another aspect of the same
thing, the size of picture which it will il-
luminate. This omission was not accidental,
it was a logical result of the method em-
ployed in producing the list. The list was
produced by a committee of busy experts
who, while they attended a demonstration
of each machine described, naturally had
not the leisure to undertake testing work.
Nevertheless, they decided not to print any
figures for the accuracy of which they could
not vouch. This would have been unfair to
firms who supplied figures estimated on a
conservative basis.

The British Film Institute therefore finds
itself faced at the present time not only with
the problem of keeping the Commission's
projector list up to date but also with that
of creating machinery for proper testing of
projectors.

The Institute is fortunately placed in
having for this work the co-operation of the
British Kinematograph Society's Standards
Committee. But it is not to be expected
that a voluntary committee of very busy
men can undertake spade-work, and testing
of all kinds emphatically is spade-work, so
it will no doubt be necessary to supplement

THE CHOI CHE OF APPARATUS

831

the work of the Committee either by means
of a paid Secretary or by the employment
of some existing institution which under-
takes work of this kind, such as the Nat-
ional Physical Laboratory.

But even when this has been done and a
list produced which is well-arranged, fully-
informative, and absolutely reliable, the
question of how a State Institution may most
usefully mediate between buyer and seller
will not have by any means been completely
solved.

The educationist who receives even the
best imaginable list is still entitled to reply
« This is all very interesting and informa-
tive, but as a matter of practical advice
which of these projectors do you think I
ought to buy? And to feel indignant or
disappointed, according to temperament, if
told that the Institute proposes to leave him
to draw his own conclusions from the list.

On the other hand the Institute has to
face the fact that if it yields to pressure for
particularised advice from buyers it will
inevitably bring upon itself the odium of
sellers who feel that they have been unfairly
passed over.

An Institute necessarily relies so much
for the efficacy of its work on the good-will
of all sections of the cinema trade that this
risk ought not to be undertaken lightly.

In these circumstances some scheme ap-
pears to be required which will enable an
Institute to go a little further than merely
supplying a list of projectors, without risk
of stirring up jealousy among sellers.

Towards this end the British Film Insti-
tute is considering a scheme which may, we
hope, go some considerable way towards
solving the problem of mediation between
buyer and seller.

It is proposed to establish a projection
centre rather on the analogy of two other
centres which have recently been successfully
started in London; a building centre and a
radio centre.

These centres are in effect permanent
exhibitions at which goods from all available
sources — ■ building materials and wireless

receivers, in the two cases I have mentioned,
cinema projectors in our own proposal —
are assembled under one roof for the benefit
of the purchaser, who is thus afforded fa-
vourable conditions for the making of a
choice.

That the educationists would welcome
the establishment of such a centre goes, I
think, without saying.

It might perhaps be feared that the sellers
of apparatus would feel apprehensive lest
they should lose something by being denied
their own individual methods of display and
showmanship.

One can only say with regard to this that
the success of the building centre and radio
centre proves that in these two trades, man-
ufacturers and salesmen have been far-
sighted enough to support schemes of this
nature, and there seems no reason to suppose
that the cinema trade would be any less
far-sighted. Such a centre would enormously
increase the utility of the Institute to edu-
cationists during the period which we are
now passing through in Great Britain. The
number of educationists in our country who
have reached the stage of deciding to buy
a projector but await guidance as to what
projector to buy is at the moment enormous.

We must anticipate that this phase is
merely temporary, a sort of preliminary
phase which will have to be passed through
before the ultimate problems of the educa-
tional cinematography can be squarely faced
at all.

Nevertheless something can certainly be
done to avoid the needless lengthening of
this preliminary period by creating, in the
mind of the educationist, confidence that if
he buys now with guidance from the Insd-
tute he will not have reason to repent his
choice.

A projection centre would create this
confidence because the opportunity of ac-
tually seeing and handling the machines
would be a very different thing from the
opportunity of poring over the pages of a
printed list.

A projection centre would relieve the In-

Ice Ingl.

832

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

stitute of the responsibility of offering invid-
ious advice because the educationist might
reasonably be expected to make his own
choice when given the opportunity of ac-
tually inspecting a wide range of apparatus,
and to realise that the Institute was per-
forming a very signal service, in providing
this opportunity.

As I have said already the equipment-
selection problem may be regarded as a
phase which perhaps is passing through its
maximum of intensity at the present dme,
especially in Great Britain, when the amount
of equipping already done is so small and
the variety of apparatus on offer so large.
In four or five years time there will be far
fewer unequipped schools and probably sur-
vival of the fittest, or its commercial equiv-
alent survival of the best boosted, will have
eliminated a good many projectors which
are at present in the market. So the equip-
ment problem will have become less acute.

But I do not think that a projection cen-
tre will by then be no longer needed. Projec-
tors will become worn out and will require to
be replaced by machines of newer type, for
we must visualise a constant, though it is
to be hoped not a revolutionary, series of
innovations in design.

Moreover it is to be hoped that the pro-
jection centre will be so organised that its
activities may facilitate not only selection of
apparatus, but also selection of films.

At present a schoolmaster who wishes to
choose a film on a given subject has to act
in the dark, except for the very feeble ray
of light which the catalogues issued by film
libraries generally throw on the contents of
their films.

Now, whereas the problem of choosing
apparatus is likely to get less and less acute,
the problem of choosing films will increase
in complexity, year by year, as the number
of educational films available increases. At
present « embarras de richesses » does not
affect us very often in the choice of a film
on a given subject. But this state of affairs
is, we hope, soon to be superseded.

When it has been, it will be a very real

necessity that there should be some central
establishment to which a lecturer could
write and say : « I want to see all the avail-
able films on say: electro-magnetism, would
you please let me know on what date or dates
I can do this? »

A central Institute, which would be in a
position to collect films from the various
London film libraries and send them back
at once would I believe be able to undertake
a service of this kind.

The possibility of demonstrating the films
on any one of a large selection of machines
would, I think, in itself be valuable.

But we are already looking rather further
into the future than the subject of this
paper really warrants us in doing.

I should like in conclusion to deal very
shortly with the material and practical side
of such a project. How much space is a
project of this kind going to take up?

One cannot of course demonstrate a pro-
jector to the best advantage except in a room
at least as large as the room where the
projector is meant actually to be used. So
it would be necessary to have at any rate
the possibility of using a room some fifty
or sixty feet long for demonstrations. Class
room models on the other hand could be
demonstrated in a smaller room possibly
even that used for the storage and display
of apparatus. The size of this room would
depend on whether it was decided to display
standard as well as sub-standard apparatus.
If sub-standard apparatus only was to be
displayed, a room as large as an ordinary
class-room, furnished with glass cases on the
eye-level round two or three walls and a few
solid tables in the centre, would, as far as
one can now judge, be amply large enough.
If every model now available in Great Brit-
ain was displayed there might be some 30
odd machines on show, of which only the
sound reproducing models of which there
are about a dozen would take up space. If
it was desired to include 35 mm models, for
purposes of inspection only, the same room
would probably still be large enough, because
nowadays hardly any 35 mm models are de-

THE CHOICHE OF APPARATUS

833

signed which do not stand on their own ped-
estals, so that floor space only would be in-
volved.

But were it desired not only to display the
projector but also to undertake actual pro-
jection from a variety of full-sized machines
the mechanical problem involved would be
of some magnitude, and I think it would be
found more practical to limit the apparatus
actually demonstrated in action to sub-
standard, and perhaps transportable 35 mm
sets.

The problem of coaxing a large number
of theatre-projectors in succession up to a
limited number of projection-ports seems to
me to possess no simple solution.

But fortunately, — and perhaps unusual-
ly — the point of greatest difficulty seems

in this particular case to co-incide with the
point of least necessity. The performance of
transportable sets is already of so high a
standard that I think there will be very few
educational users who will pass them over
and insist upon obtaining full size theatre-
installations.

Finally I should like to return to the
point which I stressed at the outset, that my
aim in outlining this scheme is to enable our
Film Institute to avail itself of suggestions
and criticism from an assembly whom we
feel ourselves very fortunate in having this
opportunity of consulting — an assembly
whose advice will, we feel, be indispensable
to us in planning these projects along those
really practical lines which alone ensure their
success.

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Edi'or and Responsible Manager

Societa Editrice di < Novissima » - Roma - Via Romanello da Forli, 9

834

POSITIVE
FILM

Black & white

and on
tinted base

"POP-FILM,,

for
making Duplicates

NEGATIVE
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Sound Recording Stock Tf. 3

for Variable-Density Process

Sound Recording Stock Tf. 4

for Variable Area Process

835

Metro

Goldwyn

Mayer

836

If it is

a Paramount

picture

it's the best

show in town

837

THE CULTURAL
FILMS OF THE UFA

BETTER AND BETTER

Our last biological films show aspects of the secrets of nature which
have never been shown before.

THE LATEST CREATIONS OF THE 1934-35 PRODUCTIONS

VOICES IN THE RUSHES

(Stimmen im Schilf)

Visual and sound documentation of the life
of the most interesting aquatic birds, shot
from nature for the first time: colimbi, wild
ducks, bitterns, cranos, wild swans.

THE KING OF THE WOODS

(Dor Konig des Waldes)

Biological study of the deer by direct shoo-
ting with the latest telephotographic means,
and reproduction of the natural voices of
these animals.

WILD BOARS AND DEER

(Von Schwartzkitteln und Schanflarn)

(Wild boar, fallow deer, elk). The hidden life
of the wild boar; silent and sound shots.
The life of the fallow deer; fight between
two magnificent stags. The elk in the wild
state, in East Prussia.

FIELD AND FOREST

(Aus Flur un Forst)

(A film on the small wild animals of Central
Europe). Aspects of the life chamois, the
fox and the badger. The mountain pheasant,
in love. The life of the bustard.

VITAL ENERGIES OF PLANTS

(Kraftkeistungen der Pflanzen)

A new botanical film with numerous shots
taken by the accelerator.

PROTECTION AND PASSAGE
OF BIRDS (Vogelschutz und Vogelzug

Observation on the passage of birds in the

Island of Heligoland, in the isthmus of

"Kurisches Haff „ and in the valley of the

Warthe district. Protective measures for
non-migratory birds.

THE ANT STATE

(Der Ameisenstaat)

A film on the life of the ant, made by a new
system, with a wealth of detail. Exiremely
clear and plastic shots of single ants.

The great success of the Ufa film on Bayreuth

BAYREUTH PREPARES ITS

FESTIVAL

Shots of the artistes taken while they were rehearsing for this year's festival. Madame Wini-
fred Wagner, Intendant General Tietjen, Dr. Richard Strauss, Chief Conductor Elemendorff,
Professors Hugo Rudel, Kittem and Paolo Eberhard at work.

The new colour films

POSTD AM

Shots of the Castle, of its famous buildings and the Park of Sans Souci.

Ask for our latest catalogue of cultural films, richly illustrated and containing a list of nearly
1,000 cultural films from our archives.

UNIVERSUM-E/LM AKTIENGESELLSCHAFT

BERLIN, S.W. 19 - Krausensfrasse, 58-39

838

EURO PA

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839

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is the new title of the international Review of the Educa-
tional Cinema from January 1935.

enlarging the field of work of the International Review
of the Educational Cinema, will deal with all the technical,
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arise in connection with the cinema for raising the mo-
ral and intellectual standard of the mass, refining its taste
and, generally speaking, encouraging its spiritual and
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can ount, from now onwards, on the collaboration of
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will be found eminently satisfactory by all those who,
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Annual subscription: L. 80, or its equivalent in foreign money
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WARNER BROS. FIRST NATIONAL A. S.I.

Dolores delicto

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" MADAME
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Directed by

WILLIAM DIETERLE

THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

IS PUBLISHED EVERY MONTH IN FIVE EDITIONS

ENGLISH - FRENCH

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